Foreword in This Book v Xii

8/14/2019 Foreword in This Book v Xii

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1. Tracing Changes Through A Thousand Years 1

2. New Kings And Kingdoms 16

3. The Delhi Sultans 30

4. The Mughal Empire 45

5. Rulers And Buildings 60

6. Towns, Traders And Craftspersons 75

7. Tribes, Nomads And Settled Communities 91

8. Devotional Paths To The Divine 104

9. The Making Of Regional Cultures 122

10. Eighteenth-Century Political Formations 138

Foreword v

In this book xii

Contents
http://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%201.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%201.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%202.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%202.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%203.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%203.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%204.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%204.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%205.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%205.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%206.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%206.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%207.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%207.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%208.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%208.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%209.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%209.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%2010.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%2010.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%2010.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%209.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%208.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%207.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%206.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%205.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%204.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%203.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%202.pdfhttp://book_publishing/NEW%20BOOK%202007/Class7/History/Chapter%201.pdf


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Take a look at Maps 1 and 2. Map 1 was made in1154 CE. by the Arab geographer al-Idrisi. Thesection reproduced here is a detail of the Indiansubcontinent from his larger map of the world. Map 2

was made in the 1720s by a French cartographercartographercartographercartographercartographer. Thetwo maps are quite different even though they are ofthe same area. In al-Idrisis map, south India is where

we would expect to find north India and Sri Lanka isthe island at the top. Place-names are marked in Arabic,

CartographerCartographerCartographerCartographerCartographerA person whomakes maps.

1TRACING CHANGES THROUGH

A THOUSAND YEARS

Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1A section of the worldmap drawn by thegeographer al-Idrisi inthe twelfth centuryshowing the Indiansubcontinent.

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and there are some well-known names like Kanauj inUttar Pradesh (spelt in the map as Qanauj). Map 2 wasmade nearly 600 years after the first, during which timeinformation about the subcontinent had changedconsiderably. This map seems more familiar to us andthe coastal areas in particular are surprisingly detailed.

This map was used by European sailors and merchantson their voyages (see Chapter 6). But look at the areasinland.

Are they as detailed as those on the coast? Follow thecourse of the River Ganga and see how it is shown. Whydo you think there is a difference in the level of detailand accuracy between the coastal and inland areas inthis map?

Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2The subcontinent, from

the early-eighteenthcenturyAtlas Nouveauof Guillaume de lIsle.

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Equally important is the fact that the science ofcartography differed in the two periods. When historiansread documents, maps and texts from the past theyhave to be sensitive to the different historical

backgrounds the contexts in which informationabout the past was produced.

New and old terminologies

If the context in which information is producedchanges with time, what about language andmeanings? Historical records exist in a variety of

languages which have changed considerably over theyears. Medieval Persian, for example, is different frommodern Persian. The difference is not just with regardto grammar and vocabulary; the meanings of wordsalso change over time.

Take the term Hindustan, for example. Today weunderstand it as India, the modern nation state. Whenthe term was used in the thirteenth century by Minhaj-iSiraj, a chronicler who wrote in Persian, he meant the

areas of Punjab, Haryana and the lands between theGanga and Yamuna. He used the term in a politicalsense for lands that were a part of the dominions of theDelhi Sultan. The areas included in this term shifted

with the extent of the Sultanate but the term neverincluded south India within it. By contrast, in the earlysixteenth century Babur used Hindustan to describethe geography, the fauna and the culture of theinhabitants of the subcontinent. As we will see later inthe chapter, this was somewhat similar to the way the

fourteenth-century poet Amir Khusrau used the wordHind. While the idea of a geographical and culturalentity like India did exist, the term Hindustan didnot carry the political and national meanings which weassociate with it today.

Historians have to be careful about the terms theyuse because they meant different things in the past.

Take, for example, a simple term like foreigner. It isused today to mean someone who is not an Indian. In

Can you think ofany other wordswhose meaningschange in differentcontexts?

?

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the medieval period a foreigner was any stranger whoappeared say in a given village, someone who was nota part of that society or culture. (In Hindi the term

pardesimight be used to describe such a person andin Persian, ajnabi.) A city-dweller, therefore, might haveregarded a forest-dweller as a foreigner, but twopeasants living in the same village were not foreignersto each other, even though they may have had differentreligious or caste backgrounds.

Historians and their sources

Historians use different types of sources to learn aboutthe past depending upon the period of their study andthe nature of their investigation. Last year, for example,

you read about rulers of the Gupta dynasty andHarshavardhana. In this book we will read about thefollowing thousand years, from roughly 700 to 1750 CE.

You will notice some continuity in the sources usedby historians for the study of this period. They still relyupon coins, inscriptions, architecture and textual records

for information. But there is also considerablediscontinuity. The number and variety of textual recordsincreased dramatically during this period. They slowlydisplaced other types of available information. Throughthis period paper gradually became cheaper and more

The value of paper

Compare the following

(1) In the middle of the thirteenth century a scholarwanted to copy a book. He did not have enough paper.So he washed the writing off a manuscript he did notwant, dried the paper and used it.

(2) A century later, if you bought some food in themarket you could be lucky and have the shopkeeperwrap it for you in some paper.

When was paper more expensive and easily available in the thirteenth or the fourteenth century??


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widely available. People used it to write holy texts,chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of saints,petitions and judicial records, and for registers ofaccounts and taxes. Manuscripts were collected by

wealthy people, rulers, monasteries and temples. Theywere placed in libraries and archivesarchivesarchivesarchivesarchives. These manuscriptsand documents provide a lot of detailed information tohistorians but they are also difficult to use.

There was no printing press in those days so scribescopied manuscripts by hand. If you have ever copied afriends homework you would know that this is not asimple exercise. Sometimes you cannot read yourfriends handwriting and are forced to guess what is

written. As a result there are small but significantdifferences in your copy of your friends work.Manuscript copying is somewhat similar. As scribescopied manuscripts, they also introduced small changes

a word here, a sentence there. These small differencesgrew over centuries of copying until manuscripts of the

ArchiveArchiveArchiveArchiveArchiveA place wheredocuments andmanuscripts arestored. Today allnational and stategovernments havearchives wherethey keep all theirold official records

and transactions.

Fig. 1A painting of a scribemaking a copy of amanuscript. Thispainting is only10.5 cm by 7.1 cm insize. Because of itssize it is called aminiature. Miniaturepaintings weresometimes used toillustrate the texts ofmanuscripts. Theywere so beautiful that

later collectors oftentook the manuscriptsapart and sold just theminiatures.

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same text became substantially different from oneanother. This is a serious problem because we rarelyfind the original manuscript of the author today. We

are totally dependent upon the copies made by laterscribes. As a result historians have to read differentmanuscript versions of the same text to guess what theauthor had originally written.

On occasion authors revised their chronicles atdifferent times. The fourteenth-century chroniclerZiyauddin Barani wrote his chronicle first in 1356 andanother version two years later. The two differ from eachother but historians did not know about the existence

of the first version until 1971. It remained lost in largelibrary collections.

New social and political groups

The study of the thousand years between 700 and 1750is a huge challenge to historians largely because of thescale and variety of developments that occurred overthe period. At different moments in this period newtechnologies made their appearance like the Persian

Fig. 2Different kinds ofhandwriting couldmake the reading ofPersian and Arabic

difficult. Thenastaliqstyle (on the left) iscursive and easy toread, theshikaste (onthe right) is denser andmore difficult.


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wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving, andfirearms in combat. New foods and beverages arrivedin the subcontinent: potatoes, corn, chillies, tea andcoffee. Remember that all these innovations newtechnologies and crops came along with people, who

brought other ideas with them as well. As a result, thiswas a period of economic, political, social and culturalchanges. You will learn about some of these changesin Chapters 5, 6 and 7.

This was also a period of great mobility. Groups ofpeople travelled long distances in search of opportunity.

The subcontinent held immense wealth and thepossibilities for people to carve a fortune. One group ofpeople who became important in this period were theRajputs, a name derived from Rajaputra, the son of aruler. Between the eighth and fourteenth centuries theterm was applied more generally to a body of warriors

who claimed Kshatriya caste status. The term included Fig. 3The Persian wheel.

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not just rulers and chieftains but also soldiers andcommanders who served in the armies of differentmonarchs all over the subcontinent. A chivalric code ofconduct extreme valour and a great sense of loyalty

were the qualities attributed to Rajputs by their poetsand bards. Other groups of people such as theMarathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms and Kayasthas (a casteof scribes and secretaries) also used the opportunitiesof the age to become politically important.

Throughout this period there was a gradual clearingof forests and the extension of agriculture, a changefaster and more complete in some areas than in others.Changes in theirhabitathabitathabitathabitathabitat forced many forest-dwellersto migrate. Others started tilling the land and becamepeasants. These new peasant groups gradually beganto be influenced by regional markets, chieftains, priests,monasteries and temples. They became part of largecomplex societies, and were required to pay taxes andoffer goods and services to local lords. As a result,significant economic and social differences emergedamongst peasants. Some possessed more productive

land, others also kept cattle, and some combinedartisanal work with agricultural activity during the leanseason. As society became more differentiated, people

were grouped intojatisor sub-castes and ranked onthe basis of their backgrounds and their occupations.Ranks were not fixed permanently, and varied accordingto the power, influence and resources controlled bymembers of thejati. The status of the samejaticould

vary from area to area.

Jatis framed their own rules and regulations tomanage the conduct of their members. These regulations

were enforced by an assembly of elders, described insome areas as thejati panchayat. Butjatiswere alsorequired to follow the rules of their villages. Several

villages were governed by a chieftain. Together they wereonly one small unit of a state.

Of thetechnological,economic, socialand culturalchangesdescribed in thissection, which doyou think weremost significant in

the town or villagein which you live?

HabitatHabitatHabitatHabitatHabitatRefers to the

environment of aregion and thesocial andeconomic lifestyleof its residents.


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Region and empi re

Large states like those of the Cholas (Chapter 2),

Tughluqs (Chapter 3) or Mughals (Chapter 4)encompassed many regions. A Sanskritprashasti(seeChapter 2 for an example of aprashasti) praising theDelhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87) explainedthat he was the ruler of a vast empire that stretchedfrom Bengal (Gauda) in the east to Ghazni (Gajjana) in

Afghanistan in the west and included all of south India(Dravida). People of different regions Gauda, Andhra,Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat apparentlyfled before his armies. Historians regard these as

Map 3Map 3Map 3Map 3Map 3Provinces of the DelhiSultanate duringMuhammad Tughluqsreign according to theEgyptian sourceMasalik al-Absar fiMamalik al-AmsarofShihabuddin Umari.

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?exaggerated claims of conquests. At the same time, theytry to understand why rulers kept claiming to havecontrol over different parts of the subcontinent.

Language and region

In 1318 the poet Amir Khusrau noted that there was

a different language in every region of this land: Sindhi,

Lahori, Kashmiri, Dvarsamudri (in southern Karnataka),

Telangani (in Andhra Pradesh), Gujari (in Gujarat), Mabari(in Tamil Nadu), Gauri, (in Bengal) Awadhi (in eastern

Uttar Pradesh) and Hindawi (in the area around Delhi).

Amir Khusrau went on to explain that in contrast to theselanguages there was Sanskrit which did not belong toany region. It was an old language and common peopledo not know it, only the Brahmanas do.

Make a list of the languages mentioned by Amir Khusrau.Prepare another list of the names of languages spokentoday in the regions he mentioned: underline names thatare similar and circle those that are different.

Did you notice that the names by which languagesare known have changed over time?

By 700 many regions already possessed distinctgeographical dimensions and their own language andcultural characteristics. You will learn more about thesein Chapter 9. They were also associated with specificruling dynasties. There was considerable conflict

between these states. Occasionally dynasties like theCholas, Khaljis, Tughluqs and Mughals were able to

build an empire that was pan-regional spanningdiverse regions. Not all these empires were equallystable or successful. Compare, for example, Tables 1in Chapters 3 and 4. What was the duration of rule ofthe Khalji and Mughal dynasties?

?

Why do you think

rulers made suchclaims?


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When the Mughal Empire declined in the eighteenthcentury, it led to the re-emergence of regional states(Chapter 10). But years of imperial, pan-regional rulehad altered the character of the regions. Across mostof the subcontinent the regions were left with the legaciesof the big and small states that ruled over them. This

was apparent in the emergence of many distinct andshared traditions: in the realms of governance, themanagement of the economy, elite cultures, andlanguage. Through the thousand years between 700and 1750 the character of the different regions did notgrow in isolation. They felt the impact of larger

pan-regional forces of integration without ever quitelosing their distinctiveness.

Old and new r eligi ons

The thousand years of history that we are exploringwitnessed major developments in religious traditions.Peoples belief in the divine was sometimes deeplypersonal, but more usually it was collective. Collective

belief in a supernatural agency religion was often

closely connected with the social and economicorganisation of local communities. As the social worldsof these groups altered so too did their beliefs.

It was during this period that important changesoccurred in what we call Hinduism today. Theseincluded the worship of new deities, the constructionof temples by royalty and the growing importance ofBrahmanas, the priests, as dominant groups in society.

Their knowledge of Sanskrit texts earned theBrahmanas a lot of respect in society. Their dominantposition was consolidated by the support of theirpatronspatronspatronspatronspatrons new rulers searching for prestige.

One of the major developments was the emergenceof the idea of bhakti of a loving, personal deity thatdevotees could reach without the aid of priests orelaborate rituals. You will be learning about this, andother traditions, in Chapter 8.

Find out whetherand for how longyour state waspart of these pan-regional empires.

Do you rememberwhat Amir Khusrauhad to sayregarding Sanskrit,knowledge andBrahmanas ?

PatronPatronPatronPatronPatronAn influential,wealthy individualwho supportsanother person an artiste,a craftsperson,a learned man, ora noble.

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This was also the period when new religionsappeared in the subcontinent. Merchants and migrantsfirst brought the teachings of the holyQuran to Indiain the seventh century. Muslims regard the Quran astheir holy book and accept the sovereignty of the oneGod, Allah, whose love, mercy and beauty embrace allthose who believe in Him, without regard to social

background.

Many rulers were patrons of Islam and the ulama learned theologians and jurists. And like Hinduism,Islam was interpreted in a variety of ways by itsfollowers. There were the ShiaMuslims who believedthat the Prophets son-in-law, Ali, was the legitimateleader of the Muslim community and theSunniMuslims

who accepted the authority of the early leaders (khalifas)of the community, and the succeeding Khalifas. There

were other important differences between the variousschools of law (Hanafiand Shafiimainly in India), andin theology and mystic traditions.

Thinking about time and historical

periods

Historians do not see time just as a passing of hours,days or years as a clock or a calendar. Time alsoreflects changes in social and economic organisation,in the persistence and transformation of ideas and

beliefs. The study of time is made somewhat easier bydividing the past into large segments periods thatpossess shared characteristics.

In the middle of the nineteenth century Britishhistorians divided the history of India into three periods:Hindu, Muslim and British. This division was

based on the idea that the religion of rulers was theonly important historical change, and that there wereno other significant developments in the economy,society or culture. Such a division also ignored the richdiversity of the subcontinent.


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Few historians follow this periodisation today. Mostlook to economic and social factors to characterise themajor elements of different moments of the past. Thehistories you read last year included a wide range ofearly societies hunter-gatherers, early farmers, peopleliving in towns and villages, and early empires andkingdoms. The histories you will be studying this yearare often described as medieval. You will find out moreabout the spread of peasant societies, the rise of regionaland imperial state formations sometimes at the costof pastoral and forest people the development ofHinduism and Islam as major religions and the arrival

of European trading companies.These thousand years of Indian history witnessed

considerable change. After all, the sixteenth andeighteenth centuries were quite different from the eighthor the eleventh. Therefore, describing the entire periodas one historical unit is not without its problems.Moreover, the medieval period is often contrasted withthe modern period. Modernity carries with it a senseof material progress and intellectual advancement. This

seems to suggest that the medieval period was lackingin any change whatsoever. But of course we know this

was not the case.

During these thousand years the societies of thesubcontinent were transformed often and economiesin several regions reached a level of prosperity thatattracted the interest of European trading companies.

As you read this book, look out for signs of change andthe historical processes at work. Also, whenever you

can, try and compare what you read in this book withwhat you read last year. Look out for changes andcontinuities wherever you can, and look at the worldaround you to see what else has changed or remainedthe same.

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ImagineImagineImagineImagineImagine

You are a historian. Choose one of thethemes mentioned in this chapter,such as economic, social or politicalhistory, and discuss why you think it

would be interesting to find out thehistory of that theme.

Lets recallLets recallLets recallLets recallLets recall

1. Who was considered a foreigner in the past?

2. State whether true or false

(a) We do not find inscriptions for the period after700.

(b) The Marathas asserted their political importanceduring this period.

(c) Forest-dwellers were sometimes pushed out oftheir lands with the spread of agriculturalsettlements.

(d) Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban controlled Assam,Manipur and Kashmir.

3. Fill in the blanks

(a) Archives are places where are

kept.(b) was a fourteenth-century chronicler.

(c) , , , and weresome of the new crops introduced into thesubcontinent during this period.

4. List some of the technological changes associated withthis period.

KEYWORDS

manuscript

jati

region

periodisation


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5. What were some of the major religious developmentsduring this period?

Lets understandLets understandLets understandLets understandLets understand

6. In what ways has the meaning of the term Hindustanchanged over the centuries?

7. How were the affairs ofjatisregulated?

8. What does the term pan-regional empire mean?

Lets discussLets discussLets discussLets discussLets discuss

9. What are the difficulties historians face in usingmanuscripts?

10. How do historians divide the past into periods? Dothey face any problems in doing so?

Lets doLets doLets doLets doLets do

11. Compare either Map 1 or Map 2 with the present-daymap of the subcontinent, listing as many similaritiesand differences you can find.

12. Find out where records are kept in your village orcity. Who writes these records? Is there an archive?Who manages it? What kinds of documents are storedthere? Who are the people who use it?

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Many new dynasties emerged after the

seventh century. Map 1 shows the major rulingdynasties in different parts of the subcontinent betweentheseventh and twelfth centuries.

2NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS

Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Major kingdoms,seventh-twelfthcenturies

Locate theGurjara-Pratiharas,Rashtrakutas,Palas, Cholasand Chahamanas(Chauhans).Can you identify

the present-daystates over whichthey exercisedcontrol?

?


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The emergence of new dynasties

By the seventh century there were big landlords or

warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.Existing kings often acknowledged them as theirsubordinates orsamantas. They wereexpected to bring gifts for their kingsor overlords, be present at their courtsand provide them with militarysupport. As samantasgained powerand wealth, they declared themselvesto be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of acircle or region) and so on. Sometimesthey asserted their independence fromtheir overlords.

One such instance was that of theRashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initiallythey were subordinate to the Chalukyasof Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century,Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief,overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritualcalled hiranya-garbha(literally, the golden womb). Whenthis ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas,it was thought to lead to the rebirth of the sacrificer asa Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.

In other cases, men from enterprising families usedtheir military skills to carve out kingdoms. For instance,the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave up

their traditional professions and took to arms,successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka andRajasthan respectively.

Administrat ion in the kingdoms

Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titlessuch as maharaja-adhiraja(great king, overlord ofkings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the threeworlds) and so on. However, in spite of such claims,

NEWKINGSANDKINGDOMS

Do you thinkbeing born as aKshatriya wasimportant in orderto become a rulerduring this period?

Fig. 1

Wall relief from Cave15, Ellora, showingVishnu as Narasimha,the man-lion.It is a work of theRashtrakuta period.


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they often shared power with theirsamantasas well aswith associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.

In each of these states, resources were obtained fromthe producers, that is, peasants, cattle-keepers,artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled tosurrender part of what they produced. Sometimesthese were claimed as rent due to a lord who assertedthat he owned the land. Revenue was also collectedfrom traders.

Four hundred taxes!

The inscriptions of the Cholas who ruled in Tamil Nadurefer to more than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes.The most frequently mentioned tax is vetti, taken not incash but in the form of forced labour, and kadamai, orland revenue. There were also taxes on thatching thehouse, the use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a cess onsuccession to family property, etc.

Are any such taxes collected today?

These resources were used to finance the kingsestablishment, as well as for the construction of templesand forts. They were also used to fight wars, which werein turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in theform of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes.

The functionaries for collecting revenue weregenerally recruited from influential families, andpositions were often hereditary. This was true about

the army as well. In many cases, close relatives of theking held these positions.

Prashastisand land grants

Prashastiscontain details that may not be literally true.But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves

as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. These werecomposed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionallyhelped in the administration.

?

In what ways wasthis form ofadministrationdifferent from thepresent-daysystem?


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The achievements of Nagabhata

Many rulers described their achievements in prashastis(you read about the prashastiof the Gupta rulerSamudragupta last year).

One prashasti, written in Sanskrit and found inGwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the exploits ofNagabhata, a Pratihara king, as follows:

The kings of Andhra, Saindhava (Sind), Vidarbha (part of

Maharashtra) and Kalinga (part of Orissa) fell before him evenas he was a prince

He won a victory over Chakrayudha (the ruler of Kanauj) He defeated the king of Vanga (part of Bengal), Anarta (part

of Gujarat), Malava (part of Madhya Pradesh), Kirata (forest

peoples), Turushka (Turks), Vatsa, Matsya (both kingdoms in

north India)

Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land.These were recorded on copper plates, which were given

to those who received the land.

Fig. 2This is a set of copperplates recording agrant of land made bya ruler in the ninthcentury, written partlyin Sanskrit and partlyin Tamil. The ringholding the platestogether is securedwith the royal seal, toindicate that this is anauthentic document.

See if you can findsome of the areasmentioned in theinscription onMap 1. Other rulersmade similarclaims as well.Why do you thinkthey made theseclaims?

?

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What w as given w ith t he land

This is part of the Tamil section of a land grant given bythe Cholas:

We have demarcated the boundaries of the land by making

earthen embankments, as well as by planting thorny bushes.

This is what the land contains: fruit-bearing trees, water,

land, gardens and orchards, trees, wells, open spaces, pasture-land, a village, anthills, platforms, canals, ditches, rivers,

silt-laden land, tanks, granaries, fish ponds, bee hives, and

deep lakes.

He who receives the land can collect taxes from it. He cancollect the taxes imposed by judicial officers as fines, the tax

on betel-leaves, that on woven cloth, as well as on vehicles.

He can build large rooms, with upper stories made of baked

bricks, he can get large and small wells dug, he can plant

trees and thorny bushes, if necessary, he can get canals

constructed for irrigation. He should ensure that water is notwasted, and that embankments are built.

List all the possible sources of irrigation mentionedin the inscription, and discuss how these might havebeen used.

Unusual for the twelfth century was a long Sanskritpoem containing the history of kings who ruled overKashmir. It was composed by an author namedKalhana. He used a variety of sources, includinginscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and

earlier histories, to write his account. Unlike the writersofprashastis, he was often critical about rulers andtheir policies.

Warfare for wealth

You may have noticed that each of these rulingdynasties was based in a specific region. At the sametime, they tried to control other areas. One particularlyprized area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley.


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For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara,Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control overKanauj. Because there were three parties in this long-drawn conflict, historians often describe it as thetripartite struggle.

As we will see (pp. 62-66), rulers also tried todemonstrate their power and resources by buildinglarge temples. So, when they attacked one anotherskingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which

were sometimes extremely rich. You will read moreabout this in Chapter 5.

One of the best known of such rulers is SultanSultanSultanSultanSultanMahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He ruled from 997 to1030, and extended control over parts of Central Asia,Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent.He raided the subcontinent almost every year histargets were wealthy temples, including that ofSomnath, Gujarat.

Much of the wealth Mahmud carried away was usedto create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. He was

interested in finding out more about the people heconquered, and entrusted a scholar named al-Birunito write an account of the subcontinent. This Arabic

work, known as the Kitab-al Hind, remains an importantsource for historians. He consulted Sanskrit scholarsto prepare this account.

Other kings who engaged in warfare include theChahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruledover the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They

attempted to expand their control to the west and theeast, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas ofGujarat and the Gahadavalas of western UttarPradesh. The best-known Chahamana ruler wasPrithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghanruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, butlost to him the very next year, in 1192.

SultanSultanSultanSultanSultan is anArabic termmeaning ruler.

Look at Map 1

again and discusswhy theChahamanas mayhave wanted toexpand theirterritories.

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Look at Map 1 andsuggest reasonswhy these rulerswanted to controlKanauj and theGanga valley.

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A closer look The Cholas

From Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to Thanjavur

How did the Cholas rise to power? A minor chiefly familyknown as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveridelta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings of

Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancientchiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured thedelta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninthcentury. He built the town of Thanjavur and a templefor goddess Nishumbhasudini there.

The successors of Vijayalaya conqueredneighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size andpower. The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to thesouth and north were made part of this kingdom.

Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2The Chola kingdomand its neighbours


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Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler,became king in 985 and expanded control over mostof these areas. He also reorganised the administrationof the empire. Rajarajas son Rajendra I continued hispolicies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lankaand countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy forthese expeditions.

Splendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculpture

The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, arearchitectural and sculptural marvels.

Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlementswhich grew around them. These were centres of craftproduction. Temples were also endowed with land byrulers as well as by others. The produce of this land

Fig. 3

The temple atGangaikondacholapuram.Notice the way inwhich the roof tapers.Also look at theelaborate stonesculptures used todecorate the outerwalls.

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went to maintain all the specialists who worked atthe temple and very often lived near it priests,garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians,dancers, etc. In other words, temples were notonly places of worship; they were the hub ofeconomic, social and cultural life as well.

Amongst the crafts associated with temples,the making of bronze images was the mostdistinctive. Chola bronze images areconsidered amongst the finest in the world.

While most images were of deities,sometimes images were made ofdevotees as well.

Agriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigation

Many of the achievements of theCholas were made possible through

new developments in agriculture. Lookat Map 2 again. Notice that the river Kaveri

branches off into several small channels beforeemptying into the Bay of Bengal. These

channels overflow frequently, depositingfertile soil on their banks. Water from thechannels also provides the necessarymoisture for agriculture, particularly thecultivation of rice.

Although agriculture had developedearlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it wasonly from the fifth or sixth century that thisarea was opened up for large-scale

cultivation. Forests had to be cleared insome regions; land had to be levelled inother areas. In the delta regionembankments had to be built to prevent

Fig. 4A Chola Bronze Sculpture.Notice how carefully it is decorated.To find out how these images were made, see Chapter 6.


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flooding and canals had to be constructed to carrywater to the fields. In many areas two crops were grownin a year.

In many cases it was necessary to water cropsartificially. A variety of methods were used for irrigation.In some areas wells were dug. In other places hugetanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Rememberthat irrigation works require planning organisinglabour and resources, maintaining these works and

deciding on how water is to be shared. Most of the newrulers, as well as people living in villages, took an activeinterest in these activities.

The administration of the empire The administration of the empire The administration of the empire The administration of the empire The administration of the empire

How was the administration organised? Settlementsof peasants, known as ur, became prosperouswith the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groupsof such villages formed larger units called nadu.

The village council and the nadu had several

administrative functions including dispensingjustice and collecting taxes.

Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercisedconsiderable control over the affairs of the nadu underthe supervision of the central Chola government. TheChola kings gave some rich landowners titles likemuvendavelan (avelan or peasant serving three kings),araiyar(chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrustedthem with important offices of the state at the centre.

Fig. 5A ninth century sluice-gate in Tamil Nadu.It regulated the outflowof water from a tankinto the channels thatirrigated the fields.

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Types of land

Chola inscriptions mention several categories of land.

vellanvagailand of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors

brahmadeyaland gifted to Brahmanas

shalabhogaland for the maintenance of a school

devadana, tirunamattukkaniland gifted to temples

pallichchhandamland donated to Jaina institutions

We have seen that Brahmanas often received landgrants orbrahmadeya. As a result, a large number ofBrahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley asin other parts of south India.

Each brahmadeyawas looked after by an assembly

orsabhaof prominent Brahmana landholders. Theseassemblies worked very efficiently. Their decisions wererecorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone

walls of temples. Associations of traders known asnagarams also occasionally performed administrativefunctions in towns.

Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleputdistrict, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way in

which the sabha was organised. The sabha had

separate committees to look after irrigation works,gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to bemembers of these committees were written on smalltickets of palm leaf and kept in an earthenware pot,from which a young boy was asked to pick the tickets,one by one for each committee.


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Do you thinkwomenparticipated inthese assemblies?In your view arelotteries useful inchoosing members

of committees?

Were there anyBrahmanas in thishamlet?Describe all theactivities that weretaking place

in the village?Why do youthink templeinscriptions ignorethese activities?

Inscriptions and texts

The working of a sabha according to the Uttaramerurinscription:

All those who wish to become members of thesabhashould be

owners of land from which land revenue is collected.

They should have their own homes.

They should be between 35 and 70 years of age.

They should have knowledge of the Vedas.

They should be well-versed in administrative matters

and honest.

If anyone has been a member of any committee in the lastthree years, he cannot become a member of another committee.Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, as well as those

of his relatives, cannot contest the elections.

While inscriptions tell us about kings and powerful men,here is an excerpt from the Periyapuranam, a twelfth-century Tamil work, which informs us about the lives ofordinary men and women.

On the outskirts of Adanur was a small hamlet ofPulaiyas(a name used for a social group considered outcastes by

Brahmanas and Vellalas), studded with small huts under old

thatches and inhabited by agrarian labourers engaged in

menial occupations. In the thresholds of the huts covered with

strips of leather, little chickens moved about in groups; darkchildren who wore bracelets of black iron were prancing

about, carrying little puppies In the shade of themarudu

(arjuna) trees, a female labourer put her baby to sleep on asheet of leather; there were mango trees from whose branches

drums were hanging; and under the coconut palms, in little

hollows on the ground, tiny-headed bitches lay after whelping.

The red-crested cocks crowed before dawn calling the brawny

Pulaiyar(plural) to their days work; and by day, under the

shade of thekanjitree spread the voice of the wavy-haired

Pulaiyawomen singing as they were husking paddy

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You are present in an election for asabha.Describe what you see and hear.


1. Match the following

Gurjara-Pratiharas Western Deccan

Rashtrakutas Bengal

Palas Gujarat and Rajasthan

Cholas Tamil Nadu

2. Who were the parties involved in the tripartitestruggle?

3. What were the qualifications necessary to becomea member of a committee of the sabha in theChola Empire?

In China, an empire was established under the Tang dynasty, whichremained in power for about 300 years (from the seventh to thetenth centuries). Its capital, Xian, was one of the largest cities inthe world, visited by Turks, Iranians, Indians, Japanese and Koreans.

The Tang empire was administered by a bureaucracy recruitedthrough an examination, which was open to all who wished toappear for it. This system of selecting officials remained in place,with some changes, till 1911.

In what ways was this system different from those prevalent inthe Indian subcontinent?

China under the Tang dynasty


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4. What were the two major cities under the control ofthe Chahamanas?


5. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?

6. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?

7. What kind of irrigation works were developed in theTamil region?

8. What were the activities associated with Chola temples?


9. Look at Map 1 once more and find out whether therewere any kingdoms in the state in which you live.

10. Contrast the elections in Uttaramerur with present-day panchayat elections.


11. Compare the temple shown in this chapter with anypresent-day temple in your neighbourhood,highlighting any similarities and differences thatyou notice.

12. Find out more about taxes that are collected at present.Are these in cash, kind, or labour services?

KEYWORDS

samantatemple

nadu

sabha

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I

n Chapter 2 we saw that regions like the Kaveri deltabecame the centre of large kingdoms. Did you notice

that there was no mention of a kingdom with Delhi asits capital? That was because Delhi became animportant city only in the twelfth century.

Take a look at Table 1. Delhi first became the capitalof a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who weredefeated in the middle of the twelfth century by theChauhans (also referred to as Chahamanas) of Ajmer. It

was under the Tomaras and Chauhans that Delhibecame an important commercial centre. Many rich Jaina

merchants lived in the city and constructed severaltemples. Coins minted here, calleddehliwal, had a wide circulation.

The transformation of Delhi intoa capital that controlled vast areasof the subcontinent started withthe foundation of the DelhiSultanate in the beginning of thethirteenth century. Take a look at

Table 1 again and identify the fivedynasties that together made theDelhi Sultanate.

The Delhi Sultans built manycities in the area that we nowknow as Delhi. Look at Map 1and locate Dehli-i Kuhna, Siriand Jahanpanah.

3THE DELHI SULTANS

Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Selected Sultanatecities of Delhi,thirteenth-fourteenthcenturies.


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RAJPUT DYNASTIESRAJPUT DYNASTIESRAJPUT DYNASTIESRAJPUT DYNASTIESRAJPUT DYNASTIES

Tomaras early twelfth century - 1165

Ananga Pala 1130 -1145

Chauhans 1165 -1192

Prithviraj Chauhan 1175 -1192

EARLY TURKISH RULERSEARLY TURKISH RULERSEARLY TURKISH RULERSEARLY TURKISH RULERSEARLY TURKISH RULERS 1206-12901206-12901206-12901206-12901206-1290

Qutbuddin Aybak 1206 -1210

Shamsuddin Iltutmish 1210 -1236

Raziyya 1236 -1240

Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266 -1287

KHALJI DYNASTYKHALJI DYNASTYKHALJI DYNASTYKHALJI DYNASTYKHALJI DYNASTY 1290 - 13201290 - 13201290 - 13201290 - 13201290 - 1320

Jalaluddin Khalji 1290 - 1296

Alauddin Khalji 1296 -1316

TUGHLUQ DYNASTYTUGHLUQ DYNASTYTUGHLUQ DYNASTYTUGHLUQ DYNASTYTUGHLUQ DYNASTY 1320 - 14141320 - 14141320 - 14141320 - 14141320 - 1414

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq 1320 -1324

Muhammad Tughluq 1324 -1351

Firuz Shah Tughluq 1351 -1388

SAYYID DYNASTYSAYYID DYNASTYSAYYID DYNASTYSAYYID DYNASTYSAYYID DYNASTY 1414 - 14511414 - 14511414 - 14511414 - 14511414 - 1451

Khizr Khan 1414 -1421

LODI DYNASTYLODI DYNASTYLODI DYNASTYLODI DYNASTYLODI DYNASTY 1451 - 15261451 - 15261451 - 15261451 - 15261451 - 1526

Bahlul Lodi 1451 -1489

The rulers of Delhi

Table 1

Iltutmishs tomb

Alai Darwaza

Firuz Shah Tughluqs tomb

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Find ing out about the Delhi Sult ans

Although inscriptions, coins and architecture provide

a lot of information, especially valuable are histories,tarikh (singular) / tawarikh (plural), written in Persian,the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.

The authors oftawarikh were learned men:secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers, who

both recounted events and advised rulers ongovernance, emphasising the importance of just rule.

The Circle of Justice

Fakhr-i Mudabbir wrote in the thirteenth century:

A king cannot survive without soldiers. And soldiers cannot

live without salaries. Salaries come from the revenue collected

from peasants. But peasants can pay revenue only when they

are prosperous and happy. This happens when the king

promotes justice and honest governance.

Fig.1Four stages in thepreparation of amanuscript.1. Preparing the paper.2. Writing the text.

3. Melting gold tohighlight importantwords and passages.4. Preparing thebinding.

Do you think thecircle of justice isan appropriateterm to describethe relationshipbetween the kingand his subjects?

1 2

3 4


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Express Minhajsideas in your own

words. Do youthink Raziyyashared theseideas? Why doyou think it was sodifficult for awoman to be aruler?

Keep the following additional details in mind: (1) theauthors oftawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) andhardly ever in villages. (2) They often wrote their historiesfor Sultans in the hope of rich rewards. (3) These authorsadvised rulers on the need to preserve an ideal socialorder based on birthrightbirthrightbirthrightbirthrightbirthright and gender distinctionsgender distinctionsgender distinctionsgender distinctionsgender distinctions.

Their ideas were not shared by everybody.

In 1236 Sultan Iltutmishs daughter, Raziyya,became Sultan. The chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj,recognised that she was more able and qualified thanall her brothers. But he was not comfortable at havinga queen as ruler. Nor were the nobles happy at herattempts to rule independently. She was removed fromthe throne in 1240.

What Minhaj- i Sir aj thought about Raziyya

Minhaj-i Siraj thought that the queens rule went againstthe ideal social order created by God, in which womenwere supposed to be subordinate to men. He thereforeasked: In the register of Gods creation, since her accountdid not fall under the column of men, how did she gainfrom all of her excellent qualities?

On her inscriptions and coins Raziyya mentioned thatshe was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish. This was in

contrast to the queen Rudramadevi (1262-1289), of theKakatiya dynasty of Warangal, part of modern AndhraPradesh. Rudramadevi changed her name on herinscriptions and pretended she was a man. Anotherqueen, Didda, ruled in Kashmir (980-1003). Her title isinteresting: it comes from didi or elder sister, anobviously affectionate term given to a loved ruler byher subjects.

BirthrightBirthrightBirthrightBirthrightBirthrightPrivileges claimedon account ofbirth. For example,people believedthat noblesinherited theirrights to govern,because theywere born in

certain families.

GenderGenderGenderGenderGenderdistinctionsdistinctionsdistinctionsdistinctionsdistinctionsSocial and biologicaldifferences betweenwomen and men.Usually, thesedifferences are usedto argue that menare superior to

women.

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From garr ison town t o empireThe expansion of the Delhi Sultanate

In the early thirteenth century the control of the DelhiSultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified towns

occupied by garrisons. The Sultans seldom controlledthe hinterlandhinterlandhinterlandhinterlandhinterland of the cities and were thereforedependent upon trade, tribute or plunder for supplies.

Controlling garrison townsgarrison townsgarrison townsgarrison townsgarrison towns in distant Bengal andSind from Delhi was extremely difficult. Rebellion, war,even bad weather could snap fragile communicationroutes. The state was also challenged by Mongolinvasions from Afghanistan and by governors whorebelled at any sign of the Sultans weakness. The

Sultanate barely survived these challenges. Itsexpansion occurred during the reigns of GhiyasuddinBalban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.

The first set of campaigns along the internal frontierof the Sultanate aimed at consolidating the hinterlandsof the garrison towns. During these campaigns forests

were cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and hunter-gatherers and pastoralists expelled from their habitat.

Garrison townGarrison townGarrison townGarrison townGarrison townA fortifiedsettlement, withsoldiers.

HinterlandHinterlandHinterlandHinterlandHinterlandThe lands

adjacent to a cityor port that supplyit with goods andservices.

Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2Major cities capturedby ShamsuddinIltutmish.


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Map 3Map 3Map 3Map 3Map 3Alauddin Khaljiscampaign into

South India.

These lands were given to peasants and agriculture wasencouraged. New fortresses and towns were establishedto protect trade routes and to promote regional trade.

The second expansion occurred along the externalfrontier of the Sultanate. Military expeditions intosouthern India started during the reign of AlauddinKhalji (see Map 3) and culminated with Muhammad

Tughluq. In their campaigns, Sultanate armiescaptured elephants, horses and slaves and carried awayprecious metals.

By the end of Muhammad Tughluqs reign, 150 years

after somewhat humble beginnings, the armies of theDelhi Sultanate had marched across a large part of thesubcontinent. They had defeated rival armies and seizedcities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantryand dispensed justice in its realm. But how completeand effective was its control over such a vast territory?

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A closer look : Administ ration andConsolidation under the Khaljis and

Tughluqs

The consolidation of a kingdom as vast as the DelhiSultanate needed reliable governors andadministrators. Rather than appointing aristocrats andlanded chieftains as governors, the early Delhi Sultans,especially Iltutmish, favoured their special slavespurchased for military service, called bandagan inPersian. They were carefully trained to man some ofthe most important political offices in the kingdom.Since they were totally dependent upon their master,the Sultan could trust and rely upon them.

Fig. 4Moth ki Masjid, builtin the reign ofSikandar Lodi by hisminister.

The Delhi Sultans built severalmosques in cities all over

the subcontinent. Thesedemonstrated theirclaims to be protectorsof Islam and Muslims.Mosques also helpedto create the sense of acommunity of believers

who shared a beliefsystem and a code of

conduct. It wasnecessary to reinforcethis idea of acommunity becauseMuslims came from avariety ofbackgrounds.

Fig. 5Mosque of JamaliKamali, built in thelate 1520s.

Compare Figures 2,3,4 and 5. What similarities and differences do

you note amongst the mosques? The mosques in Figures 3, 4 and 5show an evolution in architectural tradition that culminates in ShahJahans mosque in Delhi (see fig 7 in Chapter 5).

?

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Like the earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluqmonarchs appointed military commanders asgovernors of territories of varying sizes. These lands

were called iqtaand their holder was called iqtadarormuqti. The duty of the muqtiswas to lead militarycampaigns and maintain law and order in theiriqtas.In exchange for their military services, the muqtiscollected the revenues of their assignments as salary.

They also paid their soldiers from these revenues.Control overmuqtiswas most effective if their officewas not inheritable and if they were assigned iqtasfora short period of time before being shifted. These harsh

conditions of service were rigorously imposed duringthe reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad

Tughluq. Accountants were appointed by the state tocheck the amount of revenue collected by the muqtis.Care was taken that the muqticollected only the taxesprescribed by the state and that he kept the requirednumber of soldiers.

As the Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of thecities under their control, they forced the landed

chieftains the samantaaristocrats and richlandlords to accept their authority. Under AlauddinKhalji the state brought the assessment and collectionof land revenue under its own control. The rights ofthe local chieftains to levy taxes were cancelled andthey were also forced to pay taxes. The Sultansadministrators measured the land and kept carefulaccounts. Some of the old chieftains and landlordsserved the Sultanate as revenue collectors andassessors. There were three types of taxes (1) oncultivation called kharajand amounting to about 50per cent of the peasants produce, (2) on cattle and(3) on houses.

It is important to remember that large parts of thesubcontinent remained outside the control of the DelhiSultans. It was difficult to control distant provinceslike Bengal from Delhi and soon after annexingsouthern India, the entire region became independent.Even in the Gangetic plain there were forested areas

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that Sultanate forces could not penetrate. Localchieftains established their rule in these regions.Sometimes rulers like Alauddin Khalji andMuhammad Tughluq could force their control in theseareas but only for a short duration.

Chieftains and their fortif ications

Ibn Battuta, a fourteenth-century traveller from Morocco,Africa, explained that chieftains sometimes fortifiedthemselves in mountains, in rocky, uneven and ruggedplaces as well as in bamboo groves. In India the bamboo

is not hollow; it is big. Its several parts are so intertwinedthat even fire cannot affect them, and they are on thewhole very strong. The chieftains live in these forestswhich serve them as ramparts, inside which are theircattle and their crops. There is also water for them within,that is, rain water which collects there. Hence they cannotbe subdued except by powerful armies, who enteringthese forests, cut down the bamboos with speciallyprepared instruments.

Describe the ways in which the chieftains arrangedfor their defence.

The Mongols under Genghis Khan invadedTransoxiana in north-east Iran in 1219 and the DelhiSultanate faced their onslaught soon after. Mongolattacks on the Delhi Sultanate increased during thereign of Alauddin Khalji and in the early years of

Muhammad Tughluqs rule. This forced the two rulersto mobilise a large standing army in Delhi which poseda huge administrative challenge. Let us see how thetwo Sultans dealt with this.


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Delhi was attackedattackedattackedattackedattacked twice, in1299/1300 and 1302-03.

As a de f ens ive measure ,Alauddin Khalji raised a largestanding army.

Alauddin constructedconstructedconstructedconstructedconstructed a newgarrison town named Siri forhis soldiers. See Map 1.

The soldiers had to be fedfedfedfedfed. Thiswas done through the producecollected as tax from lands

between the Ganga and Yamuna.Tax was fixed at 50 per cent ofthe peasants yield.

The soldiers had to be paidpaidpaidpaidpaid. Alauddin chose to pay his

soldiers salaries in cash ratherthan iqtas. The soldiers would buy their supplies frommerchants in Delhi and it wasthus feared that merchants

would raise their prices. To stopthis, Alauddin controlled theprices of goods in Delhi. Prices

were carefully surveyed byofficers, and merchants who didnot sell at the prescribed rates

were punished.

Alauddins administrativeadministrativeadministrativeadministrativeadministrativemeasuresmeasuresmeasuresmeasuresmeasures were quite successfuland chroniclers praised his reignfor its cheap prices and efficientsupplies of goods in the market.He successfully withstood thethreat of Mongol invasions.

The Sultanate was attackedattackedattackedattackedattacked in the early years ofMuhammad Tughluqs reign. The Mongol army wasdefeated. Muhammad Tughluq was confident aboutthe strength of his army and his resources to plan anattack on Transoxiana. He therefore raised a largestanding army.

Rather than constructingconstructingconstructingconstructingconstructing a new garrison town, theoldest of the four cities of Delhi (Dehli-i Kuhna) wasemptied of its residents and the soldiers garrisonedthere. The residents of the old city were sent to the

new capital of Daulatabad in the south.

Produce from the same area was collected as tax tofeedfeedfeedfeedfeed the army. But to meet the need of the largenumber of soldiers the Sultan levied additional taxes.

This coincided with famine in the area.

Muhammad Tughluq also paidpaidpaidpaidpaid his soldiers cashsalaries. But instead of controlling prices, he used a

token currency, somewhat like present-day papercurrency, but made out of cheap metals, not gold andsilver. People in the fourteenth century did not trustthese coins. They were very smart: they saved theirgold and silver coins and paid all their taxes to thestate with this token currency. This cheap currencycould also be counterfeited easily.

Muhammad Tughluqs administrative measuresadministrative measuresadministrative measuresadministrative measuresadministrative measureswere a failure. His campaign into Kashmir was adisaster. He then gave up his plans to invade

Transoxiana and disbanded his large army.Meanwhile, his administrative measures createdcomplications. The shifting of people to Daulatabad

was resented. The raising of taxes and famine in theGanga-Yamuna belt led to widespread rebellion. Andfinally, the token currency had to be recalled.

Alauddin Khalji Alauddin Khalji Alauddin Khalji Alauddin KhaljiAlauddin Khalji Muhammad Tughluq Muhammad TughluqMuhammad TughluqMuhammad TughluqMuhammad Tughluq

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In this list of Muhammad Tughluqs failures wesometimes forget that for the first time in the history of theSultanate, a Delhi Sultan planned a campaign to captureMongol territory. Unlike Alauddins defensive measures,Muhammad Tughluqs measures were conceived as apart of a military offensive against the Mongols.

The Sult anate in the fi f teent h and

sixteenth centuries

Take a look at Table 1 again. You will notice that afterthe Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from

Delhi and Agra until 1526. By then, Jaunpur, Bengal,Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the entire south Indiahad independent rulers who established flourishingstates and prosperous capitals. This was also the period

which saw the emergence of new ruling groups like theAfghans and the Rajputs.

Some of the states established in this period weresmall but powerful and extremely well administered.Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545) started his career as the

manager of a small territory for his uncle in Bihar andeventually challenged and defeated the Mughal emperorHumayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556). Sher Shahcaptured Delhi and established his own dynasty.

Although the Suri dynasty ruled for only fifteen years(1540-1555), it introduced an administration that

borrowed elements from Alauddin Khalji and madethem more efficient. Sher Shahs administration becamethe model followed by the great emperor Akbar

(1556-1605) when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.


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You are a peasant in Alauddin Khalji sor Muhammad Tughluqs reign and youcannot pay the taxes demanded by theSultan. What will you do?


1. Which ruler first established his or her capital at Delhi?

2. What was the language of administration under theDelhi Sultans?

3. In whose reign did the Sultanate reach its farthestextent?

4. From which country did Ibn Battuta travel to India?

The Three Orders, the Peace of God,Knights and the Crusades

The idea of the Three Orders was first formulated in France in theearly eleventh century. It divided society into three classes: thosewho prayed, those who fought, and those who tilled the land. Thisdivision of society into Three Orders was supported by the Churchto consolidate its dominant role in society. This helped theemergence of a new warrior group called knights.

The Church patronised this group and used them to propagatetheir idea of Peace of God. The attempt was to direct warriorsaway from conflict amongst themselves and send them instead ona campaign against the Muslims who had captured the city of

Jerusalem. This led to a series of campaigns called the Crusades.These campaigns in the service of God and the Church completelyaltered the status of knights. Originally, these knights did not belongto the class of nobles. But by the end of the eleventh century inFrance, and a century later in Germany, the humble origins of thesewarriors were forgotten. By the twelfth century, nobles also wantedto be known as knights.

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5. According to the Circle of Justice, why was itimportant for military commanders to keep theinterests of the peasantry in mind?

6. What is meant by the internal and external frontiersof the Sultanate?

7. What were the steps taken to ensure that muqtisperformed their duties? Why do you think they may

have wanted to defy the orders of the Sultans?

8. What was the impact of the Mongol invasions on theDelhi Sultanate?


9. Do you think the authors of tawarikh would provide

information about the lives of ordinary men andwomen?

10. Raziyya Sultan was unique in the history of the DelhiSultanate. Do you think women leaders are acceptedmore readily today?

11. Why were the Delhi Sultans interested in cutting downforests? Does deforestation occur for the same reasons

today?


12. Find out whether there are any buildings built by theDelhi Sultans in your area. Are there any other buildings in your area that were built between thetwelfth and fifteenth centuries? Describe some of thesebuildings, and draw sketches of them.

KEYWORDS

iqta

tarikh

garrison

Mongols

gender

kharaj


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Ruling as large a territory as the Indian subcontinentwith such a diversity of people and cultures wasan extremely difficult task for any ruler to accomplishin the Middle Ages. Quite in contrast to theirpredecessors, the Mughals created an empire andaccomplished what had hitherto seemed possible foronly short periods of time. From the latter half of thesixteenth century they expanded their kingdom from

Agra and Delhi until in the seventeenth century theycontrolled nearly all of the subcontinent. They imposedstructures of administration and ideas of governancethat outlasted their rule, leaving a political legacy that

succeeding rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore.Today the Prime Minister of India addresses the nationfrom the ramparts of the Red Fort in Delhi, the residenceof the Mughal emperors, on Independence Day.

4THE CREATION OF AN EMPIRE:The Mughal Dynasty

THEMUGHALDYNASTY

Fig. 1The Red Fort.


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proud of their Timurid ancestry, not least of all becausetheir great ancestor had captured Delhi in 1398.

They celebrated their genealogy pictorially, each rulergetting a picture made of Timur and himself. Take alook at Figure 1, which is somewhat like a groupphotograph.

Mughal m il i t arycampaigns

Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526-

1530), succeeded to the throne ofFerghana in 1494 when he was only12 years old. He was forced to leavehis ancestral throne due to the invasionof another Mongol group, the Uzbegs.

After years of wandering he seizedKabul in 1504. In 1526 he defeated theSultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, atPanipat and captured Delhi and Agra.

Table 1 charts some of the majorcampaigns of the Mughals. Study it carefully and see ifyou can notice any long-term patterns. You will notice,

for example, that the Afghans were animmediate threat toMughal authority. Notethe relationship betweenthe Mughals and the

Ahoms (see also Chapter

7), the Sikhs (see alsoChapters 8 and 10), andMewar and Marwar (seealso Chapter 9). How

was Humayunsrelationship with SafavidIran different from

Akbars? Did theannexation of Golconda

and Bijapur in Aurangzebs reign endhostilities in the Deccan?

Fig. 3Mughal army oncampaign.

Fig. 4Cannons were animportant addition insixteenth centurywarfare. Babur usedthem effectively at thefirst battle of Panipat.

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Table 1 Table 1 Table 1 Table 1Table 1

mughal emperors

Major campaigns and events

1526 defeated Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan supporters atPanipat.1527 defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies atKhanua.1528 defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi.Established control over Agra and Delhi before his death.

BABURBABURBABURBABURBABUR 1526-15301526-15301526-15301526-15301526-1530

AKBARAKBARAKBARAKBARAKBAR1556-16051556-16051556-16051556-16051556-1605

Akbar was 13 years old when he became emperor. Hisreign can be divided into three periods.(1) 1556-1570 Akbar became independent of the regentBairam Khan and other members of his domestic staff.Military campaigns were launched against the Suris andother Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms ofMalwa and Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of hishalf-brother Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. In 1568 theSisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in 1569Ranthambhor.

(2) 1570-1585 military campaigns in Gujarat werefollowed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal andOrissa. These campaigns were complicated by the1579-1580 revolt in support of Mirza Hakim.(3) 1585-1605 expansion of Akbars empire. Campaigns inthe north-west. Qandahar was seized from the Safavids,Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul, after the death ofMirza Hakim. Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar,Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed.In the last years of his reign Akbar was distracted by therebellion of Prince Salim, the future Emperor Jahangir.

HUMAYUNHUMAYUNHUMAYUNHUMAYUNHUMAYUN 1530-1540, 1555-15561530-1540, 1555-15561530-1540, 1555-15561530-1540, 1555-15561530-1540, 1555-1556(1) Humayun divided his inheritance according to the willof his father. His brothers were each given a province.

The ambitions of his brother Mirza Kamran weakenedHumayuns cause against Afghan competitors. Sher Khandefeated Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540),forcing him to flee to Iran.(2) In Iran Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah.He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died in an accident thefollowing year.


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Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Military campaigns started by Akbar continued.

The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, acceptedMughal service. Less successful campaigns againstthe Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.Prince Khurram, the future Emperor Shah Jahan,rebelled in the last years of his reign. The efforts ofNur Jahan, Jahangirs wife, to marginalise him wereunsuccessful.

Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan underShah Jahan. The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodirebelled and was defeated. Campaigns were launchedagainst Ahmadnagar; the Bundelas were defeated andOrchha seized. In the north-west, the campaign to seizeBalkh from the Uzbegs was unsuccessful andQandahar was lost to the Safavids. In 1632

Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the Bijapurforces sued for peace. In 1657-1658, there was conflictover succession amongst Shah Jahans sons.

Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers,including Dara Shukoh, were killed. Shah Jahan was

imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra.

Aurangzeb 1658-1707 Aurangzeb 1658-1707 Aurangzeb 1658-1707 Aurangzeb 1658-1707 Aurangzeb 1658-1707(1) In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again inthe 1680s. Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs

were temporarily successful. Mughal intervention in thesuccession and internal politics of the Rathor Rajputs of

Marwar led to their rebellion. Campaigns against theMaratha chieftain Shivaji were initially successful. ButAurangzeb insulted Shivaji who escaped from Agra,declared himself an independent king and resumed hiscampaigns against the Mughals. Prince Akbar rebelledagainst Aurangzeb and received support from theMarathas and Deccan Sultanate. He finally fled toSafavid Iran.(2) After Akbars rebellion Aurangzeb sent armies againstthe Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur was annexed in 1685 andGolcunda in 1687. From 1698 Aurangzeb personally

managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathaswho started guerrilla warfare. Aurangzeb also had to face the

rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the north-eastof the Ahoms and in the Deccan of the Marathas. His death was followed

by a succession conflict amongst his sons.

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Mughal traditions of succession

The Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture,where the eldest son inherited his fathers estate. Insteadthey followed the Mughal and Timurid custom ofcoparcenary inheritance, or a division of the inheritanceamongst all the sons. Follow the highlighted passagesin Table 1, and note the evidence for rebellions

by Mughal princes. Which do you think is a fairerdivision of inheritance: primogeniture or coparcenary ?

Mughal relations with other rulersTake a look at Table 1 once again. You will notice thatthe Mughal rulers campaigned constantly againstrulers who refused to accept their authority. But asthe Mughals became powerful many other rulers also

joined them voluntarily. The Rajputs are a goodexample of this. Many of them married their daughtersinto Mughal families and received high positions. Butmany resisted as well.

Mughal marriages

wi th t he Rajput s

The mother of

Jahangir wasa Kachhwahaprincess, daughterof the Rajput rulerof Amber (modernday Jaipur). Themother of Shah

Jahan was a Rathorprincess, daughterof the Rajput rulerof Marwar (Jodhpur).

Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Akbars reign 1605


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Zat ranking

Nobles with a zatof 5,000 wereranked higher thanthose of 1,000.In Akbars reignthere were 29

mansabdarswith arank of 5,000 zat;by Aurangzebsreign the numberof mansabdarshad increased to79. Would thishave meant moreexpenditure forthe state?

The Sisodiya Rajputs refused to accept Mughalauthority for a long time. Once defeated, however, they

were honourably treated by the Mughals, given theirlands (watan)back as assignments (watan jagir). Thecareful balance between defeating but not humiliatingtheir opponents enabled the Mughals to extend theirinfluence over many kings and chieftains. But it wasdifficult to keep this balance all the time. Look at Table1 again note that Aurangzeb insulted Shivaji when hecame to accept Mughal authority. What was theconsequence of this insult?

Mansabdars and jagirdarsAs the empire expanded to encompass different regionsthe Mughals recruited diverse bodies of people. Froma small nucleus of Turkish nobles (Turanis) theyexpanded to include Iranians, Indian Muslims,

Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other groups. Those who joined Mughal service were enrolled asmansabdars.

The term mansabdarrefers to an individual whoholds amansab, meaning a position or rank. It was agrading system used by the Mughals to fix (1) rank,(2) salary and (3) military responsibilities. Rank andsalary were determined by a numerical value called zat.

The higher the zat, the more prestigious was the noblesposition in court and the larger his salary.

The mansabdarsmilitary responsibilities requiredhim to maintain a specified number of sawar or

cavalrymen. The mansabdarbrought his cavalrymenfor review, got them registered, their horses brandedand then received money to pay them as salary.

Mansabdars received their salaries as revenueassignments calledjagirswhich were somewhat likeiqtas. But unlike muqtis, mostmansabdarsdid notactually reside in or administer theirjagirs. They onlyhad rights to the revenue of their assignments which

was collected for them by their servants while the

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mansabdars themselvesserved in some other part ofthe country.

In Akbars reign thesejagirs were carefullyassessed so that theirrevenues were roughlyequal to the salary of themansadar. By Aurangzebsreign this was no longer thecase and the actual revenue

collected was often less than the granted sum. Therewas also a huge increase in the number ofmansabdarswhich meant a long wait before they received ajagir. These and other factors created a shortage in thenumber ofjagirs. As a result, manyjagirdars triedto extract as much revenue as possible while they hadajagir. Aurangzeb was unable to control thesedevelopments in the last years of his reign and thepeasantry therefore suffered tremendously.

Zabt and zamindarsThe main source of income available to Mughal rulerswas tax on the produce of the peasantry. In most places,

peasants paid taxes through the rural elites, that is,the headman or the local chieftain. The Mughalsused one term zamindars to describe all

intermediaries, whether they were local headmenof villages or powerful chieftains.

Akbars revenue minister, Todar Mal, carriedout a careful survey of crop yields, pricesand areas cultivated for a ten-year period,1570-1580. On the basis of this data, tax wasfixed on each crop in cash. Each provincewas divided into revenue circles with its ownschedule of revenue rates for individualcrops. This revenue system was known aszabt. It was prevalent in those areas whereMughal administrators could survey the land

Fig. 5

Amansabdaronmarch with hissawars.

Fig. 6Details from aminiature from ShahJahans reign depictingcorruption in hisfathers administration.(1) A corrupt officer

recieves a bribe and(2) a tax-collectorpunishes poorpeasants.


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and keep very careful accounts. This was not possiblein provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal.

In some areas the zamindars exercised a great dealof power. The exploitation by Mughal administratorscould drive them to rebellion. Sometimes zamindarsand peasants of the same caste allied in rebelling againstMughal authority. These peasant revolts challenged thestability of the Mughal Empire from the end of theseventeenth century.

Akbar Namaand Ain- i Akbar i

Akbar ordered one of his close friends andcourtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of hisreign. Abul Fazl wrote a three volume historyof Akbars reign titled, Akbar Nama. The firstvolume dealt with Akbars ancestors and thesecond volume recorded the events ofAkbars reign. The third volume is the Ain-iAkbari. It deals with Akbars administration,household, army, the revenues and geographyof his empire. It also provides rich details

about the traditions and culture of the peopleliving in India. The most interesting aspectabout the Ain-i Akbariis its rich statisticaldetails about things as diverse as crops,yields, prices, wages and revenues.

A closer look Akbars policies

The broad features of administration were laid down

by Akbar and were elaborately discussed by Abul Fazlin his book theAkbar Nama, in particular in its lastvolume, theAin-i Akbari.

Abul Fazl explained that the empire was divided intoprovinces called subas, governed by asubadarwhocarried out both political and military functions. Eachprovince also had a financial officer ordiwan. For themaintenance of peace and order in his province, thesubadarwas supported by other officers such as the

Fig. 7Akbar recieving theAkbar Namafrom Abul Fazl.

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military paymaster(bakhshi), the minister in charge ofreligious and charitable patronage (sadr), militarycommanders (faujdars)and the town police commander(kotwal).

Nur Jahans inf luence in Jahangi rs cour t

Mehrunnisa, married the Emperor Jahangirin 1611 and received the title Nur Jahan.She remained extremely loyal andsupportive to the monarch. As a mark ofhonour, Jahangir struck silver coins bearing

his own titles on one side and on the otherthe inscription struck in the name of theQueen Begum, Nur Jahan.

The adjoining document is an order(farman)of Nur Jahan. The square seal states,Command of her most Sublime andElevated Majesty Nur Jahan Padshah Begum.The round seal states, by the sun of Shah

Jahangir she became as brilliant as the moon; mayNur Jahan Padshah be the lady of the age.

Akbars nobles commanded large armies and hadaccess to large amounts of revenue. While they wereloyal the empire functioned efficiently but by the end ofthe seventeenth century many nobles had builtindependent networks of their own. Their loyalties tothe empire were weakened by their own self-interest.

While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri during the 1570she started discussions on religion with the ulama,Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics,and Zoroastrians. These discussions took place in theibadat khana. He was interested in the religion andsocial customs of different people. It made him realisethat religious scholars who emphasised ritual anddogmadogmadogmadogmadogma were often bigotsbigotsbigotsbigots bigots. Their teachings createddivisions and disharmony amongst his subjects. Thiseventually led Akbar to the idea of sulh-i kul or

DogmaDogmaDogmaDogmaDogmaA statement or aninterpretationdeclared asauthoritative withthe expectationthat it would befollowed withoutquestion

BigotBigotBigotBigotBigotAn individual whois intolerant ofanother personsreligious beliefs orculture

Fig. 8Nur Jahans farman.


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The mughal empir e in t heseventeenth century and aft er

The administrative and military efficiency of the MughalEmpire led to great economic and commercialprosperity. International travellers described it as thefabled land of wealth. But these same visitors were alsoappalled at the state of poverty that existed side byside with the greatest opulence. The inequalities wereglaring. Documents from the twentieth year of Shah

Jahans reign inform us that the highest rankingmansabdarswere only 445 in number out of a total of

8,000. This small number a mere 5.6 per cent of thetotal number ofmansabdars received 61.5 per centof the total estimated revenue of the empire as salariesfor themselves and their troopers.

The Mughal emperors and theirmansabdarsspenta great deal of their income on salaries and goods.

This expenditure benefited the artisans and peasantrywho supplied them with goods and produce. But thescale of revenue collection left very little for investment

in the hands of the primary producers the peasantand the artisan. The poorest amongst them livedfrom hand to mouth and they could hardly considerinvesting in additional resources tools and supplies

to increase productivity. The wealthier peasantry andartisanal groups, the merchants and bankers profitedin this economic world.

The enormous wealth and resources commandedby the Mughal elite made them an extremely powerful

group of people in the late seventeenth century. As theauthority of the Mughal emperor slowly declined, hisservants emerged as powerful centres of power in theregions. They constituted new dynasties and heldcommand of provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh.

Although they continued to recognise the Mughalemperor in Delhi as their master, by the eighteenthcentury the provinces of the empire had consolidatedtheir independent political identities. We will read moreabout them in Chapter 10.


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Babur and Akbar were about your age whenthey became rulers. Imagine you haveinherited a kingdom. How would you make

your kingdom stable and prosperous?

Queens and kings

There were several great monarchs all near contemporaries in

different parts of the world in the sixteenth century.

These includedQueen Elizabeth I (1558-1603)of England. Elizabethwas the last ruler of a dynasty known as the Tudors. Elizabeths rulewas marked by several conflicts foremost amongst these wereconflicts between the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestants,who were attempting to reform the Church. Elizabeth sided with thelatter, and tried to establish the independence of the Church of Englandfrom Roman control, even as she adopted several practices of theRoman Church. She came into conflict with Philip II, the powerfulruler of Spain, and defeated a Spanish effort to attack England. Underher patronage English sailors harassed the Spanish fleet and made itdifficult for them to control the wealth of the Americas. She was agreat patron of the arts and supported the famous Engli