A TOOLKIT FOR INTERVENTION

Key Issues

Lessons Learned

Program Options

Survey Instruments

Resources

FORESTS & CONFLICT

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Conflict can be an inherent and legitimate par t of social and politicallife . In many places, however, the costs and consequences of conflict,crisis, and state failure have become unacceptably high. Violent

conflict dramatically disrupts traditional development, can spill over borders,and reduce growth and prosperity across entire regions.Although development and humanitarian assistanceprograms are increasingly implemented in situations of openor latent violence, unfor tunately most still do not explicitly incorporate sen-sitivity to the dynamics of conflict and instability in their design orexecution.

The Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation in the Bureau forDemocracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA/CMM) of theUnited States Agency for International Development (USAID) was estab-lished to provide technical leadership on conflict, instability and extremismfor USAID Missions and our Washington-based regional and pillar bureaus.The vast majority of our field missions and staff are currently working inareas that are either in conflict, coming out of conflict, are at high-risk forviolence and instability, or are facing growing extremist threats. A centralobjective of the office is to integrate or "mainstream" best practices inconflict management and mitigation into more traditional developmentsectors such as agriculture, economic growth, democracy, education, andhealth. Increasingly, DCHA/CMM is also working with missions to help themunderstand how to program in countries experiencing growing fragility.

As Director of DCHA/CMM, I am pleased to introduce this document onforests and conflict. I hope that readers will find this information thoughtful,innovative, and useful. We will release additional toolkits in the near future,and I trust that each one will bring unique value to discussions about development and conflict. We consider these toolkits to be "livingdocuments" and welcome your comments and observations to help usimprove future iterations.

Elisabeth KvitashviliDirectorOffice of Conflict Management and MitigationBureau for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian AssistanceU.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)

FROM THE DIRECTOR

This toolkit is par t of a series that explores how development assis-tance can address key risk factors associated with conflict. One areathat is receiving increasing attention is the relationship between naturalresources and violence. In many recent conflicts, valuable or scarceresources - land, water, timber, or minerals - have played a central rolein both causing and sustaining violence. For example, illegal logging and"conflict timber" became a prominent feature of Liberia's civil war.

This toolkit offers: 1) a discussion of the relationship between forests andconflict; 2) lessons learned in developing programs to deal with forestand conflict related issues; 3) program options; 4) a survey instrumentrelated to forests and conflict; and 5) relevant USAID mechanisms anddonors. The elements of this toolkit are designed to raise awarenessabout the linkages among timber, forest management, and conflict; and tohelp officers integrate a conflict perspective into their development pro-gramming. By exploring forests in depth, this toolkit and others in theseries serve as companion pieces to conflict assessments. Conflict assess-ments provide a broad overview of destabilizing patterns and trends in asociety. While they provide recommendations about how to make devel-opment and humanitarian assistance more responsive to conflictdynamics, they do not provide detailed guidance on how to designspecific activities. The toolkits in this series fill that gap by moving from adiagnosis of the problem to a detailed discussion of potential interven-tions. Together, the assessment framework and toolkits are designed tohelp Missions gain a deeper understanding of the forces driving violenceand assist in developing more strategic and focused interventions.

The Forests and Conflict Toolkit emerged from collaboration withAdelphi Research (Berlin, Germany), the Center for InternationalForestr y Research (CIFOR) (Bogor, Indonesia), and the Woodrow WilsonInternational Center for Scholars (Washington, DC, USA). Project coor-dinators were Alexander Carius (Adelphi Research), Geoffrey Dabelko(Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars), and DorisCapistrano (CIFOR). The lead authors were Esther Schroeder-Wildberg(Adelphi Research), Doris Capistrano (CIFOR), Olivia Voils (AdelphiResearch), and Alexander Carius (Adelphi Research).

The toolkit would not have been possible without the valuable contri-butions of Jaidev Singh (USAID/DCHA/CMM), Mary Melnyk(USAID/ANE) and Scott Bode (USAID/EGAT/ESP). Comments,questions, and requests for additional information should be directed tothe Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation at conflict@usaid.gov.

Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation (CMM)

Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance

United States Agency for International Development

KEY ISSUES 2

LESSONS LEARNED 10

PROGRAM OPTIONS 14

SURVEY INSTRUMENT 18

RESOURCES 20

FORESTS AND CONFLICT:A TOOLKIT FOR PROGRAMMING

Loggers transporting timber in Brazil.

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In poor countries, forested areas aremore likely to become areas ofconflict because they tend to beremote and inaccessible, located ondisputed land, inhabited by multipleethnic groups and minority popula-tions, inadequately governed, orclaimed simultaneously by several

different groups. In addition, themajority of forest-dwelling and forest-dependent households suffer frompover ty, lack public ser vices, areexcluded from national democraticinstitutions, and resent outsiders whooften reap most of the benefits fromforest resources (Kaimowitz 2003).

KEY ISSUES

Covering 36 million square kilometers, or roughly 30 percentof the globe, the world's forests are among its most importantnatural resources. However, forests are disappearing at analarming rate.The World Resources Institute reports that 46percent of the world's old-growth forests have been destroyed.Competition for these resources can trigger, exacerbate andfinance numerous crises and conflicts in developing countries(Renner 2002).

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Countries experiencing violent conflictin their forests "account for about 40percent of the world's tropical forestsand over half of all tropical forestsoutside Brazil" (CIFOR 2003).

Forest-related violence, which isrooted in local histories and socialrelations, is also connected to largereconomic and social processes andpower relations, usually within a multi-layered, interrelated "conflict system."While conflict can sometimes compelaccommodation and positive institu-tional change, it can also escalate intoviolence, especially if the par ties havea prior histor y of conflict and mutualmistrust (Buckles 1999; Peluso andWatts 2001; Ostrom et al. 2002).

This toolkit explores links betweenforests and violent conflict, including:

• The use of timber to financeviolent conflict;

• Forests as safe havens for armedgroups;

• The contribution of logging to low-scale conflicts;

• Impacts of conflicts on forestecosystems; and

• The contribution of poor gover-nance to conflict.

It should be noted that the issue ofgender is an impor tant par t of thisdiscussion, since women in manycountries make most of the impor tantdecisions regarding the use of forestresources. Every program optionmust be gender-sensitive to achievesuccess in mitigating conflicts relatedto forests.

TIMBER ANDFINANCING CONFLICT In today’s global markets, timber is in greatdemand. The Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD)estimates forest-product trade at morethan $150 billion per year.While demandfuels competition for control and exploita-tion of timber, its accessibility, myriad uses,and other qualities also make it attractiveas a conflict commodity.

Broadly defined, "conflict timber" has beentraded at some point in the chain of

custody by groups involved in armedconflict, such as rebel factions, regularsoldiers, or civilian administrations, either toperpetuate conflict or take advantage ofconflict for personal gain (Global Witness2003a). Conflict timber does not includelegally harvested timber traded by legiti-mate governments to purchase arms forentirely legitimate self-defense againstinvasion or insurrection.

Specific links between forests and violentconflict include:

1.The conflict timber trade which is closelylinked to the broader problem of illegallogging and often involves the samecompanies, trade networks, and entrepre-neurial methods. A large proportion oflogging in tropical countries is illegal. Forexample, about 80 percent of Brazil'stimber is logged illegally. Lost revenuesassociated with illegal logging total approxi-mately US$10 billion per year worldwide,in addition to US$5 billion per year inuncollected taxes and fees from legallogging (World Bank 2003).

2.Timber revenues have financed nationaland regional conflicts in Cambodia, Burma,the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),Ivory Coast, and Liberia. Conflict timberoften heightens or prolongs existing crises,because a conflict's duration depends partlyon the financial viability of armed groups.Combatants can quickly accumulate a signifi-cant amount of capital for war from conflicttimber (Price 2003). For example, estimatedrevenues from the trade of conflict timberin Liberia, Cambodia, and Burma exceedUS$100 million per year (Table 1).

Forests are comparatively attractive as aconflict commodity for a number of reasons:

1.The many buyers and sellers of timbermake it difficult to track extraction activities.

2.Timber trade does not require a largeamount of capital and, compared to oil,produces high returns on investment.

3.Timber does not require processing.

Among the factors that make conflicttimber attractive compared to other forestresources and "conflict commodities," suchas valuable minerals or illicit crops, are(Thomson and Kanaan 2003):

• Accessibility: Forests are more accessi-ble than subterranean minerals.Furthermore, harvesting and transport- 3

"Forest resources directly contribute to the livelihoods of 90percent of the 1.2 billion peopleliving in extreme poverty and indirectly support the natural environment that nourishes agriculture and the food supplies ofnearly half the population of thedeveloping world." (World Bank2002).

4 FORESTS & CONFLICT, 2005

ing timber (on rivers or crude roads) isrelatively simple. Armed groups caneasily extort money by blocking pro-duction and transportation routes oflegal timber.

• Versatility:Timber can be transformedinto an immense variety of endproducts making timber highly marketable.

• Livelihood value: Forests are a source ofsubsistence and livelihood for manypeople often creating competition overlimited resources that can contribute toconflict among users and stakeholders.During periods of uncertainty andintense competition, people highlydependent on forest resources may bemore prone to engage in conflict whenthey observe other users felling "their"forests (Thomson and Kanaan, 2003).

• State involvement: State-backed organi-zations, like the military or subsidizedlogging companies, are more likely toexploit and trade timber because theypossess the necessary capital,equipment, and market access (Baker etal. 2003;Thomson and Kanaan 2003).For example, the timber industry inLiberia, which was closely linked to theillegal arms trade and funded formerLiberian president Charles Taylor'spersonal security forces.

FORESTS ANDSAFE HAVENSIn fragile, developing countries, forests canserve as battlegrounds and havens forarmed groups, providing refuge and foodfor combatants (Kaimowitz 2003). In SierraLeone, for example, forests enabled theRevolutionary United Front to regroup,recruit, and indoctrinate child soldiers.Additionally, in many tropical countries, gov-ernments do not have a significant presencein forests, so guerrilla groups often move into fill the power vacuum (Kaimowitz 2002).For example, in forested areas of Colombia,indigenous leaders opposed to land grabshave been murdered by right-wing paramili-taries, while indigenous people have beenforced to join the ranks of the leftistRevolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia.Both sides have appropriated the indige-nous peoples' traditional land and clearedforest for coca cultivation and subsequentsale of cocaine (Kaimowitz 2001; Álvarez2001).

Conflicts also arise between competinggroups over access to and benefits fromforest resources. For instance, conflict overforests often arises between indigenouspeople and outsiders, especially if it isremote and inaccessible. In the Amazonregion of Brazil, cattle ranchers moving intothe forests have come into conflict withtraditional rubber tappers. Forest-dwellingethnic groups and indigenous peoples inmany countries have sometimes resortedto violence to fend off outsiders encroach-ing on their territories or threatening theirway of life. Often, native people are alsomotivated by the desire to gain greaterpolitical autonomy, independence, or agreater share of benefits from the exploita-tion of local forest resources (Buckles1999; Peluso and Watts 2001).

LOGGING AND LOW-SCALE CONFLICT There are numerous lower-scale violentconflicts related to forest resources.Thesehave negative impacts on living conditions,increase livelihood insecurity, and can leadto greater conflicts if allowed to fester.While conflicts among competing stake-holders over timber rarely develop intofull-scale war, they can affect many peopleover a wide area and "may prove larger,longer, and, in the end, more serious" thanincidents where timber finances violentconflict (Jarvie et al. 2003).

LOGGING, LAND,ANDRESOURCE OWNERSHIPConflict can spring from unclear or unfairland and resource ownership rights thatrender local communities' logging activitiesillegal. In the past, central governments hadlittle interest in forested areas, which wereunderdeveloped, sparsely populated, andeconomically unimportant. Forests thusbecame "no-state spaces" with little gov-ernment involvement, and with minorityethnic groups maintaining their ownsystems of governance, such as "legalpluralism", which was common in colonialAfrica and Asia (Kaimowitz 2002).

As governments began to recognize thecommercial value of forests, they tended toissue logging concessions, typically withoutconsulting indigenous residents. However,traditional forest users generally do notrecognize the government's right to exploitthe forests, and local communities mayconfront logging companies, local govern-ments, police, and the military (Kaimowitz

In Liberia, timber companies usedprivate militias to gain control overlocal populations, discourageprotests, and encroach on communallands.Timber militias, along with themilitary and the police, intimidatelocal communities, destroy and stealgoods, and seize farms and forestland for companies (Price 2003;Jarvie et al. 2003).

HIGH-LEVELIMPLICATIONS INFOREST-RELATEDCONFLICTS

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2002).Weak state institutions, poor gover-nance, and corruption often contribute tothese conflicts. Competing claims, disputedland titles, and seizures of community landwithout compensation can all lead toviolence. In Indonesia, local communitieshave defended their traditional rights andlivelihoods by seizing equipment, blockingbarges loaded with timber, and burningdown logging camps.These low-scaleconflicts often escalate because privatecompanies can pay security forces tosuppress opposition; furthermore, associat-ed human rights violations are oftentolerated or supported by local govern-ment officials, as well as the military andpolice (Harwell et al. 2003).

In Brazil, the rampant use of falsified landtitles to exploit public land, known asgrilagem, has become a powerful tactic toenable outsider domination in the Amazon.The proliferation of this illicit practice canbe attributed to the lack of a central landregistry, complicit land registration offices,and a legal vacuum regarding land tenure.Once illegal landholders obtain possessionof property, they often use violence toexpel traditional communities with legiti-mate land rights.The general lack of gover-

nance and law enforcement allows them tointimidate people through murder andother threats in order to exploit the landfor financial gain (Greenpeace International2003).

Ambiguous land titles may force people toabandon traditional resources, which couldlimit access to food, water, and other forestproducts, thus increasing poverty.The pos-sibility of seizing contested land also tendsto attract strong outsider groups who canforce local communities off their property.Moreover, outsiders can come in and takenot only land, but also forest resources,subsequently leaving the land degraded andthe local communities without benefit.However, such challenges and relatedthreats of violence from outsiders havealso spurred the creation of federationsand new institutions. Examples includecommunity-initiated joint forest protectionand village confederations in India, Nepal,and elsewhere in South Asia.

DISTRIBUTION OF BENEFITS FROM LOGGINGIn most developing countries, local commu-nities bear most of the social and environ-mental costs of timber exploitation.

Soldiers in Sierra Leone on the lookoutfor rebels hiding out in the forest.

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Logging truck on its way to a sawmill inNha Trang, in central Vietnam.

Conflicts can occur when local people donot receive a fair share of the benefitsfrom their forests or compensation forseized land, environmental damage, orhealth risks. Companies that conduct legallogging might clash with local communitiesthat conduct illegal logging. Inequitable dis-tribution of benefits often disrupts localcommunal and social structures, which cancontribute to wider political, social, andeconomic instability and eventually unrest,as in Indonesia and Bolivia (Price 2003).

However, violent conflict over distributionof timber revenues or compensation is notinevitable. Many communities welcomelogging operations if they can secure partof the benefits either as cash or as in-kindbenefits, such as new schools. For example,plantations in East Kalimantan, Indonesia,use benefit-sharing schemes to distributecompensation to local communities.Thereare also many examples of communityforest management and logging enterprisesin Latin America (Lima et al. 2003).

SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMEN-TAL IMPACTS OF LOGGINGLarge-scale commercial logging by outsideprivate companies often has considerable

adverse sociopolitical and environmentalimpacts on local forest users and forest-dwelling communities.The government mayencourage colonization of frontier forestlands and their conversion to agriculturethrough subsidized or state-sponsored relo-cation programs, such as the promotion ofcattle ranching and forest land conversion inthe Amazon. In Vietnam, government incen-tives, such as land rights, agricultural assis-tance, and logging concessions for inhabitedareas, encouraged ethnic Vietnamese toresettle in mountainous areas to controlindigenous groups living there who weresuspected of seeking independence.Theseland use patterns of low-land Vietnamesedwellers who moved into upland areasresulted in severe habitat degradation.Consequently, the altered demographicsand land-use patterns impoverished theforest-dependent groups and led to conflict(Thomson and Kanaan 2003).

In Indonesia, the government's transmigra-tion program sought to reduce overpopu-lation of the main islands (Java, Madura, andBali); between 1969 and 1993, some eightmillion people were relocated to otherislands (Forest Watch Indonesia/GlobalForest Watch 2002).The government

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Large-scale commerciallogging by outside private

companies often has considerable adverse

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THE EFFECTS OF CAPTURING TIMBER REVENUESTHROUGH VIOLENCE OR CORRUPTION

TABLE 1: ESTIMATED REVENUES FROM CONFLICT TIMBER (SOURCE: RENNER 2002)

allotted land to the newcomers, whichcreated competition with locals, as well asconflicts over economic disparities andethnic and religious differences.

In the southern Philippines, state-sponsoredlogging and agricultural development offorests and tribal lands in the 1960s and1970s has led to ongoing conflict inMindanao (Capistrano 2003).

Conflicts also occur when governmentsdecide unilaterally to protect forests fromlogging or other uses by relocating forestdwellers outside park boundaries orrestricting the access rights of traditionalusers. While some international conserva-tion organizations from developedcountries have sought "win-win" solutionsbetween "protected areas" and local com-munities, others have advocated exclusionof people from such "protected areas."The loss of traditional forest access and

rights has led to conflict in Africa, Asia, andLatin America. Even when localized, theseconflicts can be manipulated to feed intowider disturbances, as in Zimbabwe andIndonesia.

Protests about environmental and healthconcerns have also arisen over forests. OnSumatra, in Indonesia, air and waterpollution from a pulp and paper millaffected residents' health, killed livestock,reduced agricultural output, and causedchlorine gas explosions. Protests led to themill closing in 1999, but it resumed thesame practices upon reopening in 2003with local government backing.The mill'sowners continue to operate, using themilitary and the police to suppress protests(Happe 2001; Jarvie et al. 2003).

• Financial independence for rebelgroups that reduces "their depend-ence on and accountability to therural communities from which theytraditionally have drawn recruits,material support, and other collabo-ration" (Price 2003).

• Prolonged conflict, as in Cambodia,where both the government and theKhmer Rouge financed theirmilitary campaigns with timberresources (Renner 2002).Timberavailability also prolonged civil warin Côte d'Ivoire.

• Fueling of separatist tendencies,especially in forests with large pro-portions of valuable timber, such asBurma, which holds 60 percent ofthe world's teak reserves (GlobalWitness 2003b).

• Elites enriched at the expense ofthe general public and small timberproducers by diverting revenues andreducing prices for timber from sus-tainably managed forests.

• Undermined rule of law, increasedcorruption, and weakened civiliancontrol over the military.

• Displaced communities, increasedvulnerability of traditional liveli-hoods and ways of life, and intensi-fied poverty over the long term.

• Reduced post-conflict developmentopportunities for local communitiesand national governments bydamaging or destroying forests andwildlife (Thomson and Kanaan 2003;Price 2003).

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Country Beneficiary Period Revenues(Mil US$/year)

Liberia President C.Taylor late 1990s 100-187

Cambodia Khmer Rouge mid-1990s 120-240Government mid-1990s 100-150

Burma Government 1990s 112

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CONFLICT AND FOREST ECOSYSTEMSConflicts have mixed impacts on forestecosystems, depending on the existence ofalternative economic options, availability ofroads and market infrastructure, and thenature, condition, and value of forestresources. Conflicts can adversely affectforests under the following conditions:

• Forests are subjected to unsustainablelogging or mining; armed forces tend toextract as much as they can beforethey lose control over the resource;

• Forests are used as a safe haven forrefugees fleeing areas of acute fighting.For example, hundreds of thousands ofrefugees fled into Congolese forests toescape fighting in Rwanda, increasingdemands for firewood, bush meat, andhousing materials, and leading tolocalized forest degradation (Renner2002); and

• State or donor-supported forest pro-tection and conservation efforts aresuspended or impeded; illegal loggingand hunting can proceed unchecked,especially where governmental and reg-ulatory authorities are absent or inef-fective. Post-conflict, weakened politicalinstitutions may lack the authority,ability, funding, or urgency to restartderailed conservation efforts.

On the other hand, armed conflict hassometimes protected forests from larger-scale exploitation. Armed forces mayexploit the forest, but would less thancommercial logging companies, and theirpresence can discourage illegal logging byoutsiders. In Colombia, certain guerrillagroups hinder large-scale exploitation toprotect the environment, using strictlyenforced "gunpoint conservation," thatutilizes landmines and the threat ofviolence (Álvarez 2003). In the DRC,forests have been spared large-scalelogging because they are remote and inac-cessible and timber is only one of severalconflict commodities available (Baker et al.2003).

The greatest damage to forests oftenoccurs after a conflict. For example, theDRC has allocated logging concessions for36 percent of its forests; in the Republic ofCongo, 79 percent of the forest area will

probably be logged in the post-conflictphase (White and Martin 2002). Peaceoften enables forest exploitation, sincereconstruction and development requiretimber, and the need to obtain foreigncurrency reduces political will to protectforests (Oglethorpe 2002; Halle et al.2002). Sometimes, forests are cleared forsettlement and rehabilitation for ex-com-batants (Kaimowitz 2003). Clearly, goodforest sector governance should be estab-lished before opening it to post-conflictexploitation.

POOR GOVERNANCE,ECONOMIC POLICY,FOREST-RELATEDCONFLICT Violent conflict is arguably the ultimateexpression of governance failure. In manydeveloping countries, inequitable tenurerights and access policies, poor governance,and economic policies focused on a singleset of natural resource commodities con-tribute to the onset of forest-relatedconflicts and hinder their resolution.Themost significant aspects include (Thomsonand Kanaan 2003):

• Inconsistent laws and ineffective orselective law enforcement;

• Corruption;

• Weak regulatory framework of thefinancial sector; and

• High economic dependence on forestresources.

During periods of economic decline anddwindling resources, as well as duringperiods of rapid economic development incountries with poor economic conditions,the pernicious effects of poor governanceon forest-dependent economies are espe-cially pronounced. Financial stresses oftenlead to: borrowing, structural adjustments,and economic policies that exacerbateforest exploitation; increased competitionand conflict; and worsening conditions formarginalized communities and indigenousgroups (Bush and Opp 1999; Capistrano2003).

The greatest damage toforests often occurs after aconflict.

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INCONSISTENT LAWS ANDINEFFECTIVE OR SELECTIVELAW ENFORCEMENT Remote forested areas often exist in astate of lawlessness; weak governments,such as in Sierra Leone, the DRC, andIndonesia, are unable to defend territorialintegrity and enforce law in remote areas.In general, the farther a forest is from thecenter of government, the more difficult itis for the government to control it. Lack oflaw enforcement, inconsistent applicationof laws, and legal discrimination often leadto grievances that can emerge when localagents of distant, powerful patrons controland appropriate the majority of benefitsfrom forest exploitation.

Conflicts also result from contradictoryand inconsistent legal and regulatorysystems, especially those perceived as ille-gitimate or at odds with customary lawsand practices. Unclear divisions of responsi-bility and overlapping authority among gov-ernment organizations also increase thelikelihood of conflict (Thomson and Kanaan2003; Upreti 2002).

The military and the police are often impli-cated in forest-related conflicts. Forexample, in Cambodia, Liberia, andIndonesia, private logging companiesrecruited militias from the state military(Global Witness 2002).

CORRUPTIONCorruption thrives in weak states. It erodesconfidence and reinforces perceptions offailure. Corruption hampers binding rulesand regulations that govern access to andharvesting of forest resources; it alsoencourages the wealthier and better-connected people involved to act outsidethe law without fear of prosecution.Thisgenerally benefits corrupt companies,civilian government officials, law enforce-ment personnel, and legislators (IndonesianMinistry of Forestry 2000;Thomson andKanaan 2003). In Indonesia, a coalition ofpoliticians, security forces, and judgesimplicitly or actively supports illegal opera-tions of timber companies that pay thehighest bribes.The interests of local com-munities, which lack the financial resourcesto pay bribes, are ignored in the decision-making process. Companies backed by thepolice and the military, and implicitlysupported by government officials andjudges, largely control local politics, resultingin poor or selective law enforcement.Large-scale and endemic corruption also

contributes to local communities' lack oftrust in officials (Upreti 2002).

WEAK REGULATORYFRAMEWORK OF THEFINANCIAL SECTORControls on private financial transactionsare weak in many poor, forest-dependentcountries. Readily obtained loans fromfinancial institutions require minimal, if any,due diligence procedures. Easily concealedprofits move both within and outside thecountry, which encourages unscrupulousoperators to seek logging concessions andaccess to timber resources (Thomson andKanaan 2003).

In Indonesia, for example, large timber con-glomerates have their own unregulated"private" banks that move money out ofthe country. In the DRC, officers of theinvading Rwandan and Ugandan armiesused the unregulated banking system to filltheir accounts with cash from the exploita-tion of Congolese forests. In Liberia,Charles Taylor's personal profits fromtimber exploitation cannot be tracedthrough the banking system.

ECONOMIC DEPENDENCE ONFOREST RESOURCESFor many poor countries, forest resourcesprovide significant export earnings. Forexample, in Burma, Cambodia, andCameroon, such trade contributed 15percent to 1997 exports. Dependence onnatural resource commodities, such astimber, increases a country's vulnerability tovolatile fluctuations in commodity exportprices and to external economic shocks.When countries do not allocate adequatecapital and labor to other sectors, neglect-ing critical social areas such as educationand health, resulting slow innovationimpedes development of human skills(World Bank 2001).The policy response toexternal shocks and to these vulnerabilitiescan potentially create conditions forincreased conflict.

In Indonesia, timber and woodproducts contribute about 10 to 20percent to the country's GDP(World Bank 2001).Viewing thetimber trade as a way to achieveeconomic growth, the governmentprohibited export of logs and rough-sawn timber in the 1980s toencourage pulp, paper, and plywoodproduction. Driven by China's andJapan's demand for wood products,Indonesia's domestic processingcapacity increased by 700 percentand outstripped plantation woodsupplies.This led to increased illegallogging of natural forests, nowestimated at 73 percent of all itslogging activity (FWI/GFW 2002).

HIGH ECONOMICDEPENDENCE ONFORESTS LEADS TO ILLEGALEXPLOITATION

10 FORESTS & CONFLICT, 2005

In addition to infrastructure developmentand social services delivery, the followinginterventions can help sever the linkbetween timber and violent conflict:

• Improving participation and partner-ships;

• Promoting sustainable forest manage-ment (SFM);

• Reducing poverty and improving liveli-hoods;

• Strengthening indigenous land rightsand enforcement ability;

• Strengthening governance;

• Improving the regulatory framework ofthe financial sector;

LESSONS LEARNED

In general, conflicts over natural resources, including timber, aredifficult to resolve and often resurface in other forms. However,conflicts can be mitigated with approaches and interventionsthat strengthen institutions and develop capacity to manageconflict (Capistrano 2003).

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Women of the Chipko movement in Indiause non-violent resistance to oppose thelogging of trees.

• Strengthening public procurement andcorporate social responsibility; and

• Increasing understanding of the role ofnatural resources in reducing povertyand supporting livelihoods, the long-term benefits of sustainable resourceuse.

Illegal logging, one of the most importantsources of conflict in tropical countries, iscurrently not addressed in any integratedform through international rules or agree-ments. However, individual approaches canaddress aspects of the problem and, collec-tively, contribute to tackling illegal loggingand its associated conflicts.

IMPROVEPARTICIPATION AND PARTNERSHIPS

Active participation by local communitiesand loggers is essential for managingcompeting claims for forest resources.Participatory decision-making amongcompeting claimants and relevant stake-holders reduces conflict by:

• Facilitating discussion of local issueswith key stakeholders, helping diffusetensions and mitigate conflict;

• Promoting solutions that include sus-tainable forest management andequitable benefit sharing.

• Negotiating and developing forums,institutional mechanisms, and norms fordecision-making and monitoring andassessing outcomes.These institutionalmechanisms can be employed to avert,manage, or resolve conflicts; and

To avoid conflict, all groups with legitimateinterests in contested forest resourcesmust be included in the process. A success-ful mediation process requires consultingparties, allocating timber revenuesequitably, and balancing the interests oflocals with those of migrants. Building thecapacity (negotiation skills, financialresources, etc.) of the weakest stakehold-ers can help reduce power imbalances,thus encouraging more equal participation(see the Food and AgricultureOrganization's project in Ghana and theMulti-Stakeholder Forestry Program inIndonesia).While power relations between

people from vastly different socio-economic or social-strata backgrounds willnever be entirely equal, recognizing thesedifferences helps facilitators to addressthem appropriately (Bush and Opp 1999;IDRC 2003).

Consensus-based decision-making canreduce the potential for conflict when thestakeholders seek win-win solutions, secureeconomic benefits for local people, shareresponsibility for resulting actions, and col-lectively gather necessary data. In thiscontext, to resolve conflict fairly, thepeople involved must be incorruptible(Upreti 2002).The process must be soundand include mechanisms to safeguardagainst corruption as relying on "incorrupt-ibility" alone may lead to failure.

22PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT

Sustainable management of renewableforest resources can prevent conflict. Ingeneral, large-scale clear cutting degradesthe social and environmental conditions oflocal communities and can increase com-petition for remaining resources.To slowthe process, economic incentives thatpromote large-scale clear cutting should bereduced, local communities should beencouraged to promote Sustainable ForestManagement (SFM), and regulations andincentives should be employed topersuade large companies holding forestconcessions to practice SFM. In turn, as acomponent of a sustainable system, SFMprovides economic diversity and thus helpssecure rural livelihoods. Promoting SFM inthe context of community-based naturalresource management, such as in theCongo Basin Forest Partnership, can alsobe a conflict management tool. By involvinglocal communities and institutions, suchapproaches can mitigate conflict andreduce the potential for violence.

The Sustainable Forest Products GlobalAlliance demonstrates how sustainableforest management through public-privatepartnerships can have a significant impacton combating illegal logging, and onincreasing transparency. This USAID-supported program developed a partner-ship between forest producers andconsumers committed to sustainable forest

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Active participation bylocal communities andloggers is essential formanaging competingclaims for forestresources.11

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management on a global scale therebypromoting sustainable and responsibleforest practices in countries in Asia, Africa,and Latin America. Partners in thisAlliance include World Wildlife Fund,Metafore and retailers such as HomeDepot and Anderson Corporation.

International forest certification schemescan also reduce the likelihood of conflict.For example, the Forest StewardshipCouncil (FSC) label, which is a globally-acknowledged timber certification label,requires certified companies to guaranteetheir products' legality, as well as toestablish clear tenure, limit environmentalimpacts, and provide social and economicsupport for local communities. If its incen-tives were strengthened, the label couldcontribute to reducing conflict. However,participation in the scheme is very costly,especially for small- and medium-sizedenterprises; so far, the scheme has failed inIndonesia due to its high cost (Colchesteret al. 2003; Schroeder-Wildberg and Carius2003).

33REDUCE POVERTYAND IMPROVELIVELIHOODS

Small-scale subsistence logging could besustainably operated as part of a diverselivelihood system, which could becomepart of a broader solution to low-levelviolent conflicts. Development programscan promote interventions and activitiesthat:

• Increase the range of livelihood alterna-tives for forest-dwelling communities;

• Increase the share of benefits to localcommunities from timber and otherforest products;

• Ensure a fair price for sustainabletimber so that fewer trees provide suf-ficient income;

• Regulate logging more effectively, sothat greed does not lead to over-intensive logging; and

• Provide economic incentives for sus-tainable timber harvesting and loggingoperations.

Care should be taken in assessing:(1) whether communities actually preferlogging to other forest uses such as con-servation, water shed protection, and spiritforests and; (2) the risk that communitytimber extraction poses since it openscommunities up to possible extortionrequired to apply for resource use,transport and other permits.

44STRENGTHENLAND RIGHTS

Clearly defined and widely recognizedownership, use, and access rights to landand forest resources are preconditions forpeaceful coexistence in a resource-richarea. Addressing the inconsistenciesbetween formal and local customary law isa necessary step in conflict resolution.Development programs should encouragenational governments to recognize andsecure indigenous people's traditionalrights to land and forest resources.Whilethis could be a long process, stakeholdersat the local level could agree to recognizelocal rights and share benefits from logging.

The German Development Service (DED)project in Ecuador's Esmeralda Foresthelps resolve conflicts over ambiguous landand forest rights. Strengthening local landrights can combat forest degradationbecause traditional forest management bylocal communities often prevents overuseof resources. Institutions that mediatebetween parties, monitor compliance, andenforce sanctions can help sort outcompeting land and vegetation rights.

55STRENGTHEN GOVERNANCE

To break the link between conflict timberand corruption, governance failures mustbe tackled on multiple fronts:

• Minimize and control corruption to re-establish the rule of law (see the ForestIntegrity Network);

• Encourage transparent and fair lawenforcement in order to prosecutecriminals and resolve ambiguousproperty rights, without degrading rurallivelihoods (see the Multi-stakeholderForestry Program);

• Strengthen conflict resolution institu-tions and mechanisms at different levelsand scales of conflict;

Rwanda's remaining natural forests areunder pressure from an expanding population.

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• Promote institutions or mechanismsthat foster adaptive learning amongstakeholders to build trust and avoidconflict;

• Provide access to information anddevelop and implement mutually agreed upon monitoring and evaluation tools; and

• Ensure that local communities and keystakeholders are aware of and able toexercise their forest-related rights, enti-tlements, and responsibilities.

USAID's initiative in Pata, Senegal, includeda number of these elements.TheIntergovernmental Forest Law Enforcementand Governance (FLEG) and Forest LawEnforcement, Governance and Trade(FLEGT) processes also offer a compre-hensive approach to ensuring timberextraction is a legal industry and improvinggovernance in producer countries.

66IMPROVE REGULATION IN THE FINANCIAL SECTOR

Weak regulations mean that financial flowsfrom conflict timber are particularly likelyto evade detection.Tighter oversight, moni-toring, and reporting of forest-relatedfinancial and commercial transactions couldreduce the profitability of conflict timber.

A recent legal innovation in Indonesiaappears promising. In 2003, Indonesiamodified its money laundering laws toinclude illegal logging and other environ-mental crimes. Under the new laws, banksin Indonesia are required to report anytransactions suspected of being connectedto illegal logging and other forest crimes tothe Indonesian Financial Supporting andAnalysis Center (CIFOR 2003b). Ifenforced, this law will make it more difficultto launder money obtained from illegallogging in Indonesia.

The FLEGT process promotes existingmoney laundering regulations in certainEuropean Union (EU) countries like theUnited Kingdom, recognizing that theseregulations are an important tool incombating illegal logging and therebyreducing related crimes.

In addition, financial flows from consumercountries to producer countries need tobe regulated. Most due diligence by publicand private financial/investment institutionsdoes not determine whether the moneythey provide finances illegal activities.However, the Dutch Bank ABN AMROadopted a "forest policy" aimed at minimiz-ing the environmental and social impacts oftheir financing activities; they do not financelogging operations in primary forests orcompanies that conduct illegal logging orbuy illegal timber (ABN AMRO 2001).

77STRENGTHEN PUBLICPROCUREMENT AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Public procurement guidelines can play aleading role in excluding conflict or illegaltimber from international markets;examples include the EU FLEGT ActionPlan and an increasing number of govern-ment procurement policies in the EU.TheFLEGT Action Plan also calls on corpora-tions to exclude illegal and unsustainablyharvested timber from a company's supplychain. Companies include the largestAmerican retailers, IKEA, and the BritishTimber Trade Federation, which representsthe majority of major UK importers.

Tighter oversight, moni-toring, and reporting offorest-related financialand commercial transac-tions could reduce theprofitability of conflicttimber.

14 FORESTS & CONFLICT, 2005

IMPROVEPARTICIPATION ANDPARTNERSHIPS

POLICY RESEARCH, FORESTMANAGEMENT,ANDSTAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATIONTO CONTROL ILLEGAL LOGGINGIn Indonesia, the five-year Multi-stakeholderForestry Programme (MFP) supports policyresearch and forest management, and alsocombines capacity building with conflictmediation, mitigation, and resolution. Itpromotes consensus-based policy for anational forest program through participa-tory activities, including multi-stakeholderworkshops, seminars, and training

programs. MFP involves community groupsin decision-making about controlling illegallogging without damaging local livelihoodsto avoid conflicts over access to resources.www.dfid.gov.uk

INTERDEPARTMENTALTRAINING BUILDSSTAKEHOLDER CAPACITYIn 1992, a program was initiated entitled"Improving Support for EnhancingLivelihoods of Rural Poor." The five-yeartraining program in Ghana and Gambia isbuilding local stakeholder capacity tomanage conflicts over forestry, fisheries, andagricultural resources.The program, designedin partnership with local and nationalagencies in Ghana, developed training

PROGRAM OPTIONS

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Workers unload hardwood cut fromIndonesian forests at Sunda Kelapa Docks.

materials for forestry conflict management incollaboration with the Forest,Trees, andPeople Programme. It is also strengtheningpartner capacity to integrate conflict man-agement principles based on sustainablelivelihood approaches.www.fao.org

PROMOTE SUSTAINABLEFOREST MANAGEMENTCOLLABORATION HELPSPRESERVE LIVELIHOODS ANDFORESTSThe private-public Congo Basin ForestPartnership (the Congo Basin Initiative)supports a network of national parks,protected areas, and well-managed forestryconcessions, and assists communities in sixCentral African countries that dependupon these rich forestry and wildliferesources. By improving forest governancethrough community-based management,combating illegal logging, and enforcing anti-poaching laws, CBFP helps address thesources of conflict over forest use.www.state.gov

PUBLIC-PRIVATE ALLIANCEIDENTIFIES LEGALLYHARVESTED TIMBERThe public-private Indonesia Alliance toCombat Illegal Logging promotes the sus-tainable harvest of forests and seeks toidentify timber that is harvested legally andfree of conflict.Timber-tracking systems andchains of custody will help identify legalsources of timber harvested without conflictand databases of legal timber concessionsand deforestation for commercial banks touse as an investment screening tool.www.usaid.gov

FORESTRY INFORMATION ANDMANAGEMENT TOOLSIn Cameroon, the Sustainable Managementof Cameroonian Forests project, completedin 2001, helped the Ministry of theEnvironment and Forests implement itsnew sustainable forest resource manage-ment policy. Forestry information systemsand management tools included manage-ment plans, means to determine timberyields, and defining boundaries of valuableforests with the help of rural forestry com-mittees. Sustainable forest managementtools are now used at two productionforests and neighboring community forestsin the southern province of Cameroon.www.acdi-cida.gc.ca

REDUCE POVERTY ANDIMPROVE LIVELIHOODSINTERNATIONALPARTNERSHIPS OFINDIGENOUS PEOPLESTo help indigenous people fight poverty andbuild sustainable livelihoods, the IndigenousPeoples Partnership Programme promotespartnerships between aboriginal groups inCanada, Latin America, and the Caribbean.The program expects to increase localcapacity to fight poverty and build sustain-able livelihoods as well as to establish sus-tainable development partnerships.www.acdi-cida.gc.ca

COMMUNITY BENEFITS FROMFORESTS AND WILDLIFEThe Communal Areas ManagementProgramme for Indigenous Resources(CAMPFIRE) demonstrated the importanceof wildlife resources to Zimbabwe's nationaleconomy and provided opportunities forvillages to generate earnings through thesustainable use of forests and wildlife.Resulting socio-economic benefits haveimproved supervision of communally-owned forest resources and fosteredequitable distribution of revenues fromsafari/hunting activities, along with newschools, mills, and one-time cash paymentsfor each household. By fostering localresource management and strengthening thecapacity of participating rural communities,CAMPFIRE has improved livelihoods and theunderlying socioeconomic conditions thatoften contribute to resource conflicts.www.usaid.gov

REGIONALAPPROACHES FORFOREST PROTECTIONAND LIVELIHOODSThe 20-year Central African RegionalProgram for the Environment (CARPE)began in 1995 and addresses deforestation,biodiversity loss, and associated conflicts inthe Congo Basin countries. CARPE buildsinstitutional and human resources so thatthe sustainable management of valuableforests will be undertaken by CentralAfrican institutions. By improving environ-mental governance, CARPE helps improve democratic governance, transparency,accountability, social stability, and peace inthe region.carpe.umd.edu 15

Multi donor efforts cansupport comprehensiveregional approaches toaddress forest protectionand livelihoods.

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STRENGTHEN LAND RIGHTSIn Ecuador's Esmeralda Forest, a projectaddressing land conflicts arising betweenindigenous groups and timber companiessupports forest communities to helpensure sustainable land use.The programalso supports conflict transformation activi-ties, such as training village community rep-resentatives to mediate between communi-ties engaged in land conflicts.www.ded.de

STRENGTHENGOVERNANCEPARTNERSHIPS TO TACKLEILLEGAL LOGGINGThe Forest Law Enforcement andGovernance (FLEG) processes in East Asiaand Africa were the first partnerships amongproducer and consumer countries, donors,civil society, and the private sector to tackleillegal logging in these regions. NGOs andprivate industry participate through advisorygroups. Regional FLEG MinisterialConferences took place in East Asia (2001)and in Africa (2003).The African declarationrecommended the following actions:

• Reform the forest sector; establish SFMpractices, and build capacity for govern-ment services, law enforcementpersonnel, and civil society;

• Establish a publicly accessible, nationallycentralized forest database;

• Promote alternative local livelihood ini-tiatives for poverty alleviation;

• Consider the legitimate interests of allstakeholders when developing forestlegislation;

• Enforce law and improve forest-relatedgovernance, including accountability,transparency, and law enforcement.

With its focus on law enforcement and gov-ernance, the FLEG process could helpreduce conflicts in the forests of East Asiaand Africa.While the development of theFLEG process in Africa is still ongoing, theEast Asian process is currently slowing down.www.iisd.ca, www.worldbank.org

ENSURE LEGAL SOURCES OFIMPORTED TIMBERThe European Union Action Plan on Forest

Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade(FLEGT) is the first comprehensive attemptto ensure that timber imported into theEU will come from legal sources. ProposedAction Plan activities include:

• Signing voluntary bilateral or regionalagreements under which exportingcountries agree to establish independ-ently monitored systems to verify thattimber is legally produced;

• Building capacity in producer countrieswith technical and financial assistance todevelop licensing systems for trackingcompliance and verifying legality;

• Encouraging EU member states tomodify their procurement policies torequire legal timber;

• Promoting corporate responsibilityamong EU companies, including encour-aging them to require that theirsuppliers in producer countries adhereto voluntary codes of conduct toguarantee legality, and to supplementthis with independent audits of thesupply chain; and,

• Using existing legislation (e.g., moneylaundering laws) to tackle illegal logging,and examining other options to controlimports of illegal timber.

Although the Action Plan focuses only onsecuring the legality of timber, and not its sus-tainable production, a substantial reduction inillegal logging should contribute to reducingconflict. Furthermore, once the voluntarytimber-tracking system has been established,the mechanisms could be adapted toencourage sustainably managed forests.www.europa.eu.int

ADDRESSING CORRUPTION INFOREST EXPLOITATION Launched in 2000, the Forest IntegrityNetwork (FIN) combines donor experi-ence fighting corruption with civil society'sinterest in promoting sustainable forestry.To improve understanding and developcommon analysis methodologies, FIN plansto establish and coordinate a coalition ofstakeholders willing to fight forest-relatedcorruption, create a Web-based documentcenter and database of corruption-fightinginitiatives, expand awareness of forest-related corruption, and promote appropri-ate case studies. FIN intends to producethe first "Forest Corruption Fighters'Toolkit." FIN's anti-corruption measures

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could help fight forest crimes and thusreduce conflict; however, the "integritypacts" between governments and privateentities will be crucial.www.transparency.org

ADDRESSING CONFLICT DIRECTLYNATURAL RESOURCESCONFLICT MANAGEMENT INPATA In Senegal, conflict between indigenouspeople and migrant farmers arose over useof forest resources. A conflict assessmentinvolving about 5,000 residents, develop-ment partners, and area businesses identi-fied pragmatic options for addressing theconflict, and an ensuing meeting openeddialogue for drafting an action plan.Subsequently, the community developed aplan to promote sustainable managementof the 73,000-hectare Pata forest, creatingcommittees to monitor the forest.This alsostrengthened democratic processes whilereducing conflicts over these resources.www.usaid.gov

DEVELOPING TOOLS TOREDUCE CONFLICTIn Asia and Africa, recognition of theemerging issue of forests and conflict ledUSAID's Asia and Near East Bureau andOffice of Transition Initiatives to commis-sion a diagnostic study entitled "ConflictTimber: Dimensions of the Problem in Asiaand Africa" (Thomson and Kanaan, 2003;Jarvie, et al., 2003). The study was a firststep in designing well-targeted and effectiveprogramming to reduce conflict. Follow-onactions with Missions have continued; forexample, workshops were held at thenational level in the Philippines and at theprovincial level in Cambodia. As a result ofthe Philippines workshop, the Departmentof Environment and Natural Resources(DENR) ordered all DENR RegionalExecutive Directors, Bureau Directors andAgency heads to designate units for conflictmitigation. Laws that exacerbate local-levelconflict are also being reviewed by a teamof stakeholders. In Cambodia, grants tolocal NGOs will work to resolve forest andland conflicts by disseminating informationto communities on their legal rights inaccordance with Cambodia's new forestand land laws.www.usaid.gov

Clearing a forest for farming in theDemocratic Republic of Congo.

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Several basic questions helpassess the likelihood of violentconflict arising in forests orover forest resources:

• Are valuable forests located in remote,politically and economically marginalizedareas?

• Are these forests divided into logging con-cessions, and are they already operating?

• Are there secessionist tendencies inthese areas, and could timber be usedto finance a civil war?

• Are there other conflicts in the regionthat might be fought in the forests?

SURVEY INSTRUMENT

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Loading timber at a railway station inCambodia.

This section lists key questions that evaluate the risk of conflictlinked to the exploitation of timber.They should help develop-ment agencies effectively integrate forest management andconflict prevention tools into their programs and projects. Notall questions will be relevant to each case or region due tonatural, historical, and cultural differences.

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• Has the entire context of the potentialconflict been examined and a holisticresponse considered?

Do underlying governancefailures or weaknesses con-tribute to the potential forviolence?

• Is the country's economy diversified oris it highly dependent on timber?

• Do government and security institu-tions regulate timber harvesting andtrading effectively and/or do they par-ticipate in it?

• Are there measures to control any sig-nificant off-budget income of local andnational elites from timber exploitationand is such corruption being addressed?

• To what extent is the security sectorinvolved in the exploitation of forests?

• Are forest laws effectively enforced anddoes the judicial system prosecuteforest criminals?

Do local governance failurescontribute to conflict or inhibitresolution?

• Have all groups with legitimate interestsin the contested resources been identi-fied and recognized and has the negoti-ation capacity of weaker groups beenstrengthened? Has competition beenreplaced by cooperative forest manage-ment, including benefit sharing?

• Have local governance structures beenaccommodated? Is the tenure situationeasily understood and enforced or is itnebulous and open to abuse?

• Have other forms of competition(economic, ethnic, or political) beenaddressed so that they do not reinforcecompetition for timber?

What is the status of subsis-tence logging and how it isinfluenced from the outside?

• Have livelihoods been diversified or isthe economy dependent on logging?

• Is small-scale logging by local communi-ties legal? Do they have legal rights totheir land?

• Do third parties that use the forest as arefuge and battleground influence liveli-hood choices (e.g., does fighting impedeagricultural activities)?

• Is the country participating in any inter-national initiatives to reduce conflict orillegal logging (e.g., FLEG, bilateralMOUs, etc.)?

Are the social and environmen-tal impacts of logging andinequitable distribution ofbenefits fueling grievances orcontributing to violence?

• Do the logging companies apply sus-tainable and selective logging practicesand make efforts to sustain local liveli-hood opportunities?

• If land rights are ambiguous, do com-pensation or mitigation measures, oreven shareholder schemes, provideincome to the community? Have theybeen fairly negotiated? Are employmentand/or social schemes planned?

• Do timber processing plants meet envi-ronmental standards? Is complianceenforced? Are human rights respectedwhen these plants are secured?

20 FORESTS & CONFLICT, 2005

The Office of Conflict Management andMitigation works closely with USAID'sForestry Team located within the Bureau ofEconomic Growth, Agriculture and Trade's(EGAT) Office of Natural ResourceManagement (NRM). The Forestry Teamextended team members include staff fromother teams within the Office of NaturalResource Management, Office ofEnvironment Science and Policy, andRegional Bureaus, as well as theDepartment of State and the US ForestService. A recent example of this collabo-

ration is the Liberia Forest InitiativeMission. In April 2004, an interagency teamcomposed of representatives from USDepartment of State, USAID,Treasury andUS Forest Service, along withConservation International and theEnvironmental Law Institute, provided rec-ommendations to the National TransitionalGovernment of Liberia to formulate anaction plan to rehabilitate and reformLiberia's forest sector thereby reducing thepotential for a return to "conflict timber."

RESOURCES

USAID CONTRACTING MECHANISMS FORFORESTS AND CONFLICT PROGRAMMING

Defaced official government sign warnsnon-indigenous intruders to keep out ofthe Waiapi reservation in Brazil.

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The Forestry Team works closely withpartners to implement a long-termstrategy for strengthening the sustainablemanagement of forests, agroforestry andother tree systems while combating illegallogging and conflict timber.The Forestryprogram seeks to provide technical leader-ship within the Agency through targetedassistance and training.The Forestryprogram strategy includes providing infor-mation, technical assistance and otherforms of support to Mission and RegionalBureau forestry and natural resourcesmanagement activities; supporting andinfluencing the research agendas of interna-tional research institutions; and encouragingdemonstration, training and disseminationof sustainable forest management practicesand policies to promote their adoption forthe conservation of forest ecosystems,rehabilitation of degraded lands, and mitiga-tion of conflict through better forest man-agement practices.The strategy recognizesthat local rights to forest benefits and par-ticipation in forest management areessential for improving managementpractice. In addition to the adoption ofimproved practices and policies, improvedand continued monitoring of forest useand health, is necessary for long-termforest conservation.

One of the key partnerships the ForestryTeam relies on to accomplish its mission isan Interagency Agreement with the USForest Service/International programs (seebelow).

USAID/US FORESTSERVICE PARTNERSHIPTO PROMOTESUSTAINABLE FORESTMANAGEMENT ANDCONSERVATION INDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES -INTERAGENCYAGREEMENT (IAA) The Forestry Team manages an InteragencyAgreement (IAA) with the US ForestService/International Programs. Throughthis partnership, the Forestry Teamprovides technical assistance to missionsand bureaus. Missions can also tap intothis interagency agreement to accessForest Service experts in a wide range of

issues related to forests and conflict.Therange of resource personnel includesresource management professionals fromsilviculturists to economists, wildlife biolo-gists, and wildland recreation specialists.Examples of the types of assistanceavailable through the IAA include analyzingpolicy, implementing technical programs,and conducting training in the field, andresearch. In addition, technical assistancecan be provided in: sustainable forest man-agement, integrated forest monitoring,watershed management, habitat andprotected area management. TheEGAT/NRM Forestry Team serves as atechnical liaison to the Missions and USForest Service.To access this IAA, Missionscan contact technical staff of the ForestService/International Programs and /or theEGAT Bureau Forestry Team, to developscopes of work and identify options fortransferring funds.Visitwww.btsbti.net/fsusaidmenu to accessan online guide to the IAA buy-in proce-dures.

Contact: Erik Streedestreed@usaid.gov

GLOBALCONSERVATIONPROGRAMThe Leader with Associates (LWA) coop-erative agreements under the GlobalConservation Program provide the flexibili-ty necessary to facilitate USAID Missionprogram implementation related to forestsand conflicts. Missions and Bureaus candevelop their own stand-alone cooperativeagreement or grant (called an associateaward) with any of the organizationsawarded a leader agreement withoutrepeating the competition process - aslong as the associate cooperativeagreement is consistent with the generalprogram description of the leader award.The program's objective is to conserveglobally significant areas of biodiversitythrough programs that are sustainable,focused and adaptive. Many of theprograms deal with forest conflict issues,using conflict based natural resource man-agement and a range of conflict resolutionand policy tools. Programs use a threats-based approach to biodiversity conserva-tion. Programs build on and strengthenlocal capacity; use local personnel, organiza-tions and facilities to the maximum exten-

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USAID is funding activities to reduceconflict that is fed byforest resources while alsocreating opportunities forsustainable livelihoods.

22 FORESTS & CONFLICT, 2005

possible; and facilitate collaboration withUSAID and other organizations engaged inrelated activities.

Contact: Doreen Robinsondrobinson@usaid.gov

RAISE (RURAL ANDAGRICULTURALINCOMES WITH ASUSTAINABLEENVIRONMENT)(EGAT/NRM ANDEGAT/AG)RAISE offers a full range of policy,economic development, and communityaction needs of USAID's various strategiesrelated to forestry and conflict issues suchas those identified in this toolkit. Thisincludes developing programs related toalleviating inequities in forest tenure,improving land tenure security and institu-tional capacity development for forestmanagement as well as identifying andresolving forest resource related disputes,responding to population displacement andreturn as well as post-conflict issues.Examples of programs may include devel-oping or supporting community decision-making and community-based dispute reso-lution processes related to forest use. Inaddition, this mechanism can assist in devel-oping alternative job and livelihood oppor-tunities. The RAISE consortia can take ontask orders up to four years in durationand can undertake an intermediate resultseffort, a results package or activity, orsimply develop a country or regionalstrategy, or design a new activity.Furthermore, RAISE can design as wellimplement activities without disqualifyingfirms involved in the design, as long as bothstages are done under RAISE. Also, RAISEconsortia may pool expertise to collabo-rate and co-finance state-of-the-artapproaches to address various programoptions illustrated in this toolkit. RAISEPlus, the follow-on mechanism to RAISEwill also be available in 2005. Please visitthe following websites for more informa-tion:http://www.raise.org/

Prime recipients: Associates inRural Development, Inc. (ARD);Development Alternatives, Inc.(DAI); and, Chemonics International,Inc.

Contact: CTO: David Sorokodsoroko@usaid.govor Co-Manager: Chris Kosnik,ckosnik@usaid.gov.

GREENCOM:COMMUNICATION ANDEDUCATION FORSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT(EGAT/NRM)Missions may access this mechanism toundertake rapid initial assessments todevelop context-specific, programmaticinterventions related to forest manage-ment as well as forests and conflict such asthose outlined in the Survey Instrument.For example, Missions may access thismechanism to assist in developing activitiesto target effective communication strate-gies to combat corruption and illegalresource capture related to forests as wellas disseminate information to communitieson their legal rights in accordance withexisting land and natural resource laws. Inaddition, GreenCOM may be used todevelop participatory processes and localcapacity for communities dependent onforests and other natural resources to bemore involved in addressing issues relatedto forests management and conflict resolu-tion. www.greencom.org

Prime recipient: AED

Subcontractor: ChemonicsInternational Inc

Contact: Roberta Hilbrunerrhilbruner@usaid.gov

Women working for the Tanzanian ForestMinistry cultivating pine plants in a treenursery.

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US GOVERNMENT AND DONOR CONTACTSThe following section provides a partial listof U.S. Government agencies and donorcontacts with expertise relevant to liveli-hoods and violent conflict. For informationon NGOs which implement these types ofactivities, please contact conflict@usaid.gov

U.S.Agency for InternationalDevelopment (USAID)1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20523

Sharon MorrisOffice of Conflict Management and MitigationTel: 202-712-4206Fax: 202-216-3231Email: smorris@usaid.gov

Jaidev SinghUSAID/REDSO Email: jasingh@usaid.gov

Mary MelnykAsia and the Near East BureauEmail: mmelnyk@usaid.gov

Scott BodeOffice of Environment and Science Policy,Email: sbode@usaid.gov

Alicia GrimesEurope and Eurasia BureauTel: 202-712-1642Email: agrimes@usaid.gov

CJ ElronOffice of Natural Resources ManagementTel: 202-712-138Email: cjelron@usaid.gov

Kim SaisOffice of Environment and Science PolicyEmail: ksais@usaid.gov

Cynthia Gill Office of Natural Resources ManagementTel: 202-712-4177Email: cgill@usaid.gov

Julie KunenLatin America and the Caribbean BureauEmail: jkunen@usaid.gov

John FlynnCARPE/Kinshasa Email: jflynn@usaid.gov

Jon AndersonOffice of Natural Resources Management Email: janderson@afr-sd.org

U.S. Forest ServiceDr. Alex Moad,Assistant Director for TechnicalCooperation USDA/FS/OIP Franklin Court Bldg.,1099 14th Sreet., NW Suite 5500WWashington, DC 20005-3402Tel: 202-273-0163Fax: 202-273-4750Email: amoad@fs.fed.us

International Programs OfficeMike BengeEmail: mbgenge@fs.fed.usOliver PiersonAfrica Program CoordinatorEmail: opierson@fs.fed.us

U.S. Department of StateJan McAlpine,Bureau of Oceans and InternationalEnvironmental and Scientific AffairsOffice of Ecology and TerrestrialConservation2201 C Street, NWWashington, DC 20520Tel: 202-647-4799Email: mcalpinejl@state.gov

United Kingdom's Department forInternational Development (DFID)Sharon HarveyPolicy DivisionUK Department for InternationalDevelopment1 Palace StreetLondon SWIE 5HE, UKTel: +44 (0) 20 7023 0956Email: s-harvey@dfid.gov.uk

German Development Service (DED)Deutscher Entwicklungsdienst gGmbHTulpenfeld 7,53113 Bonn, Germany Contact: Lothar Rast, Head of UnitTel: +49-228-2434 210Fax: +49-228-2434 209www.ded.deEmail: lothar.rast@ded.de

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REFERENCESABN AMRO, 2001: ABN AMRO Risk Policies:Forestry and tree plantations (approvedOctober 5, 2001). ABN AMRO Bank N.V.Amsterdam,The Netherlands.

Álvarez, María D., 2001: "Could peace beworse than war for Colombia's forests?"The Environmentalist,Vol. 21, pp. 305-315.

Álvarez, María D., 2003: "Forests in the timeof violence: Conservation implications of theColombian war," Journal of SustainableForestry, 16(3/4), pp. 49-70.

Baker, Murl, Robert Clausen, Ramzy Kanaan,Michel N'Goma,Trifin Roule, and JamieThomson, 2003: Conflict timber: Dimensions ofthe problem in Asia and Africa, Volume III:African cases Burlington,VT: (Final reportsubmitted to USAID). ARD, Inc.

Buckles, Daniel, ed., 1999: Cultivating peace:Conflict and collaboration in natural resourcemanagement. DC: InternationalDevelopment Research Center (IDRC)/World Bank.

Capistrano, Doris, 2003: “Keynote address.”Presentation at the Expert Workshop onEnvironmental Conflict and SustainablePeace on August 25, 2003, Bogor, Indonesia.

Castro, A. Peter and Erik Nielsen, 2003:“Natural resource conflict management casestudies: An analysis of power, participationand protected areas.” Rome: Food andAgriculture Organization. Available athttp://www.fao.org

Centre for International Forestry Research(CIFOR), 2003a: “Fact sheets: Forest andconflict.” Downloaded December 1, 2003,from http://www.cifor.cgiar.org

CIFOR, 2003b: Media release: “Indonesiangovernment's new money laundering lawscan help save Indonesia's forests”(September 17, 2003).

Colchester, Marcus, Martua Sirait, and BoehdiWijardjo, 2003: “The application of FSC prin-ciples 2 and 3 in Indonesia: Obstacles andpossibilities.”WALHI (Indonesian Forum forEnvironment) and AMAN (Alliance ofIndigenous Peoples of Indonesia) Available athttp://www.walhi.or.id/

Collier, Paul, Lani Elliott, Havard Hegre, AnkeHoeffler, Marta Reynal-Querol, and NicholasSambanis, 2003: Breaking the conflict trap: Civilwar and development policy. WashingtonD.C.:World Bank.

Forest Watch Indonesia (FWI) and GlobalForest Watch (GFW), 2002: The state of theforest: Indonesia. Bogor/Washington, DC.

Greenpeace International, 2003: State ofconflict: An investigation into the landgrabbers,loggers and lawless frontiers in Pará State,Amazon. Amsterdam: GreenpeaceInternational.

Griffin et al., 1999: Study on the developmentof transboundary natural resource manage-ment areas in Southern Africa: Highlights andfindings. Biodiversity Support Program:World Wildlife Federation,The NatureConservancy,World Resources Institute.

Global Witness, 2002: The logs of war:Thetimber trade and armed conflict (Fafo Report379). Oslo: Fafo Institute for Applied SocialScience.

Global Witness, 2003a: “Forests-Introductionand Campaign Aim”. DownloadedNovember 22, 2003, fromhttp://www.globalwitness.org

Global Witness, 2003b: “A conflict ofinterests:The uncertain future of Burma'sforests” (Global Witness briefing).http://www.globalwitness.org

Halle, Mark, 2002: “Protected areas as aplatform for communication.” Presentation atthe Naturschutz - (Aus-)Löser vonKonflikten Conference on November 26-27,2002, in Berlin.http://www.bfn.de/09/skript898.pdf.

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