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Formation of the Solar System
• Uncovering the origin of the Solar system
• Early days of the formation
• Building the planets and other stuff
• Other planetary systems
Comparative Planetology
• Studying planets as worlds and compare them with each other is called comparative planetology
• Planetology is applied to any noticeably large object in the system (planets, moons, asteroids, comets)
To start we need to seek clues to the origin of the Solar system
Four Challenges1. Pattern of MotionAll planets orbit the Sun in the same direction (counterclockwise as seen from the Earth’s North Pole) Planet orbits are nearly circular and co-planarPlanets rotate in the same direction which they orbitAlmost all moons orbit their planets in the direction of the planet rotationThe Sun rotates in the direction planets orbit it
Explain: Why is this order so good?
Four Challenges
2. Different types of planetsTwo distinct groups of planets:Terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars)Small, rocky, abundant in metals, few moons
Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)Large, gaseous (made of hydrogen and its compounds), no solid surfaces, have rings, a lot of moons (made of low-density ices and rocks)
Explain: Why is the inner and outer Solar system divided so neatly?
Four Challenges
3. Asteroids and Comets
Asteroids are small, rocky bodies that orbit the Sun mostly between Mars and Jupiter (the asteroid belt)Almost 9,000 asteroids have been discovered
Comets are small and icy bodies that spend most of their lives beyond the orbit of PlutoThey occupy 2 regions: Kuiper belt and Oort cloud
Explain: The existence and general properties of the large number of these small bodies
Four Challenges
4. Exception to the Rules
Mercury and Pluto have larger orbital eccentricitiesUranus and Pluto have tilted rotational axesVenus rotates backwards (clockwise)Earth has a large moonPluto has a moon almost as big as itself
Allow for these exceptions
The Nebular Theory
The Solar system was formed from a giant, swirling interstellar cloud of gas and dust
A cloud is called nebula - nebular hypothesis
The collapsed piece of cloud that formed our own solar system is called the solar nebula
The hypothesis was originally suggested by Immanuel Kant (1755) and Pierre-Simon Laplas (~1790)
Collapse of the Solar Nebula
Three important processes gave form to our system, when it collapsed to a diameter of 200 A.U.
1. The temperature increased as it collapsed2. The rotation rate increased3. The nebula flattened into a disk (protoplanetary
disk)
Evolution of the Solar System
Building the Planets
Initial composition: 98% hydrogen and helium, and 2% heavier elements (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, iron)
Condensation: the formation of solid or liquid particles from a cloud of gas
Different kinds of planets and satellites were formed out of different condensates
Ingredients of the Solar SystemMetals : iron, nickel, aluminum, etc.Condense into solid form at 1000 – 1600 K0.2% of the solar nebula’s mass
Rocks : primarily silicon-based mineralsCondense at 500 – 1300 K, 0.4% of the mass
Hydrogen compounds : methane (CH4), ammonia (HN3), water (H2O)Condense into ices below 150 K, 1.4% of the massLight gases: hydrogen and heliumNever condense in solar nebula; 98% of the mass
Condensation
Accretion
Accretion is growing by colliding and stickingThe growing objects formed by accretion – planetesimals (pieces of planets)
Small planetesimals came in a variety of shapes, reflected in many small asteroidsLarge planetesimals (>100 km across) became spherical due to the force of gravity
Inner solar system: only rocks and metals condensed and only small bodies formed
Nebular Capture
Nebular capture – growth of icy planetesimals by capturing larger amounts of hydrogen and heliumIt led to the formation of the Jovian planets
Numerous moons were formed by the same processes that formed the protoplanetary diskCondensation and accretion created mini solar systems around each Jovian planet
The Solar Wind
Solar wind is a flow of charged particles ejected by the Sun in all directionsIt was stronger when the Sun was young
The wind swept out a lot of remaining gas and interrupted the cooling of the nebula
If the wind were weak, the ices could have condensed in the inner solar system
Leftover Planetesimals
Planetesimals remained from the clearing became comets and asteroids
They were tugged by the strong gravity of the jovian planets and got more elliptical orbits
Rocky leftovers became asteroidsIcy leftovers became comets
Planetary Evolution - Geological
Internal heating leads to geological activity: volcanism, tectonics
As core cools and solidifies, activity slows, and eventually stops (Moon)
Earth and Venus are large enough to be active
Planet Activity
Planetary Evolution - Atmosphere
Atmospheres are formed by:- gases escaping from interior- impacts of comets (volatile-rich debris)
Fate of water depends on temperature (distance from the Sun)
Atmospheres changed chemically over time
Life on Earth substantially changed the atmosphere
Other Planetary Systems
Over 100 extrasolar planets have been discovered since 1995 The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia
Stars are too far away from the Sun, and direct imaging cannot detect planets near them
Current strategy involves watching for the small gravitational tag the planet exerts on its star
The tag can be detected using the Doppler effect
Extrasolar Planets in the Sky
Planet Transits
The Nature of Extrasolar Planets
The discovery of extrasolar planets gives us an opportunity to test the solar system formation theory
Most of the discovered planets are different from those of our systemThey are mostly Jupiter-size and located closer to their stars But: possible planet migration discovered planets are exceptions
Summary
All the planets were formed from the same cloud of dust and gas
Chance events may have played a large role in the formation and evolution of individual planets
Planet-forming processes are apparently universal