Forest Managementfor Missouri Landowners

Missouri Department of Conservation

The Missouri Department of Conservation uses federal financial assistance in Sport Fish and/or WildlifeRestoration. Because the state uses these federal funds, it must comply with federal anti-discrimination law.Under Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the federalgovernment prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, disability, age or sex. If youbelieve that you have been discriminated against in any program, activity or facility as described above, or ifyou desire further information please write to the addresses below:

The Office for Human Resources Missouri Department of ConservationU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service P.O. Box 180Department of the Interior Jefferson City, MO 65102-0180Washington, DC 20240

Published by the Missouri Department of Conservation

Web address: www.conservation.state.mo.us

Copyright © 2000 by the Conservation Commission of the State of Missouri; Revised 2003

Forest Managementfor Missouri Landowners

Written by Bruce PalmerEdited by Joan McKee

Illustrations by Dave Besenger, Steve Gum, Rich Guyette,Diana Jayne, Alec Ramlow, Mark Raithel and Charles Schwartz

ii

Acknowledgments

Many good references are available to help private landowners manage their forest land. Someof these include other Conservation Department publications, Extension Guides and U.S.Forest Service research notes. This book is a combination of original work and excerpts fromsome of these sources. Being a firm believer in not reinventing the wheel, I would like toacknowledge the following authors, whom I have freely drawn upon for sections of this book.

“Woodland Stewardship” by Melvin Baughman, Alvin Alm, A. Scott Reed, Thomas Eiber and Charles Blinn, Minnesota Extension Service

“Tax Considerations” section by Gregory R. Passewitz, School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University

“Timber Management for Small Woodlands” by Gary Goff, James Lassoie and Katherine Layer, Cornell Cooperative Extension Service

“Central Hardwoods Notes,” F. Bryan Clark, editor, U.S. Forest Service

“Wildlife Management for Missouri Landowners” by David E. Pitts and William D. McGuire, Missouri Department of Conservation

“Missouri Watershed Protection Practices” by Lynn Barnickol, Missouri Department of Conservation

“Marketing Timber” by Mark Nelson, Missouri Department of Conservation

“Special Forest Products” by Shelby Jones, Missouri Department of Conservation

“Woodland Ecology” by Leon Minckler, U.S. Forest Service

Miscellaneous University of Missouri Guidesheets by Julie Rhoads and John Slusher, School of Natural Resources; Carol Trokey, U.S. Forest Service; and Fred Bergman, Missouri Department of Conservation

American bladdernut

Introduction

iii

Missouri is one of America’s greatforested states, ranking seventh ofthe 20 northeastern states in theamount of forest land. Forestscover about a third of the stateand contain some of the finestoak, walnut, pine and redcedarfound anywhere.

Forests are Missouri’s greatestnatural resource, providing manyeconomic, environmental andsocial benefits. They protecthillsides from erosion, keepingstreams and rivers clean. Theyfilter the air, soften the extremesof the weather and add beauty tocities and towns. Much ofMissouri’s recreation and tourismindustry is centered in theforested regions of the state.Forests also are a diverseresource of plants, animals, birdsand other life forms.

Forest products are importantto Missouri. Harvesting andprocessing trees into woodproducts gives thousands ofpeople jobs and contributes about$3 billion each year to Missouri’seconomy.

Because 85 percent ofMissouri’s forest land is owned byprivate landowners, you mightthink that most of the social,environmental and economicbenefits of forests would comefrom private woodlands.Unfortunately that is not the

case. Very few forest owners ask aforester to look over theirwoodlands. Even fewer have awritten forest plan to help guidetheir land management activities.Foresters also can help land-owners get better prices for theirtimber, but only about 10 percentof the timber sales in the stateare conducted with theirassistance.

This book is a first step towardgetting more from yourwoodlands—whether you areinterested in wildlife, woodproducts, recreation or scenery. Itwill give you guidelines forassessing the present condition of

your forest and ideas for creatingand maintaining a healthy forestthat meets your objectives. Still,there is no substitute for aprofessional opinion. Forestersfrom the Missouri Department ofConservation are available free ofcharge to help answer your forestmanagement questions. Privateconsulting foresters offer thesame services on a fee basis.

According to an old proverb,“The best time to plant a tree is20 years ago. The next best timeis today.” The same applies tomanaging a forest. The sooneryou get started, the sooner you’llstart reaping the benefits.

Black walnut

Table of Contents

iv

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii

What is Forest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Preparing a Forest Management Plan . . . . . . . . . . .2

Taking Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Forest Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Silvicultural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Regenerating Woodland Stands . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Forest Improvement Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Managing Important Forest Types . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Forest Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Wildlife Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Aesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Marketing Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Best Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

Special Forest Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Tax Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Where to Find Technical Assistance . . . . . . . . . .69

Appendices

1: Forestry Measurements and Conversions . . .71

2: Tree Volume Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

3: Log Volume Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

4: Sample Solicitation of Bid for Timber . . . . .78

5: Sample Timber Sale Contract . . . . . . . . . . .79

6: Pacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

7: Using a Scale Stick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83

8: Conducting a Fixed Area Plot Cruise . . . . . .85

9: Cruise Tally Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

10: Site Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

11: Basal Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94

12: Stand Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

13: Conducting a Log Tally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

14: Sources of Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

Pecan

1

What isForest Management?

Recreation

Wildlife

Water quality

Specialproducts

Fuel

Employment

Aesthetics

Paperproducts

Windbreaks

Lumber

Black oak

Forest management is providinga forest the proper care so itremains healthy and provides theproducts and benefits thelandowner desires. It is differentthan timber management, wherethe focus is primarily onproducing wood fiber.

Forest management considersall parts of the forest community:soil, water, plants, animals andbirds, as well as the trees. Theaim of forest management is ahealthy, sustainable forest thataccommodates any number ofuses by the landowner.

2

Wild plum

Preparing a ForestManagement Plan

What will you do with yourwoodland? As someone who ownsforest land, you have a decisionto make. You can do nothing. Youcan occasionally do things thatgenerate income or improve theproperty’s appearance. Or youcan actively manage your land forpersonal benefits, whileprotecting the quality of itsnatural resources—soil, water,wildlife, trees and other plants—for future generations.

Forests are a renewableresource, but they require manyyears to mature. Decisions youmake now about timberharvesting, tree planting or pestcontrol can influence thecharacter of your woodland forthe next century. In managing awoodland, you need to plan forthe long term because whateveryou do—or don’t do—will impactthe future.

A forest management plan willhelp you determine your personalobjectives, manage efficiently,avoid costly errors, makeknowledgeable decisions andevaluate your progress. Thischapter describes how you cancreate a plan for your woodland.You may need to work with aforester to complete certain steps.

Step 1: Decidewhat you want

The first step is to develop a listof objectives. What do you wantfrom your woodland? How much

do you want? When do you wantit? Your management choices willbe clearer if your objectives arespecific. For example, to improvethe land for wildlife may be toovague of an objective to guide youtoward sound decisions. On theother hand, an objective toincrease the number of turkeyson the property may lead to somevery specific managementpractices.

When you have multipleobjectives, be sure to setpriorities. Some objectives will becompatible given your resourcebase, but others may not. Manytimes only one objective can bemaximized. You may not be ableto develop realistic objectivesuntil you conduct an inventory,which will help you learn moreabout the capability of yourwoodland. See below for details.

Step 2: Find outwhat you have

The next step is to inventoryyour forest to determine whatresources you have. Since a forestis dominated by trees, aninventory usually assesses thetree species composition, standdensity, age, tree diameters,heights, quality and growth rates.Other resources also can beinventoried depending on yourobjectives. Working with aforester or biologist, you canexpand your inventory to assesswildlife and fish habitat or other

renewable natural resources. Forexample, the inventory canidentify important sites forwildlife breeding, nesting, food,water and cover.

Although your woodland is justone part of a broader landscape,cumulative effects of managementdecisions by you and otherlandowners can greatly alter thelandscape over time. Thus, as apart of the inventory process, youshould identify land uses onproperty that adjoins yours andfind out what plans yourneighbors have for managingtheir land. This will better enableyou to evaluate the impact yourforest management activities mayhave on the landscape.Coordination among neighborscan produce a landscape thatmeets individual landownerobjectives without adverselyaffecting the environment.

Your inventory results can beuseful in a variety of ways. Aforester can use them, along withyour objectives list, to advise youabout alternative managementpractices and their consequences.An inventory also may help youreport and minimize your federalincome taxes if it is conductedwhen you first acquire theproperty.

Before you begin an inventory,accurately locate and clearlymark property boundaries with afence, paint marks on trees, signs,posts or other means. Ifboundaries are not clearly

3

identifiable, you may need tohave your land surveyed.

Next, draw one or more maps ofthe property, approximately toscale, showing the following:

• Property boundaries

• Forest boundaries

• Other land uses such as cropfields and pastures

• Roads and trails

• Utility lines, pipelines or otherrights of way

• Buildings

• Ponds and streams

• Unusual natural, historical orarcheological resources.

Aerial photographs areespecially helpful as a foundationfor the map. They usually areavailable from the local office ofthe USDA Farm Service Agency.

If the property is large andhilly, topographic maps may helpyou assess slope and aspect asthey relate to road location andtree growth. Topographic mapsare sold by the U.S. GeologicalSurvey, 1400 Independence Road,Rolla, Mo. 65401, and theDivision of Geology and LandSurvey, P.O. Box 250, Rolla, Mo.65402. They also can be found insome sporting goods and outdoorstores.

Soil information can help youdetermine the suitability of yourland for different tree species,road or building sites or otherland uses. Soil type maps andinterpretive information may be

available from the local USDANatural Resource ConservationService office.

Gather facts concerningprevious land use or managementactivities that could haveinfluenced the development ofyour woodland. Such activitiesmight include livestock grazing,

agricultural cropping, timberharvesting, tree planting, firesand pest outbreaks.

Foresters use information aboutthese events and their timing toanalyze the development ofexisting woodlands and to predictthe results of future managementpractices.

Stand boundaries usually correspond to natural or constructedfeatures, such as streams, ridges, roads or fields.

4

During the inventory, prepare amap that separates the forest landinto individual stands. Each standwill be an area of about 2 to 40acres that is relatively uniform intree species composition, treesize distribution, number of treesper acre (also called stocking)and site quality. Each stand is amanagement unit, and culturalpractices are carried out more orless uniformly within a stand.

Step 3: Identify potentialmanagement practices

After you identify your objectivesand have an inventory, considerall reasonable managementpractices that would help meetyour objectives. They mightinclude:

• Planting trees

• Improving the timber stand bythinning, crop tree release andpruning

• Harvesting timber

• Fencing

• Improving wildlife habitat

• Installing erosion controlstructures on roads

• Constructing access roads

• Developing trails

• Developing recreationalfacilities

• Establishing fire protection orprescribed burn fire breaks

• Controlling pests

• Controlling weeds and brush

Seek professional advice on

which practices are appropriatefor your woodlot.

Step 4: Assess laborand financial resources

Once you have developed a list ofpotential management practices,evaluate the labor and financialresources available to carry themout. Assess your ability andinterest in various forestrypractices. Consider how muchtime you are willing to devote towoodland management, whenthat time is available and howlong you plan to own the land.What is the availability, cost andquality of contract labor?

Evaluate your financialsituation, such as availablecapital, cash flow requirements,planning period, rate of returnyou would like to earn oninvested funds and need forincome or products for thewoodland.

Finally, assess the availability ofneeded equipment, facilities andmaterials. All of these factors willinfluence what you can do inyour woodlot.

Step 5: Developan activity schedule

Next, prepare an activityschedule that lists managementpractices and when you expect toperform them. This scheduleshould cover at least five to 10years. If your woodland is large—

perhaps several hundred acres—activities may occur every year. Ifit is smaller, managementactivities may occur less often,perhaps only once every 10years. Regardless of its size,inspect your forest at least once ayear, more if possible. Walkthrough it and look forunauthorized harvest, damagedfences, soil erosion and damageby pests, fire or wind.

Step 6: Keepaccurate records

It will be difficult to update yourplans and make sound decisionsabout the future unless you keepaccurate records of what youhave done. Records also will beimportant when filing income taxreturns and perhaps settling anestate. Management records mayinclude:

• Management plan

• Timber inventory

• Management activitiesaccomplished. List what, whenand where.

• Sources of forestry assistancewith names, addresses andtelephone numbers

• Association memberships

• Suppliers of materials andequipment

• Contracts

• Insurance policies

• Forestry income and expenses

• Deeds and easements.

Taking Inventory

5

Just as store owners mustperiodically inventory theirmerchandise, so must forestowners take stock of their trees.This procedure should be donebefore any management activitiesare begun. A typical forestinventory includes informationon the acreage of forest land; thenumber, size, quality and speciesof the trees; and the stand’sgeneral vigor and health. Oncethe inventory is completed, it ispossible to evaluate thewoodland’s current state andpotential, and to begin thinkingabout management options.

The decision to do theinventory yourself or to use theservices of a professional forestershould be based on your abilityand how the information will beused. An inventory that will bethe basis for a timber sale shouldbe as accurate as possible andmay require the services of aforester to ensure a fair sale. Onthe other hand, you may be ableto conduct the inventory yourselfif all you need to determine iswhether the stand is over-crowded.

Because woodlands often areviewed as a source of timber, aninventory usually focuses onassessing trees as potential woodproducts. Information obtainedfrom the inventory, however,provides a snapshot that isequally valuable for assessingwildlife habitat, planning accessroads or trails for recreation, and

understanding the quality of yoursoil and water resources.

Organizing yourwoodland into standsThe first step of a forestinventory is to mark yourproperty boundaries and obtainmaps and aerial photographs asdescribed in the previous chapter.Once you have markedboundaries and have accuratemaps and photographs, it ispossible to organize the forestinto distinct management units,called stands.

Each stand requires specificpractices based on the sitecharacteristics, the tree speciespresent and the age of the trees.Usually stand boundaries willcorrespond to natural orconstructed features such asstreams, slope and aspectchanges, ridges, roads or fields.

There are three reasons forcreating stands:

• Some stands require specificmanagement activities. Eachstand is managed to meet therequirements of both the siteand the owner’s objectives. Forexample, a stand of pole-sizedhardwoods would be manageddifferently than a stand ofnearly mature pines.

• Some stands may have greatertimber-producing potential.Labor and capital should beconcentrated on the stands that

will yield the greatest amount ofhigh-quality timber and,therefore, the highest financialreturn.

• Dividing the woodland intostands makes it easier to keepfinancial and work-progressrecords. It also allows theowner to set up a reasonableschedule for work in each standand to set realistic goals.

Stands will vary in size from assmall as 2 acres to as large as 40,depending on site and treecharacteristics. Because pastmanagement may haveinfluenced the condition of thetrees presently on the site,dividing stands along topographicfeatures is usually recommended.Trees found on the same soil,slope and aspect should growsimilarly, and thus react tomanagement practices about thesame.

Once the stand boundarieshave been established, the nextstep is to determine the treespecies present, the number oftrees per acre, the quality of thetrees and the volume of usablewood. This type of survey iscalled a cruise.

Using this information, theowner can decide whichmanagement activity is best foreach stand. For example, a standcontaining young, denselystocked trees should be thinned,whereas a stand with many large,mature trees may need aregeneration cut.

Red maple

6

Units of woodThe method and terms used todescribe the amount of wood in aforest vary, depending on how thewood will be used. Wood used forlumber or veneer is measured inboard feet. A board foot is a unitof wood 1 foot by 1 foot by 1inch. The volume of a tree or logis the number of board feet oflumber that the log wouldproduce when sawed. SeeAppendix 1 for more details.

Trees used for firewood aremeasured in standard cords. Astandard cord is a stack of wood 4feet high, 4 feet wide and 8 feetlong. Because logs are irregularlyshaped, the solid wood content ofa cord averages about 85 cubicfeet.

Pulpwood is measured byweight and cord volume. Theweight of a standard cord variesgreatly, depending on tree species

and the moisture content of thewood. A cord of green oak weighsabout 5,500 pounds, but only3,800 pounds when air dry.

Measuring treesBy measuring a tree’s diameterand height, it is possible toestimate the volume or amount ofwood in the tree. A tool, called atree scale stick, was developedspecifically for this purpose. Scalesticks are available at no costfrom a Conservation Departmentforester or can be purchased froma forestry equipment dealer. Thesticks have scales that measurethe diameter and number of logsin the tree and estimate thevolume of logs.

Tree diameter is measured onthe main stem 4 1/2 feet abovethe ground. This is referred to asdiameter at breast height, orDBH. Merchantable tree height isthe height of the stem from thetop of the stump to the upperlimit of utilization for that tree.

The upper limit of utilization iswhere the main stem reaches aminimum usable top diameter, amain fork, a serious defect suchas a hole or decay, or whereexcess limbs occur. The usualminimum top diameter forsawlogs is 8 inches and 4 inchesfor pulpwood. Estimating thenumber of sawlogs takes practice.In addition, a sawlog tree mustmeet the following specifications:

• Be a desirable species

A board foot is the volume of woodin a board 1 inch thick by 1 footwide by 1 foot long.

12” 12”

1”

8 feet 4 feet

4 feet

A standard cord is a stack of wood 4 feet high, 4 feet wideand 8 feet long.

7

• Have a minimum top diameterof 6 to 12 inches at the smallend of the log

• Be at least 8 to 10 feet long

• Be generally free of largebranches

• Be straight and free from crooksand sweep.

• Be generally free of majordefects, such as rot, knots,seams and foreign objects, suchas nails and wire.

It takes an experienced eye todetect damage from partiallyhealed defects. Trees with minordefects are tallied during thecruise, and the total volume ofthe stand reduced proportionallyto account for wood that is notmerchantable due to defects.Trees that are not merchantablefor sawlogs can sometimes beused for pulpwood or firewood.See Appendix 7 for detailedinstructions on how to use a scalestick.

It is generally not practical tomeasure every tree in the stand.Instead, accurate measurementsare made on a number of sampleplots, and this information isexpanded for the entire stand.Sampling is much more timeefficient than doing a completetally, and the results are often asaccurate.

Plot sampling involves tallyingevery tree within sample plots ineach stand. Generally 10 to 40percent of the area of a stand issampled. How much to sample

may depend upon how accuratethe tally needs to be. A cruisethat will become the basis for atimber sale should be moreaccurate than one used toestimate young growing stock.

Appendix 8 describes how toconduct a fixed area plot cruise,how many plots to measure andwhat equipment you’ll need.Appendix 9 shows how to set up atally sheet to record the infor-mation you collect from thecruise and calculate the volumein the stand.

Using the inventoryInformation collected during theinventory reveals the followingthree important features about awoodland:

• How well trees are growing on aparticular site. This is done bymeasuring the site index of astand.

• An accurate estimate of thevolume of wood and thestocking density in each stand,which is tabulated on the tallysheet.

• Which tree species are mostcommon in each stand, whichis found on the tally sheet.

The above information can helpthe owner calculate the currentand potential value of thewoodland to determine whentrees should be cut.

The site index, stocking densityand potential value form the basis

for determining whichmanagement activities are mostappropriate.

Site indexJust as some farmland is betterthan others for growing crops,forest land varies in its ability togrow certain tree species. A tree’srate of growth at a specificlocation is its site index, and thatfigure is affected by the followingvariables:

• Tree species

• The soil’s fertility, depth,texture and moisture-holdingcapacity

• Availability of water,determined by rainfall, soildrainage and aspect

• Forest pests present

• Shading by overstory

• Air characteristics, such aspollution, temperature,humidity and wind exposure.

It is difficult to analyze theeffects of any one variable on treegrowth. Instead, foresters use asimple system, called site index,to estimate the overall effects ofthese variables. The site index isbased on the height to whicheach species grows in a fixednumber of years. In Missouri, 50years is used as the index age.Appendix 10 gives detailedinstructions on how to measurethe site index.

Site index provides anassessment of an area’s ability to

Persimmon

8

grow trees and, thus, its timber-producing potential. An area witha low site index has less timber-producing potential and,therefore, does not warrant asmuch money, time and effortinvested as an area with a higherindex.

Site index charts or curves haveseveral limitations and should beused with caution because:

• Small errors in age and heightmeasurements can lead torelatively large errors in siteindex.

• Site index curves apply only tostands in which the trees areabout the same age.

• Previous unknown cuttingpractices, insect attacks anddiseases may have had asignificant effect on the stand’sgrowth.

Stocking densityInformation from the tally sheetcan be used to determine thestocking density of a stand.However, it is not possible todetermine whether a stand isoverstocked (containing too manytrees for optimal growth) orunderstocked (containing toofew) simply by counting thenumber of trees in each acre. Justas the number of plants that cangrow and prosper in a flowerpot isaffected by the size of the plants,the number of trees that can growwell in a forest depends upon thenumber and size of the trees.

Two following two factors must,therefore, be taken into accountto determine whether a stand isadequately stocked:

• The average DBH

• The number of trees per acre.

See Appendix 12 for moredetails on finding a stand’sstocking density.

The stocking guide also givesthe stand’s basal area, which isthe cross-sectional area of alltrees in the stand. This indicatorof the degree of competition in astand can be used to determinethe number of trees to beremoved to maintain optimalgrowth rates. Appendix 11 givesinstructions on how to measure astand’s basal area.

Tree valueThe timber value of individualtrees varies greatly dependingupon a number of factors. Treesthat exhibit desirablecharacteristics or have goodpotential for developing desirablecharacteristics should be chosenas crop trees and favored inmanagement decisions. Timbervalue is determined by:

• Tree species. The wood ofdifferent species varies greatlyin strength, density,appearance, flexibility anddurability. Such characteristicsdetermine the suitability ofspecific woods for various usesand their potential value.

• Defects and form. Knots, rotand shake weaken thestructural strength of veneerand lumber. Sweep and taperlimit the amount of lumber thatcan be sawed from a log.

• Size. It is more efficient to workwith large trees. Also, logs mustbe a minimum diameter to beused for sawtimber or veneer.Veneer logs have a largerminimum diameter thansawlogs, but veneer logs areoften several times morevaluable than comparably sizedsawlogs.

• Harvest and markets. A tree’svalue is influenced by all of thefollowing: the volume of themerchantable timber per acre,the distance the logs must beskidded and hauled to a mill,the topography of the sale area,the season of the year, theefficiency and skill of theloggers, and local log supply anddemand.

When to harvestAs soon as a tree has enoughwood fiber to meet the costs oflogging, hauling and processing, ithas a positive dollar value to thelandowner and is merchantable.It is usually financially unwise toharvest trees as soon as theyreach merchantable size,however, because they are not yetat their optimum value. Considerthe following:

• At 12 to 14 inches DBH,

9

hardwoods have a low value,but the rate at which they areincreasing in value is high,especially for fast-growing treesthat have proper growing space.

• As a hardwood tree increases indiameter from 14 to 20 inches,it may double in merchantableheight, increase more thanthree times in volume (from 79to 295 board feet) and increasemore than 13 times in dollarvalue (from $13 to $168). If amarket exists for veneer, its

value may be substantiallymore.

• At 14 to 20 inches DBH,hardwoods may nearly doublein value for each 2 inches ofdiameter growth as log gradeimproves with size and asgrowth in height continues. At agrowth rate of 2 inches indiameter every 10 years (10growth rings per inch), a treewill nearly double in value in 10years (a compound growth rateof 7 percent, not including

inflation).

• At 20 to 24 inches DBH,hardwoods increase sub-stantially in dollar value, butbecause the grade has peaked,the rate at which their value isincreasing may slow to acompound growth rate of 3percent or less. The increase invalue is mostly due to theincrease in volume.

High-quality 14- to 20-inchtrees are merchantable, but not“financially” mature. They are

Yellow-poplar

Uses of several common Missouri tree species

Tree Species Common Uses

Shortleaf pine construction lumber, boxes, millwork, pallets, ties, posts, poles

Eastern redcedar closet linings, paneling, novelties, posts, animal bedding

Baldcypress trim and molding, shingles, siding, posts, poles

Black walnut furniture, veneer, gunstocks, paneling

Red oak furniture, veneer, flooring, trim and molding, construction lumber, ties, pallets,pulpwood, charcoal

White oak furniture, veneer, flooring, cooperage, trim and molding, construction lumber,ties, pallets, pulpwood, charcoal

Hickory tool handles, athletic equipment, furniture, paneling, pulpwood, charcoal

Ash baseball bats, athletic equipment, furniture, veneer, trim, tool handles

Cottonwood boxes and crates, rough lumber, pulpwood, berry boxes

Sweetgum veneer, furniture, lumber, paneling, boxes, ties, pallets

Sycamore boxes and crates, furniture, pallets, ties

Yellow-poplar furniture, trim and molding, boxes and crates

the true money makers in thewoodland and should not beharvested during this primegrowth period unless they arecrowded.

The timber value of individualtrees—regardless of species,logging costs and currentmarkets—is largely a function ofthe volume of wood they containand its quality. Log grade isdetermined by log diameter,length, form and defects.

In general, as a tree increasesin size, its logs increase in grade.As grade and size increase, sodoes value. Diseased and low-vigor trees, on the other hand,may lose value and grade fasterthan they grow in volume.Therefore, harvests should occurwhen the rate of tree growth andvalue have peaked.

10

*See Appendix 10 on page 91 for information on how to determinethe site index.

Recommended rotation lengthsand diameter for oak sawtimber

Site Rotation length Rotation diameter index* in years in inches

75+ 60-75 24-28

55-74 75-90 20-24

40-54 90-120 16-18

Forest Ecology

11

Ecology is the study of theinterrelationships betweenorganisms and their environment.How trees grow and why theygrow where they do areinfluenced by many factors, bothliving and non-living. Some of thebiotic, or living factors, includeother plants, animals and micro-organisms. Abiotic factors includeclimate, topography and soil. Allof these factors are intercon-nected, and it is impossible toalter one factor without affectingthe others. Forest ecologicalfactors can be groupedinto five broadcategories:

• Physical environment

• Tree speciescharacteristics

• Interrelations among trees andother plants

• Interrelations with animals

• Succession.

Physical EnvironmentThe forest physical environmentincludes climate, topography andsoil. Directly affecting trees aresunlight, temperature,precipitation, soil characteristicsand nutrients.

Through time, species havebecome adapted to thecombinations of physical factorswhere they now naturally occur.The climate, which is the overallpattern of seasonal temperatureand precipitation, determines the

general forest type and speciespresent.

Site characteristics that affecttree growth include soil depth,texture, moisture, fertility andtopography. Generally, deep soilsare better for tree growth thanshallow soils because theypotentially have a greaternutrient supply and water-holdingcapacity. Tree roots absorbnutrients and moisture in the top2 feet of the soil. Tree growth willbe affected where bedrock, coarsegravel, a hardpan layer orexcessive moisture restrictrooting depth.

Soil texture refers to the size ofthe soil particles. Particles areclassified by size as sand, silt orclay. Sand particles are relativelylarge, silt is moderate and clay isvery small.

Different soils have differentproportions of each particle size.For example:

• Soils with a high proportion ofsand have large pore spacesbetween the particles. Theytend to be dry because theyabsorb, as well as drain, waterquickly.

• Clay soils have a high water-

A well-managed forest can provide habitat for wildlife, as well as anincome from wood.

Shortleaf pine

12

holding capacity, but theyabsorb water slowly. Also wateradheres so tightly to the clayparticles that much of it isunavailable to the plant.

• Soils with a high proportion ofsilt are most favorable for waterabsorption and holdingcapacity.

Soil fertility is based largely onthe type of parent material fromwhich the soil originated. Some of

the most fertile soils originatedfrom limestone, shale andwindblown deposits. Some of theleast fertile soils originated fromsandstone and granite. Generally,clay and silt soils have a greaternutrient supply than sandy soils.

Topography affects tree growthbecause of its influence on soildepth and available moisture.Because gravity pulls soilparticles and water downhill, soil

depth, nutrient supply andavailable moisture are usuallygreater on bottomlands and lowerslopes than steep slopes and ridgetops.

Aspect, which is the direction aslope faces, also influences theamount of sunlight and,consequently, soil moistureavailable to trees. North- andeast-facing slopes tend to becooler and moister than slopes

A tree’s dominance refers to the position of its crown relative to other trees. Dominant trees have the largestcrowns and are taller than most other trees in the stand. Co-dominant trees make up the general canopylevel. Intermediate trees are slightly lower than the general canopy and have relatively small crowns.Suppressed trees are below the canopy and receive little sunlight.

Dominant

Co-dominant

Intermediate

Intermediate

Suppressed

13

that face south and west. This isbecause the sun is slightly to thesouth in the northern hemisphereand shines more directly onsouth slopes. This results in ahotter, drier site.

West-facing slopes are drierthan those that face east becausethe sun shines on west slopesduring the hottest time of theday, increasing water use by treesand evaporation from the soil.These effects become exaggeratedas the steepness of the slopeincreases. See chart below.

Tree speciescharacteristicsImportant tree speciescharacteristics are seeding andgermination habitats, growthrate, tolerance to shade, reaction

to soil physical conditions, spacerequirements and response torelease from competition. Theyalso include length of life and sizeat maturity, resistance todamaging agents, interrelationswith wildlife and the inherentvariability of individuals within atree species.

Shade tolerance, for example, isthe ability of a tree species togrow in the shade of other trees.Species differ with respect totheir tolerance for shade andcompetition. Knowledge of aspecies’ tolerance is essential tothe forest manager because treesmust grow together in competi-tion for sunlight and nutrients.Trees are classified on a scalefrom very tolerant to veryintolerant. Those that are verytolerant will reproduce and growbeneath a dense canopy.

Intolerant species will surviveonly if their seeds sprout inopenings with full sunlight.

Each species has its ownecological niche in a given siteand under the light conditionsthat are available. For example,in the Ozarks shortleaf pineoutgrows most other species ondry, rocky south- and west-facingslopes when it receives fullsunlight. But on deep, well-drained soils on north slopes, itcan’t compete with white or redoak. See chart on page 15.

Interrelations amongtrees and other plantsThe interrelationship amongtrees is mainly concerned withcompetition for space, wherethey have adequate sunlight,

Effect of Site Characteristics on Tree Growth

More favorable for tree growth Less favorable for tree growth

Position Broad ridges Narrow ridges

Lower slopes Upper slopes

Slope Gentle slopes Steep slopes

Aspect North- and east-facing slopes South- and west-facing slopes

Soils Deep soil Shallow soil

Fine textured Coarse textured

Good drainage Poor or excessive drainage

Mockernut hickory

14

moisture and nutrients to grow.This factor is closely connectedto species requirements andtolerance, which are discussed inthe previous section.

All these interacting forcesdetermine the density, speciescomposition, size and agearrangement of trees in theforest. As a landowner, you mayspend a considerable amount oftime and money trying to modifythese characteristics to maintaina healthy, vigorous forest.

Interrelationswith animalsThe interrelationships betweenforests and animals may not beso obvious, but they are real and,in some cases, critical. It is wellknown, for example, thatsquirrels and birds disseminatetree seed. A forest can be alteredor damaged by overuse byanimals, such as livestock. Undermost conditions, the forest as ahabitat is reasonably balancedwith animal populations. Butwhen the balance is upset, likewith a deer population explosion,it has consequences on theforest. The habitat-animalbalance should be maintained,and both the animal populationand the habitat should bemanaged.

The forest, above and belowground, is an integrated commu-nity. Micro-organisms and fungiare a natural part of forest soils.

They contribute to fertility andbreak down organic matter intosoil material. Any drastic forestdisturbance usually changes thesoil micro-plant and animal lifetemporarily.

SuccessionSuccession is the gradualreplacement of one community ofplants by another. Naturalsuccession of vegetation is whathappens over many years in anabandoned crop field, after a hotwildfire or other disturbance. Theprogression of vegetation isdetermined by the climate, theremaining soil and any residualplants.

After a disturbance, forestsprogress over many yearsthrough pioneer species, such as

blackberry, sassafras andpersimmon, to species, such asoak and hickory. This successiontakes place because the pioneerspecies are much better adaptedto the bare soil. Their presencechanges the site conditions so themore permanent species canthrive and occupy the area.

It is difficult to maintainpioneer species for long periodsof time, although in some foresttypes the pioneer species aremore valuable than thesucceeding species. In thesecases, forest managementpractices imitate disturbances toslow succession and maintain thedesired species. For thesepractices to be effective, youmust have a good knowledge ofeach species’ ecologicalrequirements.

15

River birch

Characteristics of Important Missouri TreesSpecies Growth rate * Soil moisture Shade tolerance Flood tolerance

Ash, green Fast Wide range Intermediate Tolerant

Ash, white Medium Average Intermediate Intermediate

Baldcypress Medium Moist to wet Intermediate Tolerant

Basswood,American Medium Moist Tolerant Intolerant

Beech,American Slow Moist Very tolerant Intolerant

Birch, river Medium to fast Moist Intolerant Tolerant

Blackgum Slow Wide range Intolerant Intermediate

Buckeye Slow Moist to average Tolerant Intermediate

Cottonwood, eastern Fast Wet to moist Very intolerant Tolerant

Dogwood, flowering Slow Moist to average Very tolerant Intolerant

Hackberry Medium to fast Wide range Intermediate Intermediate

Hickory Slow Average Intolerant Intolerant

Maple, silver Fast Wide range Tolerant Tolerant

Maple, sugar Slow Moist to average Very tolerant Intolerant

Oak, red Medium Average Intermediate Intolerant

Oak, white Slow Average Intermediate Intolerant

Pecan Slow Moist Intolerant Intermediate

Pine, shortleaf Fast Dry Intolerant Intolerant

Redcedar, eastern Medium Average Intolerant Intolerant

Sassafras Medium Wide range Intolerant Intolerant

Sweetgum Medium Moist Intolerant Tolerant

Sycamore Fast Moist Intolerant Intermediate

Walnut Medium Moist to average Intolerant Intermediate

Willow Fast Wet to moist Very intolerant Tolerant

Yellow-poplar Fast Moist Intolerant Intolerant

* Growth Rate: Slow = less than 12 inches of growth annuallyMedium = 12-24 inches of growth annuallyFast = more than 24 inches of growth annually

16

Silvicultural Systems

Simply stated, silviculture is theproducing, growing and tending ofa forest. (Silva is Latin forforest.) Silviculture takes whatforesters know about how treesgrow and interact with theirenvironment—forest ecology—and applies that to produce aforest that best meets theobjectives of the landowner. It isconcerned with the technicaldetails of growing a forest.

The main, but not the only,treatments making up theseforest-regenerating systemsinvolve the cutting of trees.Cuttings can be divided into twotypes:

• Regeneration cuttings to helpreproduce a forest

• Intermediate cuttings inimmature stands to maintainvigor, growth rates and speciescomposition.

Regeneration cuttings havesuch a great influence on thecharacter of the new stand thatsilvicultural systems are namedafter them. The major systemsare clearcutting, seed-tree,shelterwood, single-tree selectionand group selection. Each systemcontrols the amount of sunlightthat reaches the forest floor, andtherefore influences the type offorest that develops.

The system you use depends onthe following:

• Your objectives, such as timber,wildlife or aesthetics

• Maintaining the species in the

present stand

• Ecological requirements of thedesired species

• Whether you want to create aneven- or uneven-aged stand

• Economics

• Site conditions.

Clearcutting, seed-tree andshelterwood result in even-agedforests, single-tree and groupselection in uneven-aged forests.

Clearcutting systemClearcutting removes all trees inthe stand in one operation. Thenew stand develops from advanceregeneration, new seedlings andstump sprouts. Clearcutting isoften confused with practices thatconvert land to some other use.Land conversion results in apasture, housing development ormall. Clearcutting, however,results in a new forest.

Clearcutting removes all the trees in the stand and is used when aneven-aged forest is the objective. See overhead view, above right.

White ash

17

Clearcuts should be at least 2acres in size to minimize edge-shading from adjacent stands.Harvest all merchantable trees.All trees greater than 2 inchesDBH should then be felled ordeadened except those trees leftas wildlife dens and snags andtrees along riparian buffers.

Clearcutting is the mostunsightly of the silviculturalsystems. Arrange and shapeclearcuts so they mingle withuncut stands and blend into thelandscape as much as possible.For more tips, see the chapter onaesthetics on page 50.

Clearcutting may be appro-priate in the following situations:

• To regenerate species that needfull sunlight for seed germin-ation and seedling development

• To regenerate shallow-rootedspecies or trees growing inexposed locations where treesleft standing after a partial cutmight be uprooted or damagedby wind

• To produce even-aged stands

• When the entire stand is over-mature and needs to beregenerated

• To salvage trees that have beenkilled by fire, insects, disease orwind

• When you want to convert thestand to a different species

• To provide habitat for wildlifethat requires high-density,even-aged stands.

Seed-tree system

The seed-tree system leaves trees

scattered throughout the area to

provide seed for the next stand.

Once the new seedlings are

established, the seed trees may

be harvested or left to grow until

the next regeneration cut. The

seed-tree method will only work

with light-seeded species. In

Missouri, it has been used to

regenerate shortleaf pine.

Seed trees should be healthy,large crowned and wind firm.Trees are usually left singly, butmay be left in small groups forwind protection. Look for goodseed producers by the presence ofold cones in the crowns. Leaveabout 10-15 well-distributed seedtrees per acre. To regeneratepine, you will need to killunwanted hardwoods in theunderstory and prepare a seedbedby prescribed burning or byscarifying the soil.

The seed-tree system leaves trees scattered throughout the area toprovide seeds for the next stand. See overhead view, above right.

18

Some disadvantages of the seed-tree method are listed below:

• Seed trees may be killed ordamaged by wind, fire or pestsbefore they produce seed.

• It may not be economical toharvest the seed trees afterregeneration is established.

• The harvest of seed trees willlikely damage new seedlings.

• There could be a long delay inseed crops and subsequentinvasion of competingvegetation.

• There is little control overspacing and stocking rate of theregeneration.

Shelterwood methodThe shelterwood method issimilar to the seed-tree method,but more trees are left and thenew stand is established underthe partial shade of the oldertrees. The overstory is thenremoved to release theregeneration. Two cuttings arecommonly made, but occasionallythree harvests are necessary.

In a three-cut system, the firstharvest is called a preparatorycut. It leaves the best trees withplenty of growing room to expandtheir crowns and produce seed.The overstory should be reducedto about 70 percent stocking. Itremoves defective, mature andundesirable species. This cut canbe eliminated if intermediatethinnings have accomplished the

same results.

The second cut, called the seedcut, is made several years laterwhen there is a good seed crop.The seed cut allows more sunlightto reach the forest floor, stimulatingnew seedling growth. About 30 to60 percent of the stocking isremoved in this cut. Cutting andskidding of logs bares mineral soil,preparing the site for seedgermination. It may take five to 20years for oak seedlings to become

established and reach a size wherethey can compete successfully.

The final cut removes theremaining mature trees, releasingthe young stand. This cut mustbe made soon enough to maintainthe even-aged characteristic ofthe new stand or a two-agedstand will develop.

The shelterwood system is usedto establish advance regenerationbefore a final harvest. It is mostappropriate where: 1) the species

In the shelterwood method, a new stand is established under thepartial shade of older trees. See overhead view, above right.

19

to be regenerated can grow underpartial shade; 2) seed trees arenot subject to windthrow, winddamage, epicormic branching orlogging damage; and 3) theincreased cost of several partialcuts is acceptable. Since aseedling stand is present whenthe final cut is made, shelterwoodis more aesthetically pleasingthan clearcutting.

Single-treeselection systemUnlike the three systemsdescribed above, the single-treeselection system creates andmaintains an uneven-aged stand.Each tree is evaluatedindependently from the others inthe stand. Individual trees areharvested as they mature.Seedlings and sprouts grow up inthe spaces created when maturetrees are removed.

Periodic harvesting andregeneration results in a stand thatcontains trees of many ages andsizes. Because relatively few treesare harvested at any one time andbecause the forest floor is generallyshaded, this system favors speciesthat are shade tolerant.

Too often the single-treeselection system is improperlyused, and stands are high-graded.High-grading refers to harvestingonly large diameter, high qualitytrees of merchantable specieswhile leaving trees that are notsalable because of small size, poor

quality or undesirable species.Inferior trees, often with poorgenetic characteristics, thenmake up the next stand.

The single-tree selection systemwill not reproduce many oaks andhickories. It reduces thepopulation of oaks and hickoriesand encourages shade-tolerantspecies, such as red and sugarmaple, hornbeam and dogwood.Where young oaks and hickoriesare present, they will not develop

properly under the crown closuremaintained by single-treeselection. Even though large treesare periodically removed, thecrowns are essentially closed.Oak regeneration will continue todie back rather than growing intoa sapling.

Single-tree selection may hurtsome wildlife species because nutproduction declines when oaks andhickories are harvested andreplaced by other species. Forage

In the single-tree selection method, individual trees are harvested asthey mature, allowing seedlings to grow up in the newly createdspaces. See overhead view, above right.

Sugar maple

20

and browse are scant under thenearly complete crown cover, andedge habitat that is important tomany wildlife species is not present.

Groupselection systemThe group selection system har-vests small groups rather thanindividual trees. The openingsresemble miniature clearcuts, butthe major difference is that theresulting regeneration occupiestoo small an area to be consid-ered an even-aged stand. As inthe single-tree system, thinningand harvesting cuttings are doneat the same time. The new treesthat come up in these small open-ings are regarded as parts of alarger stand that contains trees ofmany ages. In either selectionsystem, frequent harvests areneeded to maintain a proper bal-ance of tree ages and sizes.

Oaks and hickories can beregenerated using group selection.Oaks will grow best near the centerof openings where they receivemore sunlight. Openings will varyin size from about 1/10 acre to 1/2acre based on surrounding treeheights, slope and aspect.

Group selection is more diffi-cult to apply than other silvicul-tural systems. Trees of all sizesshould be in the stand at alltimes. When harvesting, treesover the entire range of sizeclasses must be removed to main-tain an uneven-aged stand. Inaddition, the small group open-

ings must be located to takeadvantage of advance regenera-tion, pockets of merchantable ordying trees or to provide specialwildlife benefits. It is usually agood idea to get assistance from aforester before implementing agroup selection cut.

If openings are kept small andwell scattered, group selection

maintains aesthetic qualities ofan unbroken forest. It is wellsuited to small woodlots whereoccasional cuts are desired, butwhere regular harvests areimmaterial. The system producesexcellent wildlife habitat,including openings with abundantforage and browse, a largeamount of edge and many mast-producing trees.

The group selection system havests small groups of trees resemblingminiature clearcuts, which produces excellent wildlife habitat. Seeoverhead view, above right.

White oak

21

• On small tracts, a mix of shadetolerant and intolerant trees andshrubs can be created within thesame stand.

• Provides habitat for birds andanimals preferring continuousforest cover.

• Understory, midstory andoverstory vegetation are allpresent in one stand.

• Can select fruiting trees, dentrees and snags to leave forwildlife.

• Supplies food and cover for awide variety of wildlife.

Even-aged Management

Clearcut

Seed-tree

Shelterwood

• Preferred method to establishshade-intolerant tree speciessuch as oak, hickory and pine.

• Adequate advance regenerationor desirable seed trees must bepresent.

• The new stand of trees is allabout the same age and size.

• Clearcut and seed-tree minimizelogging damage to remainingtrees.

• Timber sale income is received ina relatively short time.

• Visual effects of clearcut and seed-tree generally are not as pleasing.

• Stands are easily identified, andmanagement work is lesscomplex and costly.

• Usually the most cost-effectivemethod of managing large tracts.

• Regeneration cuts mixed withstands of different ages and sizescreate a diverse habitat for awide variety of wildlife species.

• Regenerates mast-producing treesimportant as food to many birdsand animals.

• Encourages a lush growth ofvegetation preferred by manyspecies.

• Fruiting trees, den trees and snagscan be marked to leave forwildlife.

Uneven-aged Management

Single-tree selection

Group selection

• Single-tree selection tends toencourage the development ofshade-tolerant tree species suchas sugar maple, elm anddogwood.

• Creates forests with three ormore different sizes and ages oftrees.

• Provides regular income fromtimber sales.

• Maintains continuous forest coverat all times.

• Management work is morecomplex and costs are greater.

• Visual effects are generally morepleasing.

• There is greater logging damageto the remaining trees.

• Usually the preferred method formanaging small tracts.

Management Choices for Missouri Forests

Silvicultural System Timber Considerations Wildlife Considerations

RegeneratingWoodland Stands

22

Natural regenerationNatural regeneration relies onnew seedlings, stump sprouts andadvance regeneration to establisha new forest stand. All hardwoodssprout, and stump sprouts canbecome well-formed stems in newstands. However, as trees growold, the probability of stumpsprouts declines. In Missouri ifyou want to regenerate hard-woods and if the potential forsprouts is low, advance regenera-tion must be present before theoverstory of the present stand isheavily cut.

Advance regeneration is usuallypresent in mature hardwoodstands. If the stand has not beendisturbed for several decades, theregeneration is probably smalland not capable of competingsuccessfully when the overstory isremoved. For most species, thelarger the advance regeneration,the better its chance of becomingdominant in the next stand.

Thinnings sometimes allowlarge advance regeneration todevelop. Often, thinnings onlyallow shade-tolerant midstorytrees to expand their crowns withlittle or no new advance regenera-tion. Thinnings, by definition, arenot regeneration cuts and shouldnot be relied upon to providelarge advance regeneration.

If advance regeneration isinadequate and the stand is 10 to20 years from being harvested,use the shelterwood method to

develop the advance regenerationneeded. One or more shelterwoodpreparatory cuts will be neededto reduce the overstory densityenough for seedling growth.Herbicide control of undesirablespecies and seedbed preparationalso may be necessary.

Artificial regenerationArtificial regeneration is neededwhen advance regeneration hasfailed, a change in species isdesired or the objective is toreforest open land. In addition,this method is a way to introducegenetically superior species to anarea. Artificial regenerationinvolves either direct seeding orplanting nursery-grown seedlingsto establish a new forest stand. Itspeeds up the restocking of astand, but is more expensive thannatural regeneration.

Direct seeding

Direct seeding can be used toreforest large areas quickly onsites that are difficult to plantbecause of terrain or obstacles. Italso can be used to establishspecies that are hard to start froma transplanted seedling. Laborand equipment costs are cheaperwith direct seeding, but findingseed may not be easy and isusually expensive.

Success of direct-seedingprojects depends on the controlof seed-eating animals and a

favorable seedbed. Almost anysite capable of growing a forestalso supports a population ofsmall mammals and birds.Animals will venture into anopening to feed only if there isenough cover to protect themfrom predators. Site preparationto reduce the amount of coverhelps reduce seed predation andimproves germination. Chemicalrepellants also are available totreat the seed before planting.

Most seeds require contact withbare mineral soil for germination.To provide a favorable seedbed,do a prescribed burn, disk orotherwise scarify the area. Thisamount of soil disturbance maynot be appropriate on steepslopes and on highly erodiblesoils. In these situations, useanother planting method.

The best time to seed is in latefall or winter. The seeds of mostforest trees need to go throughseveral months of cold, calledstratification, before they willbreak dormancy. If seeded toolate in the spring, they may notgerminate until the followingyear. Some species, however, maynot remain viable for that long.Seed may be broadcast or spotseeded. Consult with your localforester on rates to use.

Planting seedlingsPlanning for tree planting on yourproperty should start well beforeyou order seedlings. A successful

Black cherry

planting job requires goodplanting stock, a properlyprepared site, tree speciesmatched to the site and soils,proper planting methods andadequate protection and careafter planting. If you needassistance in planning a largeplantation, contact your localforester.

Site preparation

Site preparation is an extremelyimportant step in a successfulplanting project. You wouldn’tthink of planting your gardenwithout tilling and preparing thesoil. The same applies to plantingtrees. Remove any competingweeds that will rob new seedlingsof moisture and nutrients so thenewly planted trees will have abetter chance of survival.

The two methods of sitepreparation are mechanical andchemical. Mechanical sitepreparation involves physicallyremoving the competingvegetation from the planting site.For small plantings, scalp the sodand weeds from a spot 2 feet indiameter where each tree is to beplanted. For larger plantings, plowor disk 2 to 3 foot wide stripswhere the tree rows will beplanted. Leaving vegetationbetween the tree rows will helpprevent soil erosion.

Chemical site preparationconsists of using herbicides tocontrol competing vegetation.

Usually the herbicide is sprayed

in a spot treatment around each

individual seedling or in strips

where the tree rows will be

planted. There are many different

herbicides with many different

characteristics. Contact your

local forester or University

Outreach and Extension office for

the latest recommendations, and

always follow label directions.

Seedling selection

Because a seedling obtains mois-

ture and nutrients from the soil,

it is important to match the

species to the type of soil on your

23

How to Space SeedlingsWhen planting seedlings, consider the height and spread to which they willeventually grow and the primary use of the planting.As a general rule,seedlings should be spaced as shown below:

Purpose Spacing

Erosion control 3-6 feet

Reforestation 8-12 feet

Wildlife shrubs 3-6 feet

Windbreaks 5-12 feet

Quantity of seedlings needed per acre

Spacing Seedlings per acre

3 x 3 feet 4,840

4 x 4 feet 2,722

5 x 5 feet 1,742

6 x 6 feet 1,210

7 x 7 feet 889

8 x 8 feet 681

9 x 9 feet 538

10 x 10 feet 436

12 x 12 feet 302

15 x 15 feet 194

For specific recommendations on spacing for your purpose and speciesselection, contact your local forester.

24

property. Some species, such assilver maple and cottonwood,prefer wet soils, while shortleafpine grows best on drier soils.Most trees have a tolerance for arange of soils, but they will maketheir best growth on the soiltypes for which they are suited.

The amount of sunlight theseedling will receive also shouldbe considered. Most trees preferfull sunlight, so planting trees inold fields is an ideal situation.Other species, such as floweringdogwood and downy serviceberry,need shade and will likely die ifplanted in full sunlight.

When to order

Applications to order trees andshrubs from the state forestnursery are usually available inmid-November for delivery thefollowing spring. Orders are filledon a first-come first-served basis,so it is a good idea to order earlyfor the best selection. Orderforms may be obtained bycontacting ConservationDepartment or UniversityOutreach and Extension offices.

Tips on seedling care

During transportation

• Haul in a refrigerated truck ifpossible.

• Cover bundles with a tarpaulinto avoid excessive exposure tosun and wind.

• Stack seedling bundles with

adequate ventilation to preventoverheating.

• Keep the transit period as shortas possible unless refrigerationis available.

• Unload seedlings immediatelyupon arrival at destination andstore properly.

During storage

• If possible, place seedlings incold storage (33-40o F);otherwise, place in a cool,shaded place. Protect seedlingsfrom freezing.

• Tape up holes torn in packagingto prevent drying of roots.

• Pour cold water into the openend of the bundles often enoughto keep seedling roots moist,but not wet.

• Stack bundles loosely, and usespacers between bundles topermit adequate ventilation.

• Stack bundles with one endhigher than the other to permitdrainage.

• If seedlings must be storedmore than two weeks, “heel-in”seedlings in a trench located ina shaded, protected area.

During planting

• Avoid planting when the groundis frozen or extremely dry, orwhen excessively wet andsticky.

• Never leave open bundles ofseedlings exposed to the sunand wind. During planting, takeonly a few bundles at a time.

Cover the others, and keep cooland moist.

• Seedlings should be carried inbuckets or bags and coveredwith wet moss to protect rootsfrom exposure to sun and air.

• Remove only one seedling at atime from the bucket and plantimmediately.

• Check spacing periodically toensure proper number ofseedlings per acre.

• When machine planting, matchthe tractor speed to the capabil-ities of the person planting.

• Check furrow depth whenmachine planting or depth ofthe planting hole when handplanting to provide for the fulllength of the roots when theyare straightened.

• To check firmness of soilpacking, grasp the top of theseedling and pull gently upward.If the tree pulls out of theground easily, it was not firmlypacked.

Tips for hand planting

• Plant trees as soon as possibleafter receiving them.

• Carry seedlings in a bucket halffull of water or wet packingmaterial such as moss. Don’tallow seedling roots to dry out.Do not store trees with theirroots in water.

• Dig holes as deep as the rootsystems.

• Plant the seedlings at the same

depth they grew at the nurseryor slightly deeper.

• Make sure the roots are spreadout and are not bent orcrowded.

• Pack the soil firmly around theroots to close air pockets.

Tips for machine planting

• Use a three- or four-personcrew. One person follows thetree planting machine tostraighten and pack poorlyplanted trees. Another keepsseedlings protected, separatedand ready to load into plantingmachine trays.

• Trees in planting trays shouldbe kept covered with wet moss.If roots are exposed to the sunand wind, the trees may bedead before they are planted.

• Run the machine deep enoughto allow the roots to hang downstraight in the planting trench,

25

Hand Planting with a Bar

Insert dibble straightdown as shown. Pullbackward to open upthe hole.

Remove dibble andplace seedling at thecorrect depth.

Insert dibble straightdown behind the lasthole.

Pull dibble backward,closing the bottom ofthe slit.

Push forward andbackward packing soilfirmly against the root.

Fill in the last hole byfirming with your heel.

Hand Planting with a Shovel

Insert shovelwith the bladereversed andperpendicular.

Push the handletoward you toopen up thebottom of thehole and to pullthe dirt out.

Make a secondcut tostraighten theback half of thehole.

Pull the shoveltoward you tomake a clean hole.Place the tree inthe hole, with theroots in a normalposition.

Place soil in thebottom half of thehole. Pack withyour heel.

Finish filling the holewith soil and packdown. Cover surfacewith mulch.

Correct depthto plant a seedling

Look for the soil line on theseedling, then plant at the samedepth or 1/2 inch deeper thanthe tree grew at the nursery.

Sycamore

26

typically 8 to 10 inches. If thesoil is too rocky or hard topermit machine planting, plantby hand.

• Set seedlings at the same depthor slightly deeper than theygrew in the seed bed.

Care after planting

After establishing a newplantation, take the followingprecautions to protect yourinvestment of time, money andeffort.

• Besides killing trees outright,fires can leave scars invitingdecay. Plow or disk a fire breakaround your plantation andmaintain it during fire season.

• Livestock grazing probablydestroys more trees in Missourithan fire. Livestock will eatyoung seedlings and tramplethe protective soil and leafcover, encouraging soil erosion.

Fence livestock from yourwoods and tree plantations.

• Animals, such as rabbits, miceand deer, can damage youngtrees. Keep the grass and weedsmowed short to permit easierhunting of rodents by hawks,owls and foxes. If deer damageis a problem, consider openingthe area to hunting. Speciallydesigned electric fences areeffective, but can be expensive.

• Prevent a rank growth of weedsand grasses around new treesby cultivating, using herbicides,disking or hoeing as often asnecessary during the first threeto five years. Weed competitioninhibits tree growth.

• Inspect plantations regularly forevidence of insect or diseasedamage. If excessive damage isfound, contact your localforester for help in diagnosingthe problem and to recommendcontrols.

ForestImprovement Practices

27

After a new stand of trees isestablished, a long period of timefollows during which the standgrows and passes throughdifferent stages until it is matureand ready to be harvested, andthen replaced by a succeedinggeneration. Cuttings made in thestand during its developmentfrom the regeneration stage tomaturity are called intermediatecuttings.

The objective of intermediatecuttings is to improve the existingstand by regulating growth andconcentrating that growth on themost desirable trees.

Intermediate cuttings can bedistinguished from regenerationcuttings by their purpose.Regeneration cuttings create anew stand, and intermediatecuttings culture an existing stand.Most, though not all, intermediatecuttings are thinnings made toremove trees that crowd orrestrict the growth of better trees.See page 33 on how to prune andbelow for how to do intermediatecuttings in sapling and polestands.

Sapling standsIn sapling stands, most of thetrees average less than 5 inchesDBH. Any silvicultural work atthis stage of the stand’s life isnon-commercial, so it must helpimprove the future crop trees tomake the investment pay off.

Crop tree release is the best

treatment for sapling stands. It isthe selection and release ofindividual trees by eliminatingtrees that compete or willcompete with the crop tree. Croptree release can be used in any ofthe forest types found inMissouri.

Crop treerelease guidelines

1. Select crop trees that aredominant or co-dominant in thecanopy; free from crooks, forks,seams and pests; and are avaluable species.

2. Select stump sprouts as croptrees if they meet the previouscriteria and originate at orbelow the groundline of thestump. Select only one or twocrop trees per stump and cut allothers. Two crop trees can be

left on the same stump only ifthey are widely spaced with aU-shaped connection.

3. Wait until co-dominant trees inthe stand average at least 25feet tall (10 to 20 years) beforereleasing.

4. Release 50 to 100 crop treesper acre. Spacing for 100 croptrees per acre is about 21 by 21feet and about 30 by 30 feet for50 per acre.

5. Remove trees adjacent to thecrop tree so its crown is free togrow on all sides.

6. Do not leave groups of morethan two individual crop trees.Two crop trees can be left closeto each other provided bothhave the potential to grow tosawlog size.

7. In oak-pine stands, bothhardwood and pine can be

Thinning brings results in a crowded forest. The tree on the left wasgrown under ideal spacing conditions. The tree in the middle wasgrown in a crowded stand. On the right is a tree that was crowded,then thinned.

Bur oak

Thinning pays

28

released if both species fit intothe management objectives.

8. Generally, do not release croptrees in sapling stands wherepoletimber thinnings areeconomical. Let the stand growand use a commercial thinningto remove small products suchas posts or pulpwood.

Pole standsTimber stand improvement, orTSI, is the general term used forany thinning in pole-sized stands.The purpose of TSI is to freedesirable trees from competition,thin the trees to desirablenumbers and remove the poorertrees. This improves the overallcondition of the stand, and woodgrowth is concentrated on anumber of selected trees.

A stand of trees that averages 5

to 10 inches DBH is a primecandidate for thinning becausethis size tree responds rapidlyafter thinning. This does notmean that stands averaging morethan 12 inches in diametercannot be thinned, but these

trees do not respond as quicklyafter thinning as the smallertrees. The larger trees areapproaching commercial size, andcare should be taken not todeaden or cut trees for firewoodthat will produce quality saw logs.

Remove trees with major defects,those that are stunted or crowded orare poor species for the site.

Beforethinning

Side view

Top view

Beforethinning,poorlyformedanddefectivetrees takeupvaluablespace.

Allow healthy treeswith clean, straightstems to remain.

29

There are several benefits tothinning the larger-sized stands.First, the cull trees andundesirable species can be cut forfirewood. Cull trees are those thatare not marketable now and arenot expected to becomemarketable in the future. Afterthinning, the remaining treesusually increase nut or seedproduction. This provides food forwildlife, as well as creating a seedsource for the next generation oftrees.

Tree selection

The two main factors that limittree growth in Missouri aresunlight and moisture. Thecompetition among trees forsunlight in the crowns is readilyvisible and uncomplicated. Thecorresponding competition formoisture and growing space in

the soil is much more complex

and difficult to observe. For this

reason, crown competition and

several other factors to be

discussed later will be used to

determine which trees to cut and

which ones to leave.

The easiest way to get started isto walk through the woods andobserve the form, condition andsize of the different trees. Thetrees in the stand can be placedin three categories.

The first and most important

Young, vigorous trees willgrow into openings. A properly thinned stand

will allow the best trees todevelop more quickly.

Top view

Thintrees sothat 12 to15 feetare lefton atleast twosides ofeachcrown.

AfterthinningSide view

Choke cherry

30

group are the trees that will bethe final crop. These should be ofdesirable species and have tall,straight, clear trunks free frominsect or disease damage, fire

scars, decay or mechanicaldamage. The crop tree shouldhave a full, healthy crown with nolarge dead branches. The crownsshould be at the general level of

the crown cover or extend aboveit and receive full sunlight. Oncethe crown of a tree has beenreduced in size by its competi-tors, it cannot always be restoredto a dominant position by thin-ning. Therefore, it is better toencourage the dominant treesrather than try to revive thosethat have fallen behind.

The second group comprisesthose trees that will be removedin future thinnings, but will beneeded in the meantime to fillgrowing space. It is important tomaintain the proper number oftrees on a given acre to fully usethe growing space. If there aretoo many trees, they will becrowded and cannot realize theirfull growth potential. On the

Top view

The best treesuse availablegrowingspace. Forgood forestmanagement,futurethinningsmay becarried outfor fuelwoodcuttings ortimber saleswhen needed.

Future resultsSide view

Trees with greater value are produced in theshortest time in a managed stand. Harvest andregrowth are part of the management cycle. Some older, hollow

trees may be left forthe benefit of wildlife.

31

other hand, if all but the croptrees are removed in onethinning, the land is notproducing all the wood of whichit is capable. The quality of theremaining trees also will declinedue to less height growth,persistent lower limbs and winddamage.

The final category comprisesthe surplus trees that are to beremoved in the first thinning.These trees are the least desirablein the stand because of species orform. They should be deadenedor cut for firewood as soon aspossible. The characteristics thatmake the trees in the second andthird categories undesirable ascrop trees are:

• Low-value species

• Multiple sprouts from onestump

• Low-forked or crooked

• Swellings or bumps on thetrunk that indicate internaldamage

• Fire scars or other damage tothe trunk

• Cull trees or wide-spreadingtrees with excessive limbs.

When selecting the species toleave, remember that individualspecies will grow on the sites bestsuited for them. Some speciesnaturally have a higher commer-cial value than others, and theseare the ones to favor when facedwith the choice between twospecies. Several of the more valu-able species in Missouri are black

walnut, white oak, black oak, redoak, ash, silver maple, pine,yellow-poplar and sweetgum.Some species usually considerednot marketable as sawlogs arehoneylocust, blackjack oak, mul-berry and American elm.Although you have to work withthe species you have available,any species will be of higherquality if it has had some carerather than being left to fend foritself.

You can continue crop treerelease as described in the abovesection. Select well-formed croptrees and remove competing treeswithin 15 feet of the crop tree’scrown. This gives the remainingtrees enough additional sunlightto maintain good growth rates.

You also can apply an area-widethinning to reduce the overallnumber of trees in the stand.This involves measuring theaverage basal area of the standand using a stocking chart todetermine the number of trees tobe removed. See Appendices 11and 12.

When thinning, stocking levelsusually are reduced to the B-levelline. Use the instructions inAppendix 12 to find the numberof trees per acre to be left afterthinning and their averagespacing.

Since trees do not grow in evenspacing, it is impossible to adherestrictly to either of thesemethods. Two good trees may beleft with their crowns touching

when they have open space ontwo other sides and enoughgrowing room. In some crowdedstands, it may be necessary toremove defective trees, as well assome good trees, to maintainproper spacing. Aim for theaverages as this will ensureproper spacing to fully use thesite.

The two methods describedabove thin the tree crowns in themain canopy, rather than in theunderstory. The understory treesare already deprived of sunlightand removing them will not havemuch effect on the main stand.Many times, the vegetation in theunderstory is referred to as“brush,” and efforts are made toeliminate it. A closer look mayreveal that the “brush” is actuallysmall saplings of desirable treespecies. These saplings are thenext generation of trees, waitingfor a larger tree to die or beremoved to give them thesunlight and room they need togrow into the canopy.

See chart on species recom-mendations for timber productionbased on site index on page 93for more information on how toidentify the most desirablespecies in your stand.

Multiple stems

Trees with multiple stems arecommon in Missouri’s forests.Hardwood species sprout readilyfrom the stump following cutting

Cherrybark oak

32

or fire. These multiple-stem treescan develop into quality single-stem trees if they are treatedearly enough. Multiple sprouts arebest treated when they are lessthan 20 years old or 5 inches indiameter at breast height. Whentreated at this size, the selectionof the best sprout is easy; and thewounds from removing the extrasprouts heal quickly.

On small sprouts originatingfrom a large stump, select asprout originating at or belowground line and cut off all theothers. A sprout arising low onthe stump is less likely to decayfrom the wound left when theparent stump rots.

Multiple sprouts that are joinedat the base with a V-shapedcrotch are more of a problem. Itis difficult to remove one stemwithout leaving a large woundthrough which decay will developin the remaining stem. In thissituation, it is better to removethe entire clump and encouragethe development of a nearbysingle-stem tree.

Sprouts with a low U-shapedcrotch (wide enough to placeyour foot between the stems) areeasy to correct. For any diametersprout, pick the best one and cutthe others off at a convenientheight. A double-stemmed treethat is larger than 12 inches indiameter is approachingcommercial sawlog size. It is bestto leave the tree if it is of goodform and to harvest it during the

Remove all poorlyformed sprouts.

Selecting a stump sprout

Select a single,vigorous sproutoriginating atthe base of thestump.

Savebeststem.

Selecting the best stemof a U-shaped crotch

Cut

For anydiametersprout, pickthe best oneand cut theothers off ata convenientheight.

33

next commercial timber sale.

To prevent sprouting from thestumps after cutting, treat with awoody plant herbicide. Sincemany of the trees removed areundesirable, the sprouts fromtheir stumps will not be wantedin the future timber stand. Checkwith your local forester orUniversity Outreach andExtension office for the names ofherbicides approved for woodyplant control.

The herbicide should be appliedto the stump immediately afterthe tree is cut. If several dayspass before the chemical isapplied, the herbicide will not beabsorbed into the stump and willbe ineffective. As with anychemical, herbicides should beused only according to labeldirections.

Pruning

Pruning forest trees is usuallyreserved for high-value species,such as black walnut or otherpotential veneer trees. Pruningremoves lateral branches,resulting in clear, defect-freewood. Local markets willdetermine whether you shouldprune your trees. Pruning shouldbegin when the tree is young andcontinued as necessary as thetree grows. Follow theseguidelines to prune forest trees:

• The best time to prune is in thelate dormant season. It is bestto avoid pruning when leaves

Large, V-shaped crotchtrees may bekept until thenext timbersale if bothstems arehealthy andare 12 inchesin diameter ormore.

V-shapedcrotch trees ofsmall diametershould beremoved infavor ofadjacent trees.

Cut

Large,V-shaped crotched trees

Smaller,V-shaped crotched trees

Honeylocust

34

are forming in the spring andare falling in the fall.

• Prune branches when they areless than 2 inches in diameter.

• Prune live branches as close aspossible to the trunk, but donot cut behind the branch barkridge. Each branch has a thickbark ridge separating it fromthe main stem. When branchesare pruned properly, a ring ofcallus will form a circle or“doughnut” around the cut afterthe first growing season.

• Do not cut behind the branchbark ridge. Do not leave stubs.Do not use flush cuts. Do notpaint cuts.

• If removing dead branches, donot cut into the collar that hasformed at the base of the deadbranch.

• Remove no more than 25percent of the live crown at anyone pruning and maintain a 50percent live crown/stem ratio.

• Eventually prune the first 17feet of the trunk to produce a16-foot clear log.

To prevent bark from tearing off below the limb,use the three-cutmethod when pruning. Make the final cut between A and B along thenatural branch collar. Do not make the final cut flush with the trunk.

Firstcut

Second cut

Final cut

A

B

Pruning tips

Secondcut

Firstcut

A

BFinal cut

ManagingImportant Forest Types

35

Oak-HickoryThis upland forest type covers thegreatest area in Missouri. Oaksdominate, with white, black,scarlet and northern red oakbeing the most common. Post andblackjack oak occur often ondrier areas. Less common aresouthern red, chinkapin, bur andpin oak. Hickory is a minor butconsistent part of the association.

Other important overstoryspecies are blackgum, red andsugar maple, ash, elm, blackwalnut and redcedar. Manyunderstory species occur in oak-hickory forests. The mostcommon are flowering dogwood,sassafras, redbud, serviceberry,eastern hophornbeam andAmerican hornbeam.

Regeneration

Oaks commonly reproduce fromacorns. Good acorn crops areproduced every two to five years.Acorn weevils and foragingwildlife reduce the number ofviable acorns. Best germinationoccurs in mineral soil under alight covering of leaves. An oakseedling may live as long as 20years in the shade of theoverstory until an opening iscreated in the canopy.

Hardwoods also sprout fromstumps following a harvest.Stump sprouting declines as thediameter of the stump increases.Assessing the number of seedlings

in the understory and the proba-

bility of stump sprouts will help

determine which regeneration

method is best.

The seed-tree method is not

recommended for regenerating

oaks. Leaving scattered seed trees

will result in poor distribution of

the heavy seeds.

Stands that are well stocked

with advance regeneration aregood candidates for clearcutting.A clearcut should be at least 2acres in size, otherwise shadefrom the surrounding stands willsuppress seedling growth.

If there is a good source of seedbut few seedlings, shade may bethe problem. A shelterwood cutremoves the overstory in a seriesof harvests while the new stand

Oak Hickory

Oak-Pine

Missouri lies on the western edge of the Central Hardwood Region.This area covers about 100 million acres, stretching from Missouri toPennsylvania and from Tennessee to the Lake States. The forests ofthis region contain more than 70 deciduous tree species, severalevergreens, and many shrubs and forest plants. The four broad foresttypes, often called associations, that occur in Missouri are shown inthe map above.

Mixed hardwoods

Bottomland hardwoods

Forest Types

Northern red oak

36

becomes established in theunderstory. The length of time toestablish the new regenerationand remove the overstory maytake as long as 20 years.

Single-tree selection is notrecommended for regeneratingoaks. This method favors theshade-tolerant species, and itgradually reduces the number ofoaks in the stand.

Group selection can be used toregenerate oaks. To maintain theuneven-aged appearance of thestand, the diameter of the harvestopening should not exceed one totwo times the height of thesurrounding trees.

Intermediate treatments

See Forest ImprovementPractices section on page 27.

Oak-PineThis upland type occurs on thedrier sites in the southern andsoutheastern Ozarks. It is similarto the oak-hickory type, exceptthat shortleaf pine makes up 25to 50 percent of the stand. Theremainder is primarily oaks, butother hardwoods associated withoak-hickory also may be present.

Regeneration

Any of the even-aged methodsand the group selection methodare suitable for regenerating oak-pine stands. Maintaining the pine

component is likely to be difficultbecause the understory isdominated by hardwoods. Theoaks will come from advanceregeneration and are usually wellestablished. The amount of pineregeneration will be determinedby the presence of a seed sourceand intensity of site preparation.

With the seed-tree method,leave 10 to 15 seed-producingtrees per acre indicated by oldcones hanging on the trees.Control undesirable hardwoods inthe understory and prepare aseedbed. Pine seed needs baremineral soil to germinate.

Sometimes the disturbancecaused by harvesting andskidding logs creates enough baresoil, or the area can be prescribedburned. Harvest the seed treestwo to three years after adequatepine seedlings are established.

Clearcutting will create thelight and seedbed conditionsnecessary to regenerate pine.Remove the overstory and controlunwanted hardwoods. Prepare aseedbed as needed. Supple-mentary direct seeding of pinewill increase the amount of pinein the next stand.

The shelterwood method willregenerate pine as long as enoughoverstory is removed. Reduceoverstory stocking to 60 percent,leaving seed-producing pine treesscattered over the stand.

Control unwanted hardwoodsand prepare a seedbed as needed.

Remove the shelterwood two tothree years after sufficient pineseedlings are established.

To apply group selection, placegroups so that seed-bearing pinesare along or close to the border ofthe openings. Control unwantedhardwoods and prepare a seedbed. Remove all overstory trees inthe opening.

Intermediate treatments

See Forest ImprovementPractices section on page 27.

Mixed hardwoodsThis forest type appears in onesmall area known as Crowley’sRidge in southeast Missouri.Mixed hardwood forests are aremnant from the geologic periodwhen the Appalachians andOzarks were one mountain chain.The principal species are yellow-poplar, sweetgum, white oak,northern red oak, Americanbeech and sugar maple. Blackoak, scarlet oak, cherrybark oak,white ash, red maple andblackgum occur frequently, andhickory is usually present.

Other species found in themixture include basswood,buckeye, cucumbertree, blackcherry, walnut and butternut.Understory species includeflowering dogwood, redbud,American holly, hazel-alder,serviceberry, American hazel andAmerican hornbeam.

37

Regeneration

The different silvicultural systemsused to harvest forests control theamount of light reaching theforest floor. In mixed hardwoodforests, there is a variety ofdesirable species with differenttolerances to shade. This makesapplying any one silviculturalsystem more complicated.

Black cherry, black walnut,oaks, ash and yellow-poplar areshade intolerant, so cuttingmethods that create lots ofsunlight on the ground willencourage these species. Single-tree selection encourages shade-tolerant species, such as sugarmaple, American beech and redmaple. Group selection,clearcutting or shelterwood isusually recommended to maintainmixed hardwoods of severalspecies. Through these methods,both intolerant and tolerantspecies can be grown together.

Intermediate treatments

See Forest ImprovementPractices section on page 27.

BottomlandhardwoodsThis type occurs on the floodplains adjacent to rivers andstreams, and in the Bootheel ofsoutheast Missouri. The land itoccupies may be covered withstanding water for long periods,

as in the swamps of the Bootheel,or it may be subject to only shortperiods of flooding. Here, a greatnumber of plant species make upthe forest. Important species inriver flood plains include pin andbur oak, cottonwood, elm, ash,willow, river birch, silver maple,sycamore, hackberry, sugarberry,pecan and sweetgum. In addition,baldcypress and water tupelo, aswell as Nuttall, willow, cherry-bark, overcup, swamp chestnutand water oak are native to theswamps of the Bootheel.

Regeneration

Bottomland forests regeneratewith species found in the over-story. These species reflect thetiming, duration, water depth andsediment depth of past floods.

The three sources ofregeneration are:

• advance regeneration

• stump and root sprouts fromharvested trees

• new seedlings.

Bottomland forests can bemanaged under both even-agedand uneven-aged systems.Clearcutting and shelterwoodshould be used to create even-aged stands. The seed-treemethod is not recommended. Inclearcuts, sprouts plus new seedsdeposited by wind or water over atwo- to three-year period usuallyresult in a stand of mostly light-seeded species. Shelterwood is

the best way to regenerate heavy-seeded species that are growing inthe overstory.

Group and single-tree selectioncan be used if you are willing toaccept slower tree growth and ahigher proportion of shade-tolerant species. Examples ofshade-tolerant species favored byuneven-aged management includesweetgum, red and silver maple,green ash, hackberry andAmerican elm.

Intermediate treatments

See Forest ImprovementPractices section page 27.

Black walnutNatural stands of black walnut arelocated throughout Missouri onbottomlands, coves and lowerslopes. Walnut is generally foundmixed with other trees, but purestands do occasionally occur. Ithas demanding site requirementsand only grows well on good-quality land.

Black walnut grows best in soilthat is medium textured, deepand well drained, but not stony,and is found on lower north- oreast-facing slopes. Poor sitesinclude steep south- and west-facing slopes, narrow ridgetopsand poorly drained areas. Soilswith clay subsoils, gravel layers orbedrock within 2 1/2 feet of thesurface are not suitable forplanting walnut.

Eastern cottonwood

38

Regeneration

Black walnut plantations can beestablished by planting seeds orseedlings. Most are started byplanting bare-root seedlingsbecause it’s more predictablethan planting seeds and cheaperthan planting containerizedseedlings. Site selection iscritical. Consult your county’ssoil survey and dig a few soil pitsto verify the soil is suitable overthe entire planting area.

Site preparation and follow-upweed control are equallyimportant. Competing weeds,grass and brush rob walnutseedlings of moisture, nutrientsand light. Competition may becontrolled by mechanical orchemical means. Cultivation isthe most effective mechanicalweed control. It works well forsite preparation, but may damagefeeder roots and lateral branchesif used for follow-up care.

Chemical control works betterand is cheaper than mechanicalcontrol, but it must be done withcare. Several chemicals areapproved for use with walnut.Consult with your local foresteror University Outreach andExtension office for the bestchemical for your situation.

Chemicals may be applied in a4-foot wide strip down the treerow or in a 4-foot diameter circlearound each tree. Weed controlshould be continued for at leastfive years after the trees are

planted. Mulching with bark orsawdust is good weed control, butis only practical in small areas.

For timber production, walnutis usually planted on spacings of10 or 12 feet square (436 or 302trees per acre, respectively).Wider spacings may be used fornut production or agroforestryapplications. Wide spacings allowthe use of farm equipment forweed control and intercropping ofother products while the walnutsare still young. For moreinformation on planting andhandling seedlings, see ArtificialRegeneration section on page 22.

Intermediate treatments

Clear knot-free wood is one thingthat makes walnut so valuable.Pruning lateral branches cangreatly increase the value of atree. Pruning can begin when thetrees reach 10 to 12 feet in heightand limbs are still small. Pruningshould be confined to the lowerhalf of the trunk. At least half thetree should be left in branches,and the leaf area should not bereduced by more than 25 percentin any one year.

Prune branches when they areless than 2 inches in diameter.The dormant season is the besttime to prune. Continue to pruneperiodically until at least the first9 feet of the trunk is clear. Theminimum length of veneer logs isnormally 8 feet. If you want alarge-crowned tree for nut

production, stop pruning at 9feet. If wood production is yourobjective, prune to at least 17feet, so two veneer logs areproduced. See the section onpruning on page 33 for moreinformation.

Deaden grape vines growing inwalnut trees. Virginia creeper andpoison-ivy also may be found, butgrape is the most damaging. Vinescan deform the trees andeventually kill them. Release thetree by severing the vine andtreating the cut ends with anapproved herbicide. It is notnecessary to pull the vine fromthe tree. It will fall as it rots.

In natural stands and eventuallyin plantations, walnut trees needto be thinned to maintain goodgrowth. Although walnuts arevery sensitive to crowding, theyrespond well after thinning.Straight, clear-stemmed, healthytrees in the dominant or co-dominant crown classes shouldbe chosen as crop trees. Releaseis best done when the trees arestill young and before they havebeen crowded too long.

Remove poorer quality treesand undesirable species toincrease the growing space on atleast three sides of the crop tree’scrown. As a general rule, thereshould be at least 10 feet betweenthe walnut crown and anyadjacent tree crowns. Periodicthinnings will be needed as thewalnut crown grows into theavailable space.

Forest Protection

39

Insects and diseasesHundreds of species of insectsand diseases occur naturally in aforest. While some of them maybe harmful, most are not. Someare even beneficial. Many insectsand fungi return nutrients to thesoil by breaking down fallenleaves and woody material.

These insects and diseases arean important part of healthyforests. While they influence allaspects of forests, individualoutbreaks usually have little long-term negative effects. Defoliationof one species may result inslower growth and even somemortality, but other tree speciesmay respond with increasedgrowth and regeneration. Animalsthat feed on insects may thriveon the abundant food duringoutbreaks.

Missouri forests have evolvedwith the naturally occurringinsects and diseases overthousands of years. Naturalcontrol mechanisms, such asbirds, animals and insects,usually keep pest populationsunder control without humanintervention. However, pestsintroduced from other countriesthat have no natural controlscause the most damage to ourforests.

Dutch elm disease is one suchexample. Introduced fromEurope, Dutch elm disease isdeadly to the American elm. Infact, it is the most destructive

shade-tree disease in NorthAmerica. Virtually all Americanelms died in the 41 states thathave reported the disease.

Chestnut blight and gypsy mothare other examples of introducedpests. Chestnut blight has killednearly every American chestnuttree in the United States. Gypsymoth was introduced into theeastern United States and isspreading west. It will beespecially devastating to Missouriforests because oak leaves are thegypsy moth’s favorite food.

Controlling these pests is oftendifficult. Pesticides are used toprotect high-value ornamentaltrees, but the expense is usuallynot justified in forests. Pesticidescan cause damage to nontargetinsects and animals. If notproperly applied they may pollutethe environment or harm theperson applying the chemical.Before using any pesticide,contact your local forester orUniversity Outreach andExtension specialist for positiveidentification of the pest so thecorrect pesticide can be used. Itis against the law to use apesticide inconsistent with itslabeling.

The best protection for trees isto keep them healthy andgrowing. Below are someintegrated pest managementstrategies you can use tominimize pest damage.

• Maintain tree species diversityalong with a mixture of ages

and sizes of trees.

• Match tree species to the siteswhere they grow best.

• Maintain the vigor of your forestthrough regular thinnings.

• During thinnings, remove low-vigor trees, infested trees andthose that are especiallysusceptible to local pestproblems.

• Leave snags for cavity-nestingbirds.

• Avoid pruning or thinningduring the growing season.

• Use only native planting stock.

• Avoid wounding trees whenoperating heavy equipment orlogging.

• Periodically scout trees toidentify pests before they causetoo much damage.

• Use the most biologically andenvironmentally sound methodsof pest control when a problemis found.

Fire benefitsand preventionFire is a natural event in mostforest ecosystems. Some forestsdepend on fire to recyclenutrients back into the soil. Sometrees depend on the heat of a fireto open their cones and releaseseeds. Other trees, like shortleafpine, need fire to bare the soil forgerminating seeds and to openthe forest canopy to providewarmth and sunlight. Fires that

Scarlet oak

40

occur when lightning strikes indry fuel make up less than 1percent of Missouri’s wildfires.

An intentionally set fire can bea useful tool in maintaining orrestoring plant communities,when used for specific sites andconditions. These prescribed firesare planned to burn under exactweather and fuel conditions toaccomplish certain changes in thevegetation.

On the other hand, unplannedwildfires can cause great damageto a woodlot. They may weakenor kill trees, cause wounds whereinsects and diseases can enter,increase soil erosion, and damagewildlife and recreational values.Often these fires are set bycareless trash burners, who start50 percent of Missouri’s wildfires,or arsonists, who are responsiblefor 40 percent.

Follow these steps to help

prevent wildfires in your woods:

• Find out what agency ororganization has fire controlresponsibilities in your area.Keep that phone number byyour phone.

• If wildfires are a problem,maintain a cleared firebreakaround your woodland.

• Build and maintain access roadsto all parts of your property.

• Build a pond as a water sourcefor fire trucks to refill theirtanks. Wildlife will also benefit.

• Check bridges on your propertyto be sure they can support theweight of local fire trucks.

• After timber harvests, lop slashso that it lies close to theground and decays quickly.

• During dry periods, ask visitorsand workers not to smoke.Provide areas of bare soil to useduring smoke breaks if needed.

• Mow road shoulders regularly.Burning materials thrown fromcars are less likely to ignite inshort grass.

• Park vehicles on roads or baresoil. Hot mufflers and catalyticconverters can ignite dry grass.

Livestock grazingFor years, landowners have letdomestic livestock graze inhardwood forests because thewoods are cool in summer andsheltered from wind in the winter.Although it may seem like a goodidea, grazing damages the forest,wildlife and soil resources.

After years of grazing, a forestbegins to change. Livestock eatthe young tree seedlings andsaplings. When the trees areharvested, there are no youngtrees to take their place.

Typically, livestock like to eat

Fungus and diseaseenter through rootwounds.

Ungrazed Grazed

Original soil level

Surface roots gone or damaged

Soil erosion in a grazed woodland canbe 100 times greater than erosion inungrazed woodlands.

41

the more palatable trees whileleaving the less desirable species.Oak saplings are usually amongthe first to go. Hickory saplingsare apparently less tasty and aremore apt to survive. They alsohandle soil compaction muchbetter. Livestock avoidhoneylocust thorns, but will eatthe seed pods and spreadundigested honeylocust seedseverywhere.

Hungry livestock eat anddestroy everything within theirreach, causing a “browse line”that is easy to see. Wildlife thatneed low-growing plants for coverhave difficulty surviving underthese conditions.

Grazed woodlots are also lesshealthy and vigorous than other

forests, and their trees produceless wildlife food. Livestock mayeat some food, such as acorns,leaving even less for wildlife.

Ungrazed forests often producesoil faster than it erodes. This isbecause leaves accumulate on theforest floor and graduallydecompose. Soil erosion in agrazed woodland can be 100times greater than erosion inungrazed woodlands.

Large roots and hairlike feederroots are easily damaged bytrampling hooves as the soilerodes from around the base of atree. Once exposed and damaged,insects and diseases have freeentry into the roots.

Livestock also compact the soil,

which causes real problems fortrees. The small pores in the soilthat allow tree roots to get air andwater are sealed off. Rainwaterthat should soak into the groundsimply runs off the surface. Theweakened trees are less droughttolerant and are more vulnerableto insects and disease.

Hardwood forests produce littleforage for livestock. One acre ofwell-managed pasture with eithercool- or warm-season grasses isworth 20 to 40 acres of woodlandpasture. Livestock shelter needscan be met by limiting use toonly a small area of woodland.Fence livestock out of woodlots ifyou expect to grow high-valuetrees and produce quality wildlifehabitat.

An obvious “browse line” forms in grazed forests, destroying layers of wildlife habitat, as well as youngseedlings and saplings.

UngrazedGrazed

Pawpaw

42

Just harvested up to 10 years

60 to 70 years

40 to 50 years

80 years or moreReady for harvesting

20 to 30 years

10 to 20 yearsReady for thinning

Wildlifeand ForestSuccession

The variety of coverconditions—from areas recently

opened up by logging to stands ofmature timber—provides different

types of food and shelter required bymany species of game birds and

animals. New openings are sources ofinsects, berries and buds required bybirds, such as grouse. Openings also

yield heavy growths of browse for deer.As the trees mature, they produce thenuts and fruits preferred by turkey,squirrel and bear. Many birds and

animals use the forest edge, the densegrowth that fills in along the

borders of new openings.

Wildlife Management

43

All wildlife need food, shelter andwater within their home range,the area where an animalconfines its activities. White-tailed deer range over severalsquare miles while a gray squirrelmay find all its habitat needs intwo acres. Each bird or animalhas a specific place and role—called a niche—within the forestecosystem. Although someoverlap occurs, these specialniches allow many wildlifespecies to occupy different partsof the same forest. The moreniches that can be created, thegreater the number of species a

forest can support.

Nature creates a variety ofniches on an irregular basis—some by means that are notalways socially or biologicallyacceptable, such as wildfire. Inthe past, natural events, such aswind storms, tornadoes or fires,created different habitats inMissouri forests on a variable andoften large scale. The naturaloccurrence of fire or winddisturbance is unpredictable anduncontrollable.

Forest management practicesimitate these natural distur-bances, but on a much smaller

scale and under closely controlledcircumstances. Regulatedharvesting provides differentniches, but without the “feast orfamine” of unpredictable naturaldisturbances. The aim of forestmanagement is to create abalance of habitat types tosupport a variety of species overthe long term.

Good forest management andgood wildlife management are notmutually exclusive. The samebasic practices that produce ahealthy forest also can producehealthy wildlife populations. Thefollowing sections offer ways you

This chart shows the relationship of mast and forage production to stand age in even-agedhardwood forests.

Hackberry

Good

Medium

Fair

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

None

Low

Years

Forage

Mas

t

44

can improve wildlife habitat whilekeeping your woodlot healthy andproductive.

Young standsDuring the seedling-sapling stage,concentrate any work onunderstory development. Bythinning newly regeneratedstands, you increase sunlight,which promotes the abundanceand nutritional value ofherbaceous vegetation.

Thinning allows you to favorunderstory species that providebrowse, forage and seeds forwildlife. Precommercial thinningin sapling stands promotes diver-

sity, which benefits both timberand wildlife as the stand matures.

Ways to improve youngstands for wildlife:

• Retain snags and den trees leftfrom the regeneration harvest.

• Favor mast-producing species inprecommercial thinnings. Thinto a wide spacing of 10 feet by10 feet between selected croptrees to delay crown closure.

• Maintain a combination of hardmast trees (oak, hickory,walnut) and soft mast species(dogwood, blackgum,blackberry) in each stand.

• Pile slash from thinnings to

provide cover.

• Mow old logging roads andlandings to encourageherbaceous plants. They alsocan be overseeded withlegumes.

Examples of wildlife that useyoung stands include five-linedskink, northern fence lizard, wildturkey, song sparrow, yellow-breasted chat, red bat, gray foxand bobcat.

Immature standsImmature stands include those upto 60 years old or that havesapling-, pole- and smallsawtimber-size trees. Comparedto younger regenerated stands ormore mature stands, these pole-size trees are too young toproduce much mast for wildlife;and grasses, forbs and shrubscommon in young stands havebeen shaded out. Any coverprovided by logging slash hasdecomposed.

Immature stands also lackseveral important habitatcomponents: browse, cover, mastand cavities. This condition,however, is temporary and willchange as the stand matures. It isimportant to remember that in amanaged forest, the quality ofwildlife habitat depends on theentire mosaic of forest stands. Itis not necessary to “improve”every pole stand when habitat isprovided in nearby younger andolder stands.

By increasing the sunlight in young stands, you can promote browse,forage and seeds for wildlife.

45

Ways to improve immaturestands for wildlife:• Retain any snags and den trees.

• Thin to encourage understorydevelopment and increasecrown size for mast production.

• When thinning, releasedesirable species with goodform and vigor that are goodmast producers.

Examples of wildlife that useimmature stands are midlandbrown snake, five-lined skink,ruffed grouse, eastern screechowl, summer tanager, little brownmyotis, woodland vole and white-footed mouse.

Mature standsStands older than 60 years orthat are medium- to large-saw-timber size generally providegood wildlife habitat. Mature treesusually produce abundant mastand provide den sites. The under-story in these stands producesmoderate amounts of browse.Thinned trees in mature standsoften can be sold for timber.

Some of these stands can be setaside as old growth. A number ofcavity-nesting species prefer theconditions found in old growthforests. The stands that are setaside must be held past the usual

rotation age so there will bedeclining trees and a multi-lay-ered structure. Stands dominatedby white oaks can be held 150 to200 years; black oak stands beginto decline after 100 years.

When selecting stands to setaside as old growth, first considerstands more than 90 years oldwith large defective trees. If theseare not available, select “oldgrowth” from stands more than50 years old. These have thepotential to develop the largetree, multi-layered structure.

Ways to improve maturestands for wildlife:• When thinning, modify cutting

guides to: 1) retain active dentrees; 2) leave unsalvageabledead trees standing; and 3)when other factors are equal,favor mast producers over non-mast producers.

• Stands designated as old growthshould be as least 15 acres insize with a minimum width of200 feet.

Many species of wildlife usemature stands, including spottedsalamander, broadhead skink,gray treefrog, downy woodpecker,ovenbird, Kentucky warbler, graysquirrel, raccoon and easternchipmunk.

Timber salesRegeneration cuttings affectwildlife more drastically than

Immature stands consist of mostly sapling-, pole- and small saw-timber-size trees. They often lack browse, cover, mast and cavitiesfor wildlife.

Shellbark hickory

46

most forest managementpractices because a mature foreststand is replaced by a youngsapling stand. Regenerationcuttings quickly provide habitatfor many wildlife species, butthey also influence wildlife use ofthe new stand throughout therotation. Retaining snags, cavitytrees, potential snags and dentrees in regeneration areas andexcluding other areas fromharvest will benefit many wildlifespecies.

The regeneration method youuse influences the species compo-sition of the new stand. Even-aged and group selection methodsare preferred for regeneratingMissouri hardwoods because theyfavor mast-producing oaks andother intolerant species. Cover isanother important benefit pro-vided by regeneration. Abundantherbaceous and young woodyvegetation also provide deerbrowse.

Ways to promote wildlifewhile cutting timber:

• Retain snags and den trees. Seethe next section for recommen-dations on promoting them.

• Save special trees along woodlotedges, such as den trees, snagsand scarce species. Fruitingtrees and shrubs are especiallyvaluable along edges becausesunlight stimulates heavyfruiting.

• Maintain a 100-foot-wide buffer

on both sides of streams.

• Protect sensitive habitat, such

as cave openings, wetlands,

heron rookeries, rare plant

communities or raptor nests.

• Seed logging roads and landings

in grasses and legumes.

Snags and den trees

Both snags and den trees provide

essential food and cover for many

species of wildlife. Snags are

standing dead trees, while den

trees are alive with a cavity in the

trunk or limbs large enough to

shelter wildlife.

Snags

Once a tree dies, the slow processof decay begins. While decaying,birds use snags for perching,feeding and nesting. As the centerof the snag softens, birds such aswoodpeckers hollow out nestholes, which are later used bychickadees, kestrels and screechowls. Many birds eat insects fromsnags, which prevents seriousinsect and disease problems inother trees. Large fallen trees canprovide important habitat forgrouse, chipmunks, salamandersand frogs for up to 50 years.

When managing woodlands for

Mature stands have an abundance of mast and den sites for wildlife.The understory also provides some browse.

47

wildlife, consider the followingminimum recommendations:

1. Leave or establish per acre:

a. One snag larger than 20inches DBH for pileated andred-headed woodpeckers

b. Four snags between 10 and20 inches DBH for species,such as flying squirrel andthe American kestrel

c. Two snags between 6 and 10inches DBH for species, suchas the eastern bluebird andblack-capped chickadee.

2. If not enough snags arepresent, deaden live trees bycutting a 3- to 4-inch wide bandaround the tree with an axe or

girdling the tree with achainsaw.

3. Trees should not be deadenedto create snags in areas oflimited forest habitat, such asalong streams, fence rows,narrow drainages or smallisolated woodlots.

Den trees

Many birds, mammals andreptiles use tree cavitiesthroughout the year for nesting,cover and protection from theweather. Typical woodlots usuallydo not have enough cavity trees,so it is very important to protectthe existing or potential den

trees. Wolf trees—old, open-grown, large-crowned trees—arepotential den trees that areespecially valuable because theyalso produce food.

Future den trees will show signsof rot, such as decayed branches,fungi or wounds and scars.Woodpecker activity also is a signof disease or insect infestation.Good places for den trees arealong streams and fence rows, aswell as near small isolatedwoodlots. Not all old, damagedtrees make good den trees,however. For example, hollowtrees broken off at the top offerlittle wildlife protection from theweather.

White oak, post oak and manyother oaks make the best dentrees because they are long lived.Other species, such as hickory,American elm, sugar maple,American sycamore, easterncottonwood, blackgum, ash andbasswood, also make excellentden trees.

Woodland management forwildlife should consider thefollowing minimum recommen-dations:

1. Leave or establish per acre:

a. One den tree larger than 20inches DBH for barred owls,fox squirrels and raccoons.

b. Four den trees between 10and 20 inches DBH forspecies, such as gray squirrelsand red-breasted nuthatches.

c. Two den trees between 6 and

Old growth forests typically contain both dead and overmature trees,plus other trees and shrubs at a variety of heights.

Possumhaw

48

10 inches for birds, such astufted titmice and housewrens.

2. Do not harvest den trees inregeneration cuts.

3. Where none exist, future dentrees can be created bywounding selected trees sodecay organisms can enter thetree. Although it may take yearsto develop, these cavities willimprove wildlife habitat for thefuture. See below for ways tocreate den trees:

a. Cut a limb—the larger thebetter—about 6 inches fromthe trunk of the tree. Ash,elm, cottonwood, sycamore,silver maple and basswoodare good trees to use.

b. Chop out a 6- by 6-inchsection of bark on the trunkof a tree that shows signs ofdamage or decay.

c. Drill a hole at least 2 inchesin diameter and 3 inchesdeep into a suitable tree. It’sbest to make the hole under alimb that is 3 inches or morein diameter.

d. For quicker results, put upbird houses and den boxes.

Edges and openingsEdge is the transition zonebetween habitat types. This zoneoften offers food and cover tomany wildlife species. High-quality edge is a wide band ofplants that gradually changes

from one type of vegetation toanother. It has grasses, weeds,shrubs, vines and small trees thatprovide wildlife food, such asberries, seeds, browse andinsects. Edge also may offer coverfor nesting and protection fromweather and predators.

Good edges usually requiredeliberate action. Edge can becreated by planting shrubs orsmall trees in a 30-foot or widerstrip at the edge of a field.

Another option is to allow theborder to naturally revert tonative plants. The natural processis rapid after the elimination oflivestock, plowing and mowing.Conversion of heavy sod, such asfescue, can be hastened byplowing, disking or applyingherbicide to the border.

If a field is bordered by treesthat affect the growth of crops, itmay be cost effective to let anedge develop between the trees

Birds rooston bare limbs.

Holes make goodwildlife homes.

Insects under oldbark providefood for wildlifein the winter.

Birds storeacorns underbark and inholes.

Snags provide essentialfood and cover formany species ofwildlife.

49

and field. The return from low-yield edges may not offset thecost of seed, fertilizer andplanting. Large trees of low valuewithin 30 feet of the crop fieldshould be felled or deadened toallow sunlight to reach theunderstory. Within 15 feet of thefield, small trees, such asdogwood, hawthorn, plum andredcedar, should be cut toencourage annual weeds, shrubsand sprouts. Trees should be cutlow to encourage sprouting.

Large forested tracts often lackopenings. Annual weeds, grassesand seedlings found in theseopenings produce food, nestingsites and escape cover forwildlife. Five to 10 acres of smallopenings per 100 acres of forest isdesirable. These openings shouldrange from 1 to 3 acres. Pasturesand fields surrounding smallwoodlots will reduce the need foropenings. Roads in the woods,utility rights-of-way, log landingsor small clearcuts also canprovide open areas for wildlife.

An ideal edge has crops, shrubs, small trees, then large trees.

Large trees along a crop field should be deadened, allowing shrubsand small trees to come up in their place.

Kentucky coffeetree

50

Aesthetic Considerations

Many management practicesaffect the appearance of yourwoodlot. Even though a harvestwas beneficial to the health ofyour forest and may not look badto you because you know itspurpose was beneficial, to thecasual observer it may not bevisually pleasing.

You may want to planmanagement activities with aneye toward aesthetics for yourselfand because uninformedobservers, who do not know thebiological or economic factorsthat influence your decisions toharvest or regenerate trees, maywrongly judge your landstewardship by the appearance ofyour property. The future ofsome management practices maybe influenced, possibly regulated,as a consequence of publicpressure to maintain attractivewoodlands. Below are somesuggestions to help maintain thevisual qualities of your woodland.

Landscapemanagement• Create a more interesting

landscape by having a mixtureof ages and sizes of trees.

• On high points, create scenicvistas by felling trees in theforeground or by pruning lowerlimbs.

• Close to roads clear sight linesto rock outcrops, streams, lakesor other scenic spots.

• Encourage species with special

visual appeal, such as spring

flowers, fall color, interesting

bark or colorful fruit.

Timber harvesting• In visually sensitive areas, use

uneven-aged management.

• Vary the size and shape of

regeneration openings

according to the scale and

appearance of the surrounding

landscape. Locate openings

randomly with variable

distances between them.

• Create natural-looking standboundaries by making openingswith free-form shapes andcurving edges that follownatural topographic featuresand vegetative changes.

• Soften large openings and addvisual variety and wildlifebenefits by:

✓ Identifying and protecting special vegetation to be left onthe area before harvesting.

When harvesting timber in large areas, create natural-looking standboundaries by making openings with free-form shapes and curvingedges that follow natural topographic features and vegetativechanges. Feather edges to create transitions in height and density.

Flowering dogwood

51

✓ Leaving groups of trees, flowering trees and shrubs.

✓ Extending fingers of vegetation from adjacent stands.

✓ Leaving groups or islands of

vegetation, rather than single,scattered trees.

✓ Retaining groups of pine

and/or cedar to provide vari-ety during the dormant sea-son.

✓ Avoiding notch-like openings

on ridge lines.

✓ Clumping snags and den trees

for wildlife with other vegeta-tion in the foreground, orleave them along edges. Avoidleaving evenly distributedsingle trees in the foreground.

• Soften the sharp contrast byfeathering edges. Partially cutstand borders to create atransition in height and densitybetween cut and uncut stands.

• Harvest during the dormantseason to reduce the number ofdead leaves hanging in cut tops.

• Design roads and landingscarefully to keep construction

to a minimum. Seed to reduceerosion and undesirable soilcolor contrasts.

• Chip, lop and scatter slash,or keep it low to the ground toimprove appearance andencourage rapid decay. Felldead, dying, broken andleaning trees in the foregroundto reduce unsightliness.

Regeneration• Choose a harvesting methodthat encourages natural regen-eration.

• Plant trees in straight rowsonly when necessary for main-tenance; otherwise plant atrandom spacings for a morenatural appearance.

• Plant a mixture of treesrather than a single species.

Improvementpractices• Use cut trees for firewood to

reduce the amount of debris lefton the ground.

• In visually-sensitive areas, slashtops and pruned branches lowto the ground.

• Leave deadened trees standing.They will fall over a period ofyears.

• Deadened hardwoods will beless noticeable if treated duringthe dormant season.

Avoid ridgeline notches and unnatural looking stand boundaries asin the above example.

52

Marketing Timber

Selling timber can be a rewardingexperience for some forestowners while a traumatic experi-ence for others. Landowners whodo a thorough job of planning andmarketing are usually satisfiedwith a timber harvest. Those whodid not prepare for a timber saleare likely to be dissatisfied. Manypeople receive a fraction of theirtimber’s true value because theydo not know what they have ordo not know how to sell it.

Defineyour objectivesA successful timber harvestbegins with identifying yourobjectives. This can best be donewith a written forest managementplan that identifies yourobjectives, steps to achievingthem and times when activitieswill be carried out. The plan alsoshould identify the type ofharvest to be conducted and stepsto be taken for reforestation afterthe harvest.

You need to tell the log buyerexactly what you expect from thetimber sale. This is best donethrough provisions written into atimber sale contract. Forexample, if one of your objectivesis maintaining water quality, aprovision in the contract shouldstate that Best ManagementPractices, which are outlined onpages 56-59, will be followedduring road building, streamcrossing and harvesting.

Why harvest timberOther than for financial gain,timber harvesting is a tool foraccomplishing objectives that youmay have identified in your forestmanagement plan. Suchobjectives may include:

• Improving the overall healthand vigor of the forest

• Promoting seedling regeneration

• Creating wildlife habitat

• Reducing the density of anovercrowded forest

• Establishing planting areas

• Creating vistas and trails

• Developing certain types ofrecreational activities

• Salvaging damaged or diseasedtrees.

Stepsto selling timberWhen selling timber, thefollowing steps should help youget the most financial gain, whileprotecting the forest resource.

Step 1: Know whatyou have to sell

Before advertising a timber sale,you first need to determine whatyou have to sell. This involvesselecting the trees to be harvestedand determining what volumesand products are present in thosetrees. Make sure the trees are, infact, on your property. Settle anyboundary disputes with your

neighbors before you sell anytimber. Clearly mark the trees tobe harvested so the logger caneasily see them. Mark each treewith a spot of paint about chesthigh (bright blue or orange worksbest) on the side of the treevisible from a main trail or road.A second spot of paint should beplaced at the ground line. Thispaint spot will remain afterlogging to serve as a check tomake certain that only markedtrees were harvested.

After selecting the trees,estimate the wood volume or thenumber of products that will becut by species. Timber volumesare estimated by measuringindividual trees. For more details,see Appendices 7-9.

Some common products thatmay be produced from treesinclude sawlogs, stave bolts tomake barrels, veneer logs,firewood, pulpwood to makepaper, posts and poles. Theseproducts are determined by thespecies, size and quality of yourtimber and can vary greatly inprice. There may not be a marketfor all these products within anygiven area. Local mills willdetermine the specifications foreach product they purchase. Forcurrent market conditions,“Timber Price Reports” areavailable from a ConservationDepartment forester or from theDepartment’s web site at www.conservation.state.mo.us/forest/.

American hazel

53

Step 2: Determine whatyour timber is worth

The price paid for standing trees

before they are harvested, which

is called stumpage, has no set

value. Your timber is worth

whatever you and the buyer agree

to. Many factors influence the

price of standing trees. These

include:

• Tree species. Wood from some

species is more valuable than

wood from others.

• Tree size. Large trees will have

more volume and clear wood

than smaller trees.

• Tree quality. Trees with fewerdefects, such as branch scars,decay and imbedded wire, havehigher quality, more valuablewood.

• Volume of sale. Large volumesales will bring a higher per unitprice than small volume sales.

• Distance to the mill. The closera woodlot is to the mill, thelower the hauling costs.

• Site accessibility. The ease withwhich the forest land can bereached affects costs.

• Logging difficulty. Steepness ofterrain and soil moistureconditions affect the equipment

that can be used and the speedof harvesting.

• Market conditions. Poormarkets mean lower timberprices. Buyers often pay morefor logs when their inventoriesare low to ensure continuedmill operation.

• Your restrictions on harvestingand skidding techniques.Restrictions set forth in yourtimber sale contract, such asseeding skid trails after harvest,will increase logging costs.

Different buyers may offersubstantially different prices forthe same timber, depending ontheir own particular costs andmarkets. The only way todetermine what your timber isworth is to offer it for sale on theopen market and contact as manypotential buyers as possible.

Step 3: Determinea selling method

Selecting the appropriate sellingmethod for marketing yourtimber is the key to having asuccessful timber sale. The twomethods commonly used inMissouri are sealed bid andnegotiation.

The sealed bid sale isrecommended most often forprivate woodland owners. Thisprocess informs potential buyersabout the timber sale. Thesebuyers are allowed a length oftime—usually four to six weeks—to inspect the trees and submit

Mark the trees you want cut by spraying a spot of paint near theground line and another spot about chest high.

54

bids. Each bidder is allowed tomake only one bid and late bidsalways are rejected. Bids are thenopened at a specified time andplace, and the successful buyer isselected.

If no bids meet your minimumrequirements, you have the rightto refuse all bids. No further pricenegotiations should take placeafter a buyer has been selectedand unsuccessful bidders notifiedthat the timber was sold. SeeAppendix 4 for a sample bidsolicitation.

A negotiated sale involves face-to-face discussions between theseller and a single buyer. Thisprocedure often results in a pricewell below what the timber isworth because the buyer has nocompetition and the seller isoften uninformed about thetimber’s value. For that reason,do not be too anxious to acceptthe first offer for your timber. Anegotiated sale, however, may bethe best method if:

• You have a small amount oftimber or poor quality timber tosell.

• Markets for the species andproducts for sale are so poorthat few buyers would beinterested.

• You want to work with aparticular buyer that you knowand trust.

• You are marketing certainspecialty products.

Step 4: Figure out thepayment method you want

There are two methods ofpayment available to woodlandowners who sell timber.

In a lump sum sale you receivea single payment for the trees tobe sold before the harvest begins.Splitting payments for eachcutting area may be necessary forlarge sales. Payment is based onthe amount of timber volumeestimated and not the actualvolume harvested. Lump sumsales, therefore, depend heavilyon the accuracy of your estimateof the volume and quality oftimber for sale.

An advantage of a lump sumsale is simplicity. The landowneris relieved of the burden ofkeeping track of the volume oftimber being harvested, andincome is provided beforeharvesting begins. A disadvantageis that the seller receives bidsthat are based on an estimate ofthe volume to be harvested,which may be different from theamount actually harvested.

In a yield sale the landowner ispaid a certain amount for eachunit of product cut. This type ofsale also is called selling “onscale.” It requires that someone,usually at the mill, scale thevolume of products after harvest.An advantage of a yield sale isthat the landowner is being paidfor the timber that is actuallybeing harvested. The disadvan-

tage is that problems can arise inobtaining an accurate tally sincetracking the logs is difficult oncethey leave your property.

Step 5: Advertise your sale

There are several steps to followin preparing a timber sale notice.You must have accurate, reliableinformation, and you need tosend it to as many prospectivebidders as possible. An up-to-date“Log Buyers List” is availablefrom a Conservation Departmentforester. A timber sale noticeshould include the followinginformation that will laterbecome part of the timber salecontract.

• Your name, address andtelephone number.

• Location of the timber for sale.Include a map, legal descriptionand directions.

• Description of the trees or logsto be sold. Include volume byspecies, number of trees,diameter classes and sawloggrades if appropriate. Describehow the trees and saleboundaries will be marked.

• Type of bid you are expecting:lump sum or yield sale.

• Times when potential buyerscan visit and inspect thetimber.

• Date, time and place writtenbids will be opened. Includehow the successful bidder willbe selected and notified.

55

• Whether or not a downpayment is required to bind theoffer when the contract issigned. An amount of 5 to 10percent of the bid price isnormally required.

• Any limitations or specialownership considerations onthe sale. Such considerationsinclude: harvesting deadline;restrictions on access;conditions when loggers cannotoperate, such as wet conditions;streamside management zones;or buffers.

• Requirements for a perform-ance bond. A performancedeposit is an amount of moneyabove the sale price (usually 10percent of sale price) posted bythe buyer when the contract issigned and held in escrow bythe seller. The bond’s purpose isto ensure that the buyer abidesby the terms set forth in thecontract. The performancedeposit should be refundedimmediately after the sale iscompleted and contractrequirements are met.

• Statement whether the loggermust carry insurance andliability. Insurance will avoidpossible legal complications if alogger is injured on yourproperty, and liability insurancewill cover any damage to yourproperty or adjoining landscaused by the logger.

• Statement indicating your rightto reject any or all bids.

Step 6: Draw upa timber sale contract

The purpose of a timber salecontract is to protect theinterests of buyer and seller andmust be signed by both parties.To reduce the possibility ofmisunderstandings, you shouldmeet with the logger or buyer todiscuss the items to be includedin the contract.

The written contract does notneed to be complex, but it shouldreflect what you and the loggerhave agreed to with respect to thesale. Timber buyers willfrequently provide their ownstandard contract. Such contractsmay not adequately representyour interest as a seller. SeeAppendix 5 for a sample timbersale contract.

You may want to have a lawyerdraft or review your contract. It iscritical that you include theprovisions that you feel areimportant regarding the harveston your property.

Step 7: Supervisethe timber harvest

One of the most important thingsyou can do during the harvest isto inspect it periodically. Beforeharvesting begins, review thetimber sale contract with thelogger and point out saleboundaries. If possible, walk thesite to be harvested with thelogger. This will accomplish two

objectives: 1) It will give you anopportunity to get to know thelogger, and 2) It will give you achance to explain your objectivesof harvesting timber. A loggerwho is familiar with you andaware of your objectives willlikely do a better job.

Once timber harvesting begins,visit the area frequently. Whenyou visit the site make sure thatlogging meets the terms of thecontract. Questions that ariseshould be discussed with thelogger. Unless you discover a fla-grant violation of the contract, asimple suggestion to the logger incharge of the operation usuallywill solve any problem. After theharvest is completed and all pro-visions of the contract have beenfulfilled, write a letter releasingthe buyer from the contract andreturn the performance deposit.

Step 8: Practicegood forestry

Improper logging practices canhave adverse effects on waterquality, wildlife and forest regen-eration. To ensure that you aresatisfied with the end result ofthe timber harvest, it is impor-tant that good forestry practicesare applied during and after thelogging operation. Following theConservation Department’s bestmanagement practices and havinga reforestation plan are twoimportant considerations for har-vesting timber on your property.

Red buckeye

56

BestManagement Practices

In Missouri forests, most waterquality changes associated withmanagement practices are fromthe access roads and harvesting.Soil losses and sediment due tosilvicultural activities generallyoccur when the protective litterlayer is disturbed. Water fromundisturbed forests is high qualitybecause the canopy and litterlayer protect the soil surface andenhance soil biological activity.With the litter intact, water soaksinto the porous soil and rarelyruns over the surface.

Without this protective layer,however, raindrops detach soilparticles and start eroding,transporting and depositingsediments. Dislodged soil

particles wash into soil pores,decrease soil porosity andoverland flow starts. Soil porosityalso is reduced by compactionfrom heavy equipment, especiallywhen soils are wet.

The following are recommendedbest management practices toprotect water quality while con-ducting forestry operations. Moredetailed recommendations can befound in “Missouri WatershedProtection Practices,” which isavailable from the local Conserva-tion Department forester.

Streamside zonesStreamside zones are the areasadjacent to perennial and

intermittent streams, caves,springs and lake. They areimportant to maintaining stablestreambanks, and trappingsediments and pollutants beforethey enter the water. Streamsideforests slow flood waters andprovide shade to streams,moderating water temperatures.The deep moist soils provide sitesthat have the potential to growindividual high-quality trees.Streamside zones need specialprotection during managementoperations to maintain waterquality.

Streamside zones are separatedinto two parts. The primarystreamside zone is 25-foot widestrip measured from the top ofthe streambank on both sides ofthe stream. The secondarystreamside zone is variable inwidth and is based upon twice theslope percent of the surroundingland plus the 25-foot wide strip. Ifthe slope of the land up to thestreambank is 10 percent thenthe width of the secondary zoneis 45 feet (10 x 2 + 25). Thiswidth extends from the primaryzone on both sides of the stream.

Primary zonerecommended practices

• Harvesting operations shouldleave a residual stand of trees ofat least 60 square feet of basalarea. See Appendix 11.

• Cable out logs cut duringharvesting.

When managing a forest along a streambed, use the correcttechniques for each zone: (A) primary streamside zone and (B)secondary streamside zone.

A

streambed

B

American elm

57

• If a streamside forest is lacking,direct seed or plant to establishone.

Practices to avoid

• Use of wheeled or trackedvehicles within 25 feet of thestreambank

• Leaving trees or tops in thewater

• Building roads within 25 feet ofthe bank, except at streamcrossings

• Wildfires

• Any operation that exposesbare soil, except for treeplanting

• Portable sawmills, log decks orlog landings

• Any use of pesticides notlabeled for use near water

• Livestock grazing.

Secondary zonerecommended practices

• Harvesting operations shouldleave a residual stand of trees ofat least 60 square feet of basalarea. See Appendix 11.

• Use wheeled or tracked vehiclescarefully to avoid erosion andtree damage.

Practices to avoid

• Building roads or trails unlessnecessary for stream crossings

• Portable sawmills, log decks orlog landings

• Any operation that exposesbare soil, except for treeplanting

• Leveling gullies, unlessimmediately seeded andmulched

• Any use of pesticides notlabeled for use near water

• Livestock grazing

• Wildfire.

Stream crossingsBecause an increase of sedimentis common at stream crossings,road building and vehicle travelacross streams should be avoidedwhenever possible. In most cases,advance road planning willreduce or eliminate the numberof stream crossings necessary.

Recommended practices

• Plan the location of roads tominimize the number of streamcrossings.

• Install properly sized culvertswhere permanent logging roadscross streams.

• Locate crossings at right anglesto the stream channel, wherethe bottom is hard andrelatively level.

• Protect permanent crossingswith coarse rock.

• All approaches to crossings,whether temporary orpermanent, should be at gentlegrades.

• Soil around culverts, bridges

and crossings should bestabilized with coarse rock.

Practices to avoid

• Temporary crossings of logs andbrush topped with soil

• Any practice to alter the flow ofthe stream.

Access roadsFor most harvesting operations inMissouri, the construction ofspecial logging roads is notrequired. Usually the main haulroad is a county road. Nearly 90percent of the erosion fromtimber harvests comes from theroad system. Soil loss from roadconstruction and use is similar tolosses from tilled crop fields.

Recommended practices

• Roads should be located andconstructed to provideadequate water drainage fromthe surface. Locating roadsalong the contour should resultin gradual grades.

• Locate roads above flood plainsand wet areas.

• Road grades should be less than8 percent, except where terrainrequires short steep grades.

• Construct roads with gradualcurves that are wide enough forefficient operation of heavyequipment. The road bed ontemporary roads should be 12-to 14-feet wide.

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• Surface roads with gravel wherenecessary to support heavyequipment and to protect theroad from erosion.

• Keep roads free from loggingdebris that prevents the flow ofwater from the road surface.

• Pile cleared debris on the lowerside of fill slopes to restrict soilmovement.

• Use culverts where needed toroute water under the road forproper drainage.

• Broad base dips should be

located at the proper intervalsto channel water across theroad. The dips should beoutsloped about 3 percent andsurfaced with large rock.

• Water bars should be used whenretiring temporary roads andmain skid trails.

• Roads constructed withinstreamside zones should haveall exposed soil immediatelyseeded and mulched.

• Water turnouts should beconstructed to divert waterfrom road ditches.

• Shape, cut and fill slopes, thenseed and mulch to stabilize.

• Retire temporary roads byreshaping, building water bars,then seed and mulch.

Practices to avoid

• Construction of roads instreamside zones where possible

• Using roads when soils are wet

• Locating roads in stream beds.

Timber harvestingMissouri timber harvests typicallyinvolve small acreages and do notrequire extensive road construc-tion for access. Vegetationresponds rapidly after a harvestto stabilize exposed soil. Studiesof managed forests show that soilerosion occurs at about the samerate as naturally occurring geo-logic erosion. Timber harvestingactivities pose little threat towater quality when care is takento prevent erosion.

Recommended practices

• Follow the practices for stream-side zones, listed on pages 56-57, when harvesting in theseareas.

• Locate log landings on stablesoils and so skidding is directedaway from the stream.

• Log landings should be nolarger than necessary.

• Seed landings when logging iscompleted.

A protected road through a wooded area should have a water bar atthe top of the grade and stone riprap at diversion outlets. The cutbanks should be seeded as necessary.

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• Portable sawmills should belocated away from any body ofwater.

• Provisions should be made atlunch areas and portablesawmills for disposal of humanwaste and trash.

Practices to avoid

• Changing oil in equipment onthe logging site. If machinery isserviced in the forest, collectthe oil for proper disposal.

• Disposal of logging debris instreams and lakes

• Temporary crossings made fromlogs piled into streams.

When all forestry practices are completed, temporary access roadsshould be retired by reshaping, seeding and mulching in combinationwith the use of water bars, shown above.

Broad base dips should be located at the proper intervals to channelwater across a road. The dips should be outsloped about 3 percentand surfaced with large rock for adequate drainage. Plant grass seednext to the road as necessary to stabilize the soil.

24” to 30”

6’ to 10’

2% to 4% outslope

Originalroadsurface

Easternhophornbeam

Special Forest Products

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As a forest owner you can enjoyannual income from yourwoodlands and still manage forhigh quality sawlogs and wildlifehabitat. In recent years there hasbeen more interest in non-traditional items that natureproduces in and around forestsevery year—potential productsthat can be marketed for annualincome.

PollenTree and shrub pollens of manyspecies are harvested inhardwood stands beginning inearly spring when floweringstarts. Generally, pollens areharvested by “producers” whopick the flowers when the pollenis “ripe.” They contract inadvance with landowners forpollen harvesting rights.

Prices for raw pollen vary fromabout $1 per gram for the mostcommon species to more than$20 per gram for species thatproduce little pollen or occur in alimited range. Prices vary fromyear to year, but pollenprocessors distribute price listscontaining the species they wantand the approximate amount theyare willing to pay for materialmeeting their specifications.

Berries and FruitsBlackberries, blueberries,gooseberries, huckleberries, wildstrawberries, wild grapes or

mulberries grow under a forestcanopy. Landowners might allowpeople to pick wild berries for afee or pick them themselves andsell the fruit to individuals orlocal businesses for furtherprocessing.

Persimmons, pawpaws,chokecherries and crab applesare used for specialty jams andjellies, confections and bakedgoods. May apples and crabapples are used in jellies andpreserves as well as medicinalcompounds. People are growingnatural varieties of pawpaw,sometimes called the “Ozarkbanana,” for more consistent fruitproduction, larger fruit size andsmaller seeds. The pulp of thefruit is high in vitamin C. Thetwigs and leaves containcompounds used as naturalpesticides and anti-cancermedicines.

Edible NutsBlack walnuts have been themajor nut crop in Missouri formany years. In an average yearMissourians deliver more than 20million pounds of nuts to localhullers. Most of this volumecomes from wild trees and isdelivered to market bylandowners. For walnutsdelivered to the huller, producersare paid about $10 per hundredweight after the green outer huskis removed.

Native pecans also are collected

and sold, most of them directly toconsumers at roadside stands orto commercial processors.

Managing native pecan standsfor nut production is increasing,but the market is still open. Manyof the “minor” nut species alsohave good markets. Hickorymarkets are expanding in theSouth and Midwest. In addition,the demand for butternut,chestnut and hazelnut normallyexceeds supply.

Acorns are often overlooked asedible nuts in this country, butthey have future potential ininternational markets, especiallyalong the Pacific Rim. Otheredible products of forests includehoney, mushrooms, maple syrup,herbs, spices, edible roots andflavorings.

Cones and SeedsCones offer a variety of marketpossibilities. The most obviousmarkets for ripe cones are treenurseries throughout the country.Cone harvest often takes place inconjunction with a timber saletimed to when the cones are ripe.Cones can then be easily pickedfrom the tops after cutting thetree.

Cones that have opened alsoare in demand for various floral,wreath and potpourri products.Many nurseries now sell openedcones to craft markets. Almostany species of cone, from smallfir cones to large ponderosa pine,

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are marketable. Cones are mostoften sold by weight but may alsobe sold by the bushel or beindividually priced for large orunusual specimens. Pricesaverage 30 to 60 cents per pound.

Hardwood seed crops can behandled in a similar manner. Themarket is growing for seed of bothtree and shrub species for nativeplant nurseries. Seeds fromunderstory plants and shrubs areequally desirable, and seed frommedicinal plant species may bemarketed as grown in a culturedenvironment. A thoroughinventory of all your forest plantswould be a good idea todetermine if you have potentialfor harvesting multiple seedcrops.

Prices vary according to relativeabundance of the species and thedifficulty of harvesting the seed.Price lists are available fromlarger seed dealers and seedsupply wholesalers. Landownerscan harvest seed themselves orsell harvesting rights to a seedcollection company.

Seed production is variable,even in local areas. For consistentincome, landowners should focuson several different species andbecome familiar with the seedproduction requirements foreach. You also should checkspecial state regulations regardingthe species being harvested,although there are fewrestrictions for harvesting onprivate land.

Decorative Wood &Horticultural ProductsUnusual parts of trees, such asburls, conks, shelf fungus anddwarf mistletoe-infectedbranches, can be sold in mostareas of the country. Distortedgrain patterns, colors andtextures lend appeal to woodturnings, veneer, carvings orsculpture.

Diamond willow walking sticksmade from willow infected withcanker are popular. In Missouri,oak, hickory, willow, redcedar,walnut, sassafras and sumac areharvested for walking sticks when1 to 1.5 inches in diameter.Wholesale prices average $1 to $2per 3- to 4-foot stick.

Cypress knees, fruitwood grafts,pine knots, knot holes and limbcrotches can be marketedthrough hardwood lumber outlets,carving shops and specialty woodsupply houses. A few specialtywood supply catalogs also list avariety of these products.Horticultural supply companiesoccasionally stock this type ofmaterial for bouquets, floralarrangements, bases and otherproducts.

With bark still attached, oak,hickory and elm sticks in adiameter of .5 to 1.5 inches areused by manufactures of bent-wood or rustic furniture. Fresh 4-foot sticks sell for approximately50 cents each. Longer sticks—upto 10 feet long—sell for more.

Eastern redcedar also is used forsimilar products.

Burls, figured wood, spaltedwood or woods of unusual coloralso are in demand for turnings,wood pens, furniture panels,veneer and many other specialtyuses. These are items that arerelatively scarce and highlydesirable; therefore, it is notuncommon for them to be soldindividually.

Spalted wood usually developsin logs or trees that have beenlying on the ground long enoughfor the decay process to begin.Spalting usually occurs in thesapwood portion of the tree,leaving the heartwood still usablefor lumber or other solid woodproducts. Old log deckssometimes are a good source ofspalted wood.

Medicines &PharmaceuticalsMedicinal compounds used fornaturopathic remedies include alarge number of herbs used tomake teas and oils. Thesemarkets are well established andgrowing. Manufacturers ofpharmaceutical drugs also requirespecific chemical compoundscontained in plants and trees.Wild crafting or gathering theseplants has historically providedincome for many rural families.

Pharmaceuticals are not theonly use for many of these plants.

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Some dyes, cosmetics, fungicidesand insecticides also are derivedfrom relatively common plants.Several botanical companies withheadquarters in Missouripurchase and market botanicalplant material throughout theworld. All regularly publish pricelists and specifications for theplants or plant parts theypurchase.

Some of these plants arerelatively rare and may actuallybe listed as rare or endangered.Landowners are advised tobecome familiar with harvestingregulations that might beapplicable if these plants aremarketed.

BarkBark is used for medicinal and“natural” food supplements.Cottonwood bark is prized bywood carvers, who cut faces andcaricatures from the thick plates.It is also used for bases for floralarrangements and crafts. It issofter than wood, but denseenough to maintain detail. Pieces3 to 4 inches wide, 10 to 12inches long and 2 to 3 inchesthick sell for $5 to $15 at craftand carving shows. Bark withdistinctive patterns (such ashackberry, winged elm,persimmon) or color may have amarket in your area. The problemwith harvesting bark products isthat it usually kills the trees.

RecreationThe old real estate adage of“location, location, location,”certainly is true here. If your landis located near populationcenters, your options areprobably greater than if it is in aremote area. Remoteness,however, is a commodity that alsocan be marketed.

Fee hunting and fishing havebeen sources of income in someareas of the country for manyyears. Urban families are willingto pay for places to enjoy naturephotography, harvesting wildedibles, farm vacations, hiking,camping, picnic areas and birdwatching.

Allowing people access to yourprivate property is not withoutrisk. Liability insurance ratesvary widely for recreationalenterprises.

For more informationThere are thousands of potentialforest products—only a few arenamed here. For the innovativelandowner or entrepreneur,however, these brief descriptionswill point the way to specificproducts and markets.

To begin your research, seeVirginia Tech’s Non-Timber ForestProducts web site atwww.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/.

The “AgriMissouri BuyersGuide,” a publication of theMissouri Department ofAgriculture, lists many processorsand canners and markets for awide variety of wild-craftedproducts. This publication is asan excellent reference forlandowners attempting to findexisting markets for many specialforest products in their local area.

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Tax Considerations

Note: The information in thissection is for general educationalpurposes only, and in no way isintended to substitute for legalcounsel. Such advice, whethergeneral or applied to specificsituations, should be obtainedfrom your personal tax counsel.

How to determineyour timber basisBasis is a way of measuring costor investment in timber andother assets. It is used to figureamortization for new treeplantings, depletion when thetimber is sold or disposed of, thededuction for depreciation andcasualty loss.

The initial basis, or book value,of timber should be established atthe time it is acquired. Whetherproperty is received by purchase,gift or inheritance, its value oftenincludes land, buildings or otherassets in addition to timber; andthe basis of the timber must beseparated from the basis of theother assets. When the timber issold, gain or loss is determined bycomparing the timber’s adjustedbasis to its sale price.

At the time of purchase, basiscan be established from allocatingthe share of value for timberproviding the price paid was fairmarket value. The fair marketvalue of the assets should not bedetermined by guesses but byknowledgeable individuals, suchas consulting foresters or

appraisers. If the timber containsa mix of high-value and low-valuespecies of merchantable size,consideration should be given toestablishing separate cost basesfor each type. This will allow theinvestor to recover the basis inthe timber in proportion to theincome received from each typeof timber.

The amount entered as basiswhen an asset is acquireddepends on how the property wasacquired. Below are examples ofseveral common methods ofacquiring property.

• Purchase—The basis ofproperty is usually its cost. Thiscost may include not only thepurchase price but also realestate taxes, closing costs,attorney fees, surveying, timbercruise and any other costsdirectly associated with thepurchase.

• Gift—If property is received asa gift, basis to the new ownerusually equals the donor’sadjusted basis at the time of thegift, plus the amount of any gifttax paid on the gift. This total,however, cannot exceed the fairmarket value of the property atthe time of the gift.

• Inheritance—Your basis inproperty you inherit is usuallyits fair market value at the dateof the decedent’s death. Inmany instances, the fair marketvalue is usually greater than theadjusted basis to the decedent.A special provision in the law

permits a “stepped up” oradjusted basis to market valuewhen property passes throughan estate.

Forest property typicallyincludes several assets, such asroads, fences, buildings andtimber. Separate capital accountsshould be established for thedepreciable assets so they can bedepreciated. Annual depreciationdeductions permit the owner torecover basis in this type ofproperty. Sales contracts anddeeds usually do not list valuesfor land, timber, buildings andother assets because they arepurchased as one unit. Thus, thepurchaser must allocate portionsof the total purchase price toeach item included in the unit.The part allocated to depreciableassets is recovered throughdepreciation. Depletion providesrecovery of the share of purchaseprice allocated to timber. Thepart of basis allocated to land isrecovered only when the land issold.

Determining basisafter property is acquired

The best time to establish a basisfor timber is when the property isacquired. However, it can be doneat a later time if certain informa-tion is available. Woodlandowners who acquired their timbermany years ago and have notestablished a basis for the timbermay find that the cost to deter-

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mine the basis may now exceedthe basis. Generally speaking, thelarger the timber tract and themore valuable the timber, the fur-ther back in time it will pay todetermine the basis. This is, how-ever, made on a case-by-casebasis.

Timber volume

The taxpayer is required toestimate, with respect to eachseparate timber accountestablished, the total units (boardfoot measure, log scale, cords orother units) of timber on the dateof acquisition of the property. Ifinventory records do not exist, itis necessary to use forestinventory techniques to “grow”the present forest in reverse tothe date of purchase. This is arelatively easy task for aprofessional forester if no cuttinghas taken place since the timethe property was acquired. Ifcutting has occurred and recordsof the volume cut are notavailable, it may not be possibleto make the estimate.

Timber value

After the volume by type isestimated, the fair market valueof this timber on the date ofacquisition must be estimated.The best available evidence oftimber values on this date mustbe used. Ideally, the priceactually paid for timber similar incharacter and quality in the

location of the subject propertyon or near the valuation dateshould be used. Foresters whohave been practicing for manyyears may have such data in theirrecords. Timber buyers also maybe willing to provide suchinformation. Otherwise,published price reports may beused if the average prices areadjusted to reflect differencesbetween averages and theparticular timber in question.

Additionaladjustments required

In addition to the fair marketvalues for the assets as of thedate of acquisition, it also isnecessary to determine thevolume of timber disposed of, ifany, since the acquisition. This isbecause the basis must bereduced by the basis allowed forany previous sales, even if thebasis was not claimed on the taxreturn for the year of the sale.

Natural regeneration

If you purchased land withouttrees or with a few trees and,therefore, no basis in timber, butthrough natural regeneration youhave established saleable timber,your basis in the timber is zero.This is because you have no costin the timber establishment. Ifyou planted trees, your basis isthe cost of planting includingseedlings and site preparation.

Adjusted basis

Adjusted basis is the adjustment,either upward or downward, ofthe timber basis or account toreflect changes. The adjustmentsshould be made in terms of dollaramounts and volume of timber inthe account.

Items that would increase thetimber basis would be acquisitionof additional timber and capitalimprovements and carryingcharges, such as timber standimprovement, fertilization andpruning.

These capital improvementsand carrying charges can only beadded to the basis if they werenot expensed or deducted yearly.Likewise, those costs that woulddecrease your timber basis wouldbe depletion resulting from thesale of timber, amounts allowableas a basis of loss for casualtyclaims and costs allowable asbasis of sale.

In addition to adjusting thebasis, the timber volume orquantity should be adjusted toreflect the increase (fromacquisition) or decrease (fromsale or casualty loss). Theseadjustments to basis should bemade annually at the beginning ofthe tax year.

Tax treatmentfrom timber salesWhen reporting income from thesale of timber, the woodland

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owner must determine the dollaramount and the type of gain orloss.

Determiningamount of gain or loss

The amount of gain or loss in atimber sale is determined byreducing the amount receivedfrom the sale by the basis of thetimber and the timber saleexpenses.

Timber sale expenses

Timber sale expenses are thosecosts associated with preparingand offering timber for sale.Examples of timber sale expensesare marking timber, cruising,advertising and paying forprofessional services directlyrelated to the sale.

Basis

For purchases, the basis is theallocated amount paid for thetimber, plus additional costs suchas seedlings and associated costsof planting. If the acquisition wasinherited, the basis is the fairmarket value or the special usevalue that is reported on thefederal estate tax return.

Generally, gifts take the donor’sbasis. If the gift is taxable, the basisis increased to include any gifttaxes paid but not above the fairmarket value. When the timber iseventually sold, there will probably

be a gain from the sale.

The gain is obtained by sub-tracting the basis of the timbersold and any other expensesdirectly related to making thesale. If only part of the timber issold, the cost basis must be allo-cated or spread against the totaltimber potentially for sale. Theallocation of basis is called deple-tion. Thus, basis is the dollarfigure that one has to subtract;depletion is the method used todescribe the recovery of basis.

Depletion unit

The depletion unit is the basisamount per unit (tree, cord ofwood, board feet, etc.) in thetimber account. It is obtained bydividing the adjusted basis by theavailable quantity of timber.

For example, the cost ofplanting 4,000 trees is $2,500.The depletion unit per tree is62.5 cents/tree; 2,500/4,000 =62.5 cents.

As another example, assumethe cost of timber when land andtimber are purchased is $10,000.It is estimated there are 100,000board feet of marketable timberat time of purchase. The deple-tion unit of the marketabletimber at time of purchase is 10cents per board foot, or$10,000/100,000 = 10 cents.

Example 1: An individualpurchased a 150-acre farm in1999 for $200,000. A timber

cruise prior to purchase revealedthat 100,000 board feet ofmarketable timber were on theland with a value of $10,000.

The values placed on variousassets when the farm waspurchased were as follows:

Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$175,000(basis of land)

Depreciable assets . . . .$15,000 (basis of depreciable assets)

Marketable timber . . . .$10,000(basis of timber)

Total purchase price . .$200,000

The timber was clear cut andsold later the same year for$13,000. Costs related to the salewere $250. Below are calculationsof gain from the sale:

Sale proceeds . . . . . . . .$13,000

Less sale expenses . . . . . . .$250

Gross sale price . . . . . .$12,750

Less timber basis . . . . .$10,000

Gain from sale . . . . . . . .$2,750

Example 2: The same individualdecides to do a selective cut.When less than the entire tract oftimber is sold, adjusted basismust be determined for the quan-tity sold. This is accomplished bycalculation of the depletion unit.

The depletion unit is computedby dividing the adjusted basis inthe timber account by the totalquantity of timber in the account.In 1999, the year the timber waspurchased, a sale of 20,000 boardfeet was made for $4,000. Salesexpenses were $200.

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The calculation would be asfollows:

Year 1

Sale proceeds . . . . . . . . .$4,000

Less sale expenses . . . . . . .$200

Gross sale price . . . . . . .$3,800

Less basis (20,000 bf x $.10) . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$2,000

(remaining basis is $8,000;

$10,000 - 2,000 = $8,000)

Gain from sale . . . . . . . .$ 1,800

The $2,000 basis wasdetermined by dividing theoriginal 100,000 board feetpurchased into the original$10,000 sale price. Since 20,000board feet were sold and thedepletion rate per board foot is 10cents, $2,000 of depletion wasused.

In the following year of 2000 anadditional 20,000 board feet weresold. The total board feet in thewoodland just prior to the salewas 81,000, and the annualgrowth is 1,000 board feet peryear. The original 100,000 boardfeet minus 20,000 board feet soldin 1999 plus 1,000 board feet ofnew growth from 1999 to 2000equals 81,000 board feet.

The adjusted basis at the startof this year was $8,000. Thedepletion unit for Year 2 is $.0987per board foot or $1,975. This iscalculated by dividing 81,000board feet into $8,000 of adjustedbasis to get basis per board foot.Then multiply $.0987 by 20,000board feet for a total of $1,975.

The key is to divide the totalboard feet in the year of sale intothe adjusted basis.

Year 2

Sale proceeds . . . . . . . .$ 4,500

Less sale expenses . . . . . . .$200

Gross sale price . . . . . . .$ 4,300

Less basis . . . . . . . . . . . .$1,975(remaining basis = $6,025;$8,000 - 1,975 = 6,025)

Gain from sale . . . . . . . .$ 2,325

In subsequent years, the samemethod of calculation will beused until the original $10,000basis is used up.

Determiningthe type of gain or loss

Standing timber is treated forincome tax purposes as either acapital asset or a non-capital(ordinary) asset. This distinctionis critical in determining whethera timber owner’s gain or loss isconsidered ordinary or capital.

In 1987, 28 percent was themaximum rate at which long-term capital gains could be taxed,while ordinary income ofindividuals could be taxed atrates as high as 38.5 percent. In1988 and later, the maximumrate for individuals is 28 percentand will apply to both ordinaryand capital gains income. Prior to1987, ordinary income and short-term capital gains were fullytaxable, but only 40 percent ofthe long-term gains were taxable.

In 1987 the 60 percent exclusionrate for long-term capital gainswas eliminated.

Under current tax law, theentire gain on a timber sale willbe taxed at the same rates thatapply to ordinary income. It may,however, still be beneficial to thewoodland owner to qualify thetimber sales for long-term capitalgains. Whether a timber owner’sgain or loss qualifies for capitalgains treatment depends on threefactors:

1. Primary purpose for holdingtimber—Timber is a capitalasset if it is neither used in atrade or business or heldprimarily for sale to customersin the ordinary course of atrade or business. Timber heldas an investment by a woodlandowner could qualify as a capitalasset under Section 1221 of theInternal Revenue Code (IRC).Although timber used in a tradeor business is not a capitalasset, its outright sale maynevertheless result in a long-term capital gain if the holdingperiod has been met.

2. How timber is disposed—Ataxpayer may dispose of timberin one of three ways:

a. Lump sum—Standing timberis often sold for a lump sumor fixed amount agreed uponin advance. Assuming salesare infrequent, gain or loss onthe sale of timber if ownedmore than the requiredholding period is a long-term

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capital gain or loss.

b. Pay-as-cut or EconomicInterest Retained-IRC Section631(b)—Sometimes called apay by scale, the price perunit is determined inadvance, but the amount oftimber to be harvested is not.Income from the sale is basedstrictly on the volumeactually harvested. The sellerretains an economic interestand legal title to the standingtimber until it is cut. In thistype of sale, the timber isincluded within a special taxcategory of business propertyidentified by Section 1231subject to capital gainstreatment.

c. Election to treat as a sale—Timber owners who cuttimber for use in their tradeor business can, undercertain conditions, obtaincapital gains treatment by“electing to treat the cuttingas a sale.” This is the Section631(a) treatment. In simpleterms, the owner buys thetimber from himself and thensells it back to his trade orbusiness. If a taxpayer cutstimber owned for more thanone year (six months afterJune 22, 1984, and beforeJan. 1, 1988) before thebeginning of the year inwhich the cut-for-sale or usein his or her trade orbusiness and a Section 631(a)

election is made, the gain isreported in two parts: 1) Thedifference between theallowable basis for thestanding timber cut duringthe taxable year and its fairmarket value as of the firstday of the taxable year inwhich it was cut may qualifyfor capital gains treatment;and 2) The differencebetween the fair market valueof this timber on the first dayof the tax year and theproceeds from the sale of theproducts produced from thetimber cut, less processingcosts, is ordinary income.

3. How long the taxpayer hasheld the timber —To qualify forlong-term capital gains, thetaxpayer must have held thetimber for more than one yearprior to cutting, unless it wasacquired after June 22, 1984,and before Jan. 1, 1988. Timberacquired during that time needonly be held for more than sixmonths. However, when cuttingunder a Section 631(a) election,the timber (or the contractright to cut timber) also mustbe held on the first day of thetaxpayer’s taxable year duringwhich the timber was cut.Under prior law, Section 631(a),elections could be revoked onlywith permission of the IRS. Thenew law permits revocationupon notice to the InternalRevenue Service.

Capital gain statuscan still be important

Even though the rate differentialbetween ordinary income andlong-term capital gains waseliminated in 1988, capital gainswill remain as a separate entity inthe federal tax law. Technically,there will continue to be arecognized difference betweenordinary income and capitalgains.

For example, capital losses maybe used to offset only $3,000 ofordinary income per year, butthere is no limit on using suchlosses to offset capital gains.Thus, if a taxpayer has largecapital losses from any source, heor she will be able to use agreater proportion of those lossesduring any year in which thatperson has capital gains.

Some forest landowners willalso be able to avoid payingSocial Security tax on timber saleincome. This is because gainsthat qualify for capital gainstreatment are not subject to theself-employment tax.

Sale of forest productsother than standing timber

Proceeds from the sale of forestproducts other than standingtimber are treated as ordinaryincome. This includes logs,lumber, pulpwood, poles, minetimbers, maple syrup, nuts, bark,

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Christmas greens and nurserystock. In addition, income fromthe sale of firewood or pulpwoodproduced from the limbs and topsof trees is ordinary income.

Reporting timberincome or losses

The timber income or loss andthe forms used are determined bythe type of taxpayer involved.They include:

• Non-timber business—Timberincome or loss incidentallyrealized other than farming.

✔ Ordinary Income-Form 1040as Other Income

✔ Capital Gains-Schedule D,Form 1040

✔ Timber income incidental toFarming—Use Schedule F,Form 1040 for ordinaryincome and Schedule D,Form 1040 for capital gains.

• Timber-related business

✔ Ordinary Income—UseSchedule C, Form 1040 if soleproprietorship

✔ Capital Gain—Form 4797 andSchedule D, Form 1040

✔ Form T is an informationreturn. As a matter of goodbusiness practice and recordkeeping, the appropriatesections of Form T, such aspurchases, sales and planting,should be completedroutinely by the woodland

owner. If you claim adeduction for depletion oftimber or for depreciationrelated to the timber account,you must complete andattach Form T to your taxreturn. Form T should befiled when a taxpayer sells orcuts standing timber or has acasualty claim.

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Proper management and care ofthe private forest resource isimportant to the health ofMissouri’s economy andenvironment. ConservationDepartment foresters can helpprivate landowners manage thenatural resources on theirproperty.

The Department offers twolevels of assistance based uponthe landowner’s need and interestin long-term forest management.The two levels are advisory andmanagement.

Advisory ServiceAdvisory service is available to alllandowners, including urbanresidents. This service includes:

• Group training sessions

• Publications

• Film and video loan

• Office consultation

• Insect and disease identificationand analysis

• Referrals to consultants

• On-site visits under certainconditions

• Help with evaluating andchoosing land managementoptions.

We encourage owners toaccompany the forester during anon-site visit. The landowner mustprovide the legal description ofthe land or the street addresswith the request for assistance.

Management ServiceManagement service is availableto landowners interested in thelong-term management of theirforest land. Those who receivemanagement services agree todevelop and carry out amanagement program for theimmediate and long-termstewardship of their property.

Management service includesassistance in developing andimplementing a management planfor the property. Activities in themanagement plan may include:

• Marking and selling forestproducts

• Guidance for conducting timberstand improvement work,including harvesting and usingwood products for personal use

• Advice on tree planting,including free use ofmechanical tree planters

• Pest identification and analysis

• Guidance in wildlife habitatimprovement, erosion control,outdoor recreation develop-ment, soil and watershed pro-tection, and forest road locationand construction.

To receive these services, thelandowner must:

• Show proof of ownership with acopy of the property deed or acurrent tax receipt

• Complete a “ForestManagement Questionnaire”provided by the ConservationDepartment

• Develop and agree to follow along-term forest managementplan for the property.

The Department providesthe landowner with:• An on-the-ground visit to

collect forest resourceinformation

• A map or aerial photograph ofthe property showing buildings,roads, streams, vegetative covertypes and other importantfeatures

• An interpretation of theresource information and asummary of managementoptions

• Assistance in developing amanagement program for theproperty.

Marketing GuidelinesSelling timber is only doneoccasionally by most privateforest owners. Many request theknowledge and aid of a forester inmarketing their timber. Conser-vation Department foresters canhelp landowners with markingand selling timber under theseguidelines:

• Provisions under “ManagementServices” are met.

• Property boundaries must belocated and marked on theground.

• The land must not be listed oradvertised for sale.

Where to FindTechnical Assistance

Redbud

70

• The timber sale area is notbeing converted to a non-forestland use.

• The sale specifications must bewithin the allowable limits ofthe management plan.

• The landowner must agree tothe terms of a “Timber SaleAssistance Agreement.”

Consulting ForestersConservation Departmentforesters are limited in theservices they can provide by timeand Department guidelines. Somelandowners, due to the nature oftheir needs or its urgency, maywish to hire a consulting forester.These self-employed forestersoffer services on a fee or contractbasis. Some of the servicesconsultants can provide includevalue appraisals of forest land,damage appraisals and expertcourt testimony. For a list ofconsulting foresters, see theDepartment web page atwww.conservation.state.mo.us/forest/, or contact the nearestregional office. You also can getinformation from the MissouriConsulting Foresters Association,2231 Bluff Blvd., Columbia, Mo.65201. Phone: 573/443-3977.

Missouri Department of ConservationRegional Offices

Atchison

Nodaway

Worth

Harrison

MercerPutnam

Holt

Andrew

Gentry SullivanGrundy

DaviessDeKalb

Buchanan ClintonCaldwell Livingston

Linn

Platte

Clay RayCarroll

Chariton

Audrain

Adair

Schuyler Scotland

Knox

Clark

Lewis

Shelby Marion

MonroeRandolph

Ralls

Boone

Howard

Macon

Lincoln

Pike

Mont-gomery

CallawayWarren St. Charles

St. Louis

Franklin

Crawford

Washington

Ste.Genevieve

St. Francois

Osage

Maries

Cole

Jefferson

Dent

Phelps

Reynolds

MadisonIron

Wayne

Gas

con

ade

Bollinger

CapeGirardeau

Scott

Miss-issippiStoddard

NewMadrid

Pemiscot

Butler

Carter

RipleyOregon

Shannon

Texas

Howell

Douglas

OzarkTaney

Christian

WebsterWright

StoneBarry

LawrenceGreene

McDonald

Newton

Jasper

DadeBarton

Cedar

PolkDallas Laclede

Vernon

St. ClairHickory

Camden

Henry

Bates

Pulaski

MillerBenton

Morgan

Moniteau

Cooper

PettisJohnsonCass

JacksonLafayette

Saline

Dunklin

Perry

Administrative OfficeP.O. Box 180 (zip 65102)2901 W.Truman Blvd.Jefferson City 65109573/751-4115Fax: 573/526-6670

Northwest701 N.E. College DriveSt. Joseph 64507816/271-3100Fax: 816/271-3107

Northeast2500 S. HalliburtonKirksville 63501660/785-2420Fax: 660/785-2553

Kansas City3424 N.W. Duncan RoadBlue Springs 64015816/655-6250Fax: 816/655-6256

St. Louis2360 Highway DSt. Charles 63304636/441-4554Fax: 636/926-9125

OzarkP.O. Box 138551 Joe Jones Blvd.West Plains 65775417/256-7161Fax: 417/256-0429

Central1907 Hillcrest DriveColumbia 65201573/884-6861Fax: 573/882-9807

Southwest2630 N. MayfairSpringfield 65803417/895-6880Fax: 417/895-6910

Southeast2302 County Park Dr.Cape Girardeau 63701573/290-5730Fax: 573/290-5736

71

Appendix 1: ForestryMeasurements and Conversions

English and Forestry Measurements

Length1 rod = 16.5 feet1 chain = 66 feet = 4 rods1 furlong = 10 chains = 660 feet1 mile = 5,280 feet = 8 furlongs = 80 chains = 320 rods

Area1 acre = 43,560 square feet = 4,840 square yards = 10 square chains1 square chain = 1/10 acre1 square mile = 640 acres = 1 section

Volume1 board foot (bf) = 1 inch x 12 inches x 12 inches1 cord = 128 cubic feet of air and wood = approximately 85 cubic feet of solid wood = approximately 500 bf1 cord = approximately 2.5 tons of wood chips

Metric Conversions

Length1 inch = 2.54 centimeters1 yard = 0.914 meter1 rod = 5.029 meters1 mile = 1.609 kilometers1 centimeter = 0.39 inch1 meter = 39.37 inches = 3.28 feet = 1.09 yards1 kilometer = 0.621 mile

Area1 acre = 4,047 square meters = 0.405 hectare (ha)1 square mile = 2.59 square kilometers = 259 ha1 hectare = 2.47 acres1 square kilometer = 0.386 square mile

Volume1 cubic foot = 0.028 cubic meter1,000 board feet (MBF) of logs measured in International 1/4-inch Rule = 3.48 cubic meters1 cord (85 cubic feet of wood) = 2.42 cubic meters1 cubic meter = 35.31 cubic feet1 cubic meter = 0.287 MBF International 1/4-inch Rule

Weight1 ounce = 28.349 grams1 pound = 0.454 kilogram1 ton = 2,000 pounds = 0.907 metric ton1 metric ton = 1.1 tons

72

Appendix 2:Tree Volume Tables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords

4 0.007 0.0115 .011 .019 0.0226 .017 .028 .040 0.047

7 .023 .038 .053 .068 0.0768 .031 .050 .068 .087 .106 0.1169 .040 .065 .088 .109 .130 .153 0.170

10 .049 .082 .111 .133 .160 .188 .21111 .060 .100 .137 .165 .190 .221 .250 0.27012 .070 .121 .165 .198 .225 .260 .300 .330

13 .082 .143 .197 .236 .268 .305 .350 .4214 .095 .167 .228 .273 .311 .353 .40 .4715 .107 .193 .262 .318 .364 .41 .46 .52

16 .122 .220 .300 .367 .42 .47 .53 .5917 .138 .250 .340 .42 .48 .54 .59 .6618 .155 .282 .382 .47 .55 .60 .65 .73

19 .173 .318 .43 .53 .61 .68 .73 .8120 .194 .353 .48 .59 .68 .76 .81 .8921 .217 .395 .54 .66 .76 .84 .90 .98

22 .240 .44 .60 .73 .84 .93 1.00 1.0723 .262 .48 .66 .80 .92 1.03 1.10 1.1724 .288 .52 .72 .88 1.00 1.12 1.21 1.28

25 .312 .58 .78 .96 1.10 1.23 1.33 1.3826 .340 .62 .84 1.04 1.19 1.33 1.44 1.5127 .363 .67 .91 1.13 1.29 1.45 1.56 1.63

28 .388 .72 .97 1.20 1.38 1.55 1.67 1.7629 .41 .76 1.03 1.29 1.49 1.66 1.80 1.9030 .43 .80 1.10 1.37 1.59 1.7 1.93 2.04

*The bold figures in the upper portion of the table are to a minimum top diameter (inside bark) of3.0 or more, but less than 4.0 inches. Other top diameters are variable but not less than 4.0 inches.

Diameterbreast highin inches

Volume when number of bolts is

Washington hawthorn

Tree volume, in rough standard cordsby number of 8-foot bolts*

73

2 14 16 19 10 14 16 2

3 40 45 50 32 40 44 3

4 87 92 102 69 85 92 4

5 158 161 175 128 152 160 5

6 257 254 272 211 244 252 6

7 388 372 397 322 367 370 7

8 555 518 548 464 520 518 8

9 760 694 730 641 709 695 9

10 1006 903 944 856 935 905 10

11 1298 1144 1190 1113 1200 1150 11

12 1638 1421 1470 1413 1508 1430 12

13 2028 1735 1786 1761 1861 1747 13

14 2472 2086 2138 2158 2260 2103 14

15 2972 2477 2528 2609 2709 2500 15

16 3530 2908 2957 3116 3208 2939 16

Total Total

DBH NRO SUM BO SUM SO SUM WO SUM HICK SUM RM SUM DBH

TA

LLY

TA

LLY

TA

LLY

TA

LLY

TA

LLY

TA

LLY

Conversion Factor:5,500 lbs./cord

To find number of cords:1.Tally trees by DBH2. Multiply tally by weight factor for each DBH3. Divide by 5,500 lbs.

NRO = northern red oakBO = black oakSO = scarlet oakWO = white oakHICK = hickoryRM = red maple

Table for FirewoodVolume Estimation

74

1/2 1 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4

12 20 30 40 50 6014 30 50 70 80 90 10016 40 70 100 120 140 160 180 19018 60 100 130 160 200 220 240 260

20 80 130 180 220 260 300 320 36022 100 170 230 280 340 380 420 46024 130 220 290 360 430 490 540 60026 160 260 360 440 520 590 660 740

28 190 320 430 520 620 710 800 88030 230 380 510 630 740 840 940 104032 270 440 590 730 860 990 1120 122034 300 510 680 850 1000 1140 1300 1440

36 350 580 780 970 1140 1310 1480 164038 390 660 880 1100 1290 1480 1680 186040 430 740 990 1230 1450 1660 1880 208042 470 830 1100 1370 1620 1860 2100 2320

Diameterbreast highin inches

Volume when the number of 16-foot logs is

Gross volume of treeDoyle Rule (in board feet)

75

1/2 1 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4

8 15 24 35 4610 21 39 54 68 76 8112 30 57 80 100 114 124 130

14 42 79 110 140 163 184 194 20516 59 105 147 180 213 247 274 29518 74 135 188 235 278 320 360 400

20 92 170 236 295 350 400 450 50022 112 209 290 362 430 495 555 61024 133 252 346 430 510 595 670 740

26 158 300 410 510 605 700 790 88028 187 348 480 595 700 810 920 102030 220 410 550 685 810 930 1060 1180

32 254 470 635 790 930 1070 1210 135034 291 530 725 900 1060 1210 1380 153036 333 600 820 1010 1190 1370 1550 1725

38 374 670 910 1120 1330 1530 1730 193040 415 745 1010 1250 1480 1700 1930 2160

Diameterbreast highin inches

Volume when the number of 16-foot logs is

Gross volume of treeInternational 1/4-inch Rule (in board feet)

Common prickly-ash

76

Appendix 3:Log Volume Tables

6 8 10 12 14 16

6 5 10 10 15 15 20

7 10 10 15 20 25 30

8 10 15 20 25 35 40

9 15 20 30 35 45 50

10 20 30 35 45 55 65

11 25 35 45 55 70 80

12 30 45 55 70 85 95

13 40 55 70 85 100 115

14 45 65 80 100 115 135

15 55 75 95 115 135 160

16 60 85 110 130 155 180

17 70 95 125 150 180 205

18 80 110 140 170 200 230

19 90 125 155 190 225 260

20 100 135 175 210 250 290

21 115 155 195 235 280 320

22 125 170 215 260 305 355

23 140 185 235 285 335 390

24 150 205 255 310 370 425

25 165 220 280 340 400 460

26 180 240 305 370 435 500

27 195 260 330 400 470 540

28 210 280 355 430 510 585

29 225 305 385 465 545 630

30 245 325 410 495 585 675

Diameter(small end)

Length of log in feet

Basswood

Log volumeInternational 1/4-inch Rule (in board feet)

77

6 8 10 12 14 16

6 2 2 3 3 4 4

7 3 5 6 7 8 9

8 6 8 10 12 14 16

9 9 13 16 19 22 25

10 14 18 23 27 32 36

11 18 25 31 37 43 49

12 24 32 40 48 56 64

13 30 41 51 61 71 81

14 38 50 63 75 88 100

15 45 61 76 91 106 121

16 54 72 90 108 126 144

17 63 85 106 127 148 169

18 74 98 123 147 172 196

19 84 113 141 169 197 225

20 96 128 160 192 224 256

21 108 145 181 217 253 289

22 122 162 203 243 284 324

23 135 181 226 271 316 361

24 150 200 250 300 350 400

25 165 221 276 331 386 441

26 182 242 303 363 424 484

27 198 265 331 397 463 529

28 216 288 360 432 504 576

29 234 313 391 469 547 625

30 254 338 423 507 592 676

Diameter(small end)

Length of log in feet

Log volumeDoyle Log Rule (in board feet)

78

Appendix 4: SampleSolicitation of Bid for Timber

December 15, 20____

You are invited to bid on timber located as follows: in the NW 1/4, Section 23, Township 25

North, Range 14 West, Timber County, Missouri. The timber is located five miles south of

Oak Grove on Route AB.

For additional information or for directions on how to see the timber, contact: Forrest

Farmer, Oak Grove, Missouri; telephone 573/555-1234.

DESCRIPTION:

Approximately 160 acres of mixed oak timber. The trees to be cut are marked with a fresh

orange paint spot at breast height and on the stump. About 1,600 trees are marked. Bids are

to be made on a lump sum basis.

BID INSTRUCTIONS:

After the bid is completed, return it to: Forrest Farmer, Route 1, Oak Grove, MO 61234, on

or before 1:00 p.m., January 15, 20____

Mark “TIMBER BID” on the envelope.

The owner reserves the right to reject any or all bids.

BIDDER: TELEPHONE:

ADDRESS: SIGNATURE:

AMOUNT OF BID:

Baldcypress

79

Appendix 5:Sample Timber Sale Contract

Timber Sale Contract

Joe Logger of Big Cedar, Missouri, hereinafter called the Buyer, agrees to purchase from Forrest Farmer of

Oak Grove, Missouri, hereinafter called the Seller, the designated timber specified below:

WITNESSETH:

ARTICLE I. The Seller hereby agrees to sell to the Buyer, subject to the terms listed below, all of the

timber specified below, on a certain tract owned by the Seller, located in NW 1/4, Section 23, Township 25

North, Range 14 West, County of Timber, State of Missouri, located on 160 acres, more or less.

ARTICLE II. The Buyer agrees:

1. To cut only those trees marked with a fresh orange paint spot. Trees marked with an "X" may be cut if

desired.

2. Trees other than those specified above may be cut only for access on areas used for roads and

landings.

3. To pay the Seller a lump price of $12,000.00 when the contract is signed to pay for the trees

designated for cutting.

4. To pay three times the stumpage value per tree, a penalty rate, for each tree that is cut which is not

designated for cutting.

5. To keep fields, fences, roads, and streams free from tree tops and other logging debris at all times.

6. To hold and save the Seller, his officers, agents or employees, harmless from any or all liability on

account of any claim whatsoever, for wages, supplies, equipment, damage and injury to persons or

property arising in connection with any activity conducted or undertaken by the Buyer, his agents or

employees under the terms of this contract.

7. That this contract cannot be transferred to another party without the written permission of the Seller.

ARTICLE III. The following conditions known as Best Management Practices and referenced in the

Missouri Conservation Department publication "Missouri Watershed Protection Practices" apply to the sale

of said forest products and will be adhered to by the Buyer:

1. All roads constructed and used during the cutting and transportation of forest products shall follow

the contour with slope grades of 8 percent or less maintained, except where terrain or the use of

existing roads requires short, steep grades necessitating the construction of water diversion measures

(water bars, broad-based dips, turnouts, culverts) installed at the proper intervals.

2. New roads will be constructed to allow for proper drainage.

3. Except at stream crossings, roads will not be constructed within ____ feet [the corresponding

80

Streamside Management Zone (SMZ)] of any stream, pond or lake on the property.

4. All exposed soil at stream crossings will be stabilized with gravel, grass and mulch, or silt fences to

prevent erosion and sedimentation.

5. Under no circumstances will temporary stream crossings made of logs and brush piled in the

stream and covered with soil be permitted.

6. Wheeled and tracked equipment are not allowed within ____ feet (the SMZ) of any stream, pond or

lake on the property. Trees marked for cutting within the SMZ should be chainsaw felled and cable

winched out.

7. Log decks, portable sawmills or chippers are not allowed within ____ feet (the SMZ) of any stream,

pond or lake on the property.

8. All roads on and adjacent to the sale area used by the Buyer shall be reshaped, seeded and

mulched, and have water diversion structures installed upon completion of the sale as prescribed in

"Missouri Watershed Protection Practices."

9. All human garbage, tires, cables, used lubricants, fuels, fluids and containers used by the Buyer

shall be removed from the sale area and disposed of properly by the Buyer.

10. The Seller or Forester in charge may temporary terminate hauling and/or skidding during periods

of wet soil conditions should these operations be causing or likely to cause damage beyond normal

wear and tear to the roads and trails. The number of working days that the Buyer’s operations are

terminated for this reason shall be added to the term of this contract upon request of the Buyer.

ARTICLE IV. The Buyer further agrees to cut and remove said timber in strict accordance with the

following conditions:

1. To waive all claims to the above described trees unless they are cut and removed on or before

December 31, 20___.

2. To cut all spring poles and pull all lodged trees to the ground.

3. To do all in his power to prevent and suppress forest fires on or threatening the sale area.

4. To protect from unnecessary injury young growth and other trees not designated for cutting.

5. To repair damage caused by logging to fences, bridges, roads, trails or other improvements damaged

beyond ordinary wear and tear.

6. To allow the owner to cut and remove any portion of a tree left on the ground by the Buyer after he

has removed his products.

81

ARTICLE V. The Seller agrees to the following conditions:

1. To guarantee title to the forest products covered by this agreement and to defend it against all claims

at his expense.

2. To grant or secure necessary entry and right-of-way to the Buyer and his employees on and across the

area covered by this agreement, and also other privileges usually extended to Buyers.

ARTICLE VI. It is mutually understood and agreed by and between the parties hereto as follows:

1. All timber included in this agreement shall remain the property of the Seller, and shall not be

removed until paid for in full.

2. In case of a dispute over the terms of this contract, we agree to accept the decision of an arbitration

board of three selected persons as final. Each of the contracting parties will select one person and the

third will be the State Forester or his chosen representative.

Signed in duplicate this ______ day of _______________, 20____.

____________________________ _____________________________(Witness) (Buyer)

____________________________ _____________________________(Witness) (Seller)

____________________________ _____________________________(Witness) (Seller)

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

STATE OF _________________

COUNTY OF_________________

On this ______ day of _________________, 20 _____ before me personally appeared

______________________________ to be known to be the person(s) described in and who executed the

foregoing instrument and acknowledged that ______ executed same as ________ free act and deed.

In Testimony Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my official seal, at my office in

______________________, the day and year first above written.

My Commission as Notary Public Expires _______________.

_______________________________________NOTARY PUBLIC

Chinkapin oak

82

Appendix 6:Pacing

Pacing is a fundamental skill in woods work. The ability to pace off a distance with reasonable accuracy isuseful and is easy to master. A tape measure should be used when exact distances are critical, such as theradius of a sample plot. Pacing can be used to find property corners, measure the distance between sampleplots, estimate the size of forest stands and pace off the base distance when measuring tree height.

Follow these steps to determine the length of your pace:

1. With a measuring tape, mark off 100 feet in the woods.

2. Starting with one foot, count a pace each time the opposite foot is put down (2 steps = 1 pace). Using anormal stride, pace the measured 100 feet several times, noting each time the number of paces it takes totravel the distance. (Note: An exaggerated pace is impossible to maintain all day through forest cover.)

3. Divide the sum of the total number of paces by the number of times you paced the 100-foot distance. Thisfigure is the average number of paces it took to walk 100 feet.

4. The length of your pace will be equal to 100 feet divided by the average number of paces it took to travelthe 100 feet (calculated in step 3).

Example 1

A person took a total of 73 paces to travel a 100-foot distance four times. What is his pace length?

1. Divide 73 by 4 (=18.25). This is the average number of paces to walk 100 feet.

2. Divide 100 by 18.25. The pace length is 5.5 feet.

Example 2

A person with an average pace of 5.5 feet found that a rectangular forest stand measured 70 paces by 105paces. What is the approximate area of the stand in acres?

1. Convert paces to feet: 70 paces x 5.5 = 385 feet, and 105 paces x 5.5 = 577.5 feet.

2. Calculate the area of the stand in square feet: area of the rectangle = length x width,so area = 385 feet x 577.5 feet = 222,337.5 square feet

3. To find acres, divide the area of the stand by the number ofsquare feet in an acre (43,560): 222,337.5/43,560 = 5.1 acres.

One step

One step

One pace

Swamp chestnut oak

83

Appendix 7:Using a Scale Stick

A scale stick or cruising stick resembles a yardstick but has different scales for measuring trees and logs.Most scale sticks have three measurement scales: a Biltmore scale for measuring tree diameter in inches(DBH), hyposmeter for determining the number of logs in a standing tree and a log scale for measuring theboard foot volume of a log. Sticks may be purchased with different log scales. Free scale sticks are availablefrom any Department of Conservation forester.

How to measure the diameter of a tree1. Hold the stick horizontally against the tree, 4 1/2 feet from the ground and 25 inches from your eyes. Be

sure the diameter measurement side is toward you and not the log scale side.

2. Look directly at the center of the tree. Without moving your head, shift your eyes to the left and line upthe zero end of the stick with the outside edge of the tree.

3. Without turning your head, look at the right side of the tree and read the number closest to where yourline of sight crossed the stick. This is the DBH in inches.

4. If the trunk does not have a uniform diameter, measure the diameter at both the widest and narrowestpoints and average the two.

Eye

Lineof sight

Trunk of treeat breast height

25”

Boxelder

25”

4 1/2’

84

How to measure the number of logs in a tree1. Pace off 50 feet from the tree, as level as possible with its base. (Note: Some scale sticks have a 66-foot

base distance. The base distance will be printed on the stick.)

2. Find the point where the trunk diameter becomes too small or large branching occurs. This is themerchantable height. For sawlogs, the merchantable height is usually to a top diameter of 8 inches. Forpulpwood, figure about a 4-inch diameter.

3. Hold the stick 25 inches from your eye in a vertical position. Be sure the side with the “number of 16-footlogs” is toward you.

4. Line up the zero end with the stump height, usually about 1 foot above the ground.

5. Without moving your head, shift your eyes to the merchantable height. Be sure the stick is vertical andnot tilted. The point where your line of sight intersects the stick is the number of logs. Read themeasurement to the half-log. If the reading falls between two numbers, record to the next lower half-log.

Using the DBH and number of logs, you can estimate the board foot volume in a tree. This process is outlinedin Appendix 9.

Line of sight

50 feet

Merchantable height(where trunk diameter becomes tosmall or large branching occurs)

85

Appendix 8: Conductinga Fixed Area Plot Cruise

Except for high-value trees such as walnut and veneer, it is not practical to measure every tree in the stand.Instead, accurate measurements are made on a number of sample plots and this information is expanded forthe entire stand. To give an accurate estimate, the plots must be located throughout the forest stand. Thesample plots can be located by any number of complicated sampling designs, however, in most forestinventories the plots are located at regular intervals on transect lines a set distance apart. Sample plotslocated at uniform intervals is commonly called a systematic sample.

Plots can be any shape—circular, square, rectangular or triangular—but circular plots are most commonlyused. The size of the plot should vary with the type of forest being inventoried. For most forest inventories inMissouri, plots of 1/10- or 1/20-acre are recommended. In stands of large, scattered trees, 1/5-acre plots maygive more accurate results. Small plots of 1/250- to 1/1000-acre are used for regeneration counts. Theaccompanying table gives the areas and dimensions of several sizes of plots.

To determine the number of sample plots needed, use the following guidelines. In stands of 30 acres or less,sample one plot per acre. In larger stands, sample 24 plots plus one additional plot for each 5 acres. Forexample, in a 45-acre stand you would sample 33 plots (24 + [45/5] = 33). This sampling intensity usuallywill give estimates within 20 percent of the actual stand volume.

Plots should be distributed throughout the stand to obtain a representative sample. This is especiallyimportant in stands where there is variation in tree size, species composition and stand density. Use acompass to run transect lines perpendicular to landforms and drainages.

The following formula can be used to determine the distance between transect lines and sample plots:

where: D = distance in feet betweentransect lines and sample plots on aline, A = number of acres in thestand, and n = number of sampleplots.

In the above example, there are 45acres in the stand and 33 sampleplots, so the distance between linesand sample plots should be 244 feet.

The following equipment is neededfor the field work:

• Compass to determine directionbetween plots

• Steel tape to measure plot radius

• Scale stick for measuring treediameters and log lengths

• Tally sheets to record tree measurements

• Penny to measure basal area.

D = 208.71 An

Shagbark hickory

244 feet

244

feet

86

Using a sapling or walking staff as thecenter of the plot, measure the radius ofthe plot with a tape, as determined fromthe accompanying table. Measure severalradii from the plot center and mark theplot boundaries with flagging on trees orscuff marks on the ground. On a tally sheetlike the one in Appendix 9, record thespecies, diameter and number of logs foreach tree in the plot. It is easier toremember where you began if you alwaysstart facing north and work in a clockwisedirection back to your starting point. Alsoremember to measure basal area (seeAppendix 11) at each plot so you candetermine stand density.

1 1 208.7 117.8

1/2 0.5 147.6 83.3

1/4 0.25 104.4 58.9

1/5 0.20 93.3 52.7

1/10 0.1 66.0 37.2

1/20 0.05 46.7 26.3

1/100 0.01 20.9 11.8

1/250 0.004 13.2 7.4

1/500 0.002 9.3 5.3

1/750 0.0013 7.6 4.3

1/1000 0.001 6.6 3.7

Plot Sizein acres

Decimal Square PlotSide in feet

Circular PlotRadius in feet

Area and Dimensions of Sample Plots

87

Appendix 9:Cruise Tally Sheet

The timber cruise collects specific information needed to estimate the volume of standing trees. Theinformation you collect also can tell you the number of trees per acre, basal area and stand density.Appendices 7, 8 and 11 explain how to make tree measurements and set up your cruise.

The accompanying tally sheet can be copied and used to record tree measurements. Because the cruise isjust an estimate, DBH is recorded to the nearest even inch. Merchantable height is tallying to an 8-foot stickor half 16-foot log. When merchantable height falls between values, always record to the next lower half-loglength. For example, if the merchantable height of a tree falls between 1 1/2 and 2 logs, record 1 1/2 logs.Record each tree by DBH and merchantable height, using a legend to distinguish between species.

After all the plots in a stand have been measured, use a tree volume table in Appendix 2 to calculate thevolume. The numbers in each cell of the sample tally sheets show the volume that one tree of that dimensionwill contain (International 1/4-inch Rule). Use a different tree scale if preferred.

Sum plot volumes by species and DBH on the summary sheet. You now have a species volume for the plotsmeasured. This needs to be expanded to a “per acre” basis. Use the following formula to convert speciesvolume to total volume per acre:

On the example below, white oak volume is 539 board feet. White oak volume per acre = speciesvolume/(no. plots x plot size) = 539/(4 x 0.1) = 1,347 board feet per acre.

This basic formula can be used to calculate the number of trees per acre. Number of trees and basal areaare used to determine stand density (See Appendix 12). Tally all live trees in the plot. Number of trees peracre = no. tallied trees/(no. plots x plot size).

Volume/acre =Species totalNo. plots x plot size

Example 1

Using the sample tally sheet, calculate the per acrevolume of each tree species and the total volume.

White oak = 1,347 bf/acre (from above)

Black oak = ____ bf/acre

Post oak = _____ bf/acre

Hickory = ______ bf/acre

Pine = ______ bf/acre

Other = ______ bf/acre

Total = ______ bf/acre

Example 2

You measured all trees on five 1/5 acre plots. Thetally sheet shows 175 trees measured. How manytrees per acre are in this stand?

Answers:

Example 1: White oak = 1,347 bf/acre, Black oak = 1,635 bf/acre, Post oak = 442 bf/acre,Hickory = 412 bf/acre, Pine = 1,325 bf/acre, Other = 105 bf/acre, Total = 5,266 bf/acre

Example 2: 175 trees/acre

Butternut

88

Sample Tally Sheet

Number of 16-foot logs

DBH 1/2 1 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2

12 30 57 80 100

14 42 79 110 140 163 184

16 59 105 147 180 213 247 274

18 74 135 188 235 278 320 360

20 92 170 236 295 350 400 450

# Plots● ●

● ●

(1/10 acre)

Legend

❍ White Oak

● Black Oak

▲ Post Oak

H Hickory

✖ Pine

✚ Other

Volume/acre =Species totalNo. plots x plot size

H ▲

▲ ✚

● ▲

H ●

●

❍

● ❍ ❍

● ❍ ✖

✖

Sample Summary Sheet

DBH White Oak Black Oak Post Oak Hickory Pine Other

12 57 30 30

14 79 42 42

16 294 252 105

18 188 323 135 235

20 295

Species total 539 654 177 165 530 42

89

Tally SheetFixed Area Plot Cruise

Owner:Location:Date:

Cord

wood

Tally

DBH4

6

8

10

Total

Saw

tim

ber

Tally

DBH

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

Number of 16-foot logs

1 stick 2 sticks 3 sticks 4 sticks 5 sticks # 8-foot sticks

1/2 1 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2

# Points

Legend

.007 .011

.017 .028 .040 .047

.031 .050 .068 .087 .106

.049 .082 .111 .133 .160

30 57 80 100 114 124 130

42 79 110 140 163 184 194

59 105 147 180 213 247 274

74 135 188 235 278 320 360

92 170 236 295 350 400 450

112 209 290 362 430 495 555

133 252 346 430 510 595 670

158 300 410 510 605 700 790

187 348 480 595 700 810 920

220 410 550 685 810 930 1060

254 470 635 790 930 1070 1210

291 530 725 900 1060 1210 1380

90

Summary Sheet Owner:Location:Date:

Cord

wood

Volu

me DBH

4

6

8

10

Species total

Species

Total cordwood volume:

Saw

tim

ber

Volu

me

DBH

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

Species total

Species

Total sawtimber volume:

91

Appendix 10:Site Index

The growth rate and quality of Missouri’s forests depend greatly on the site. An early step should bedetermining the site quality of your land for a variety of tree species. This information will allow you tocompare growth rates and value so you can favor the species best suited for the site. Knowing site quality willhelp you decide what levels of management and investment will be profitable.

Site quality is expressed as site index. Site index is the average height of dominant and co-dominant treesat a given age called the index age. In Missouri, 50 years is commonly used as the index age. Sometimes 25 or30 years are used in fast-growing bottomland hardwoods; and in the western United States, 100 years may beused. Site index is used to predict site quality because it correlates well with site productivity, is easilymeasured and is not affected by stand stocking.

How to measure the site index

1. Select 5 to 10 sample trees distributed over the forest stand. Sample trees should be the same species ifpossible. They should be healthy dominant or co-dominant trees with straight, single-stemmed trunks.Reject trees that have been damaged by storms, pests, fire or grazing.

2. Measure the total tree height.

3. Determine tree age from increment cores or stump ring counts. For increment cores taken at breastheight, add 2 to 5 years to obtain total age. Count the rings carefully, using a hand lens if necessary. Eachone-year error can cause a 1- to 2-foot error in site index.

4. Site index curves have been developed for most commercial species. Select appropriate curves for thespecies you sampled. Draw a horizontal line that represents the average tree height. Draw a vertical linethat represents the average tree age. The point of intersection is the site index of that stand.

Broad site quality categories

Good sites = site index 75+

Average sites = site index 55-74

Poor sites = site index 40-54

Swamp white oak

92

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

Tota

l hei

ght

of

dom

inan

ts a

nd c

o-d

om

inan

ts in

fee

t

90

80

70

60

50

40

Sit

e in

dex

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Scarlet Oak

Total age in years

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

Tota

l hei

ght

of

dom

inan

ts a

nd c

o-d

om

inan

ts in

fee

t

80

10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Shortleaf Pine

Total age in years

140130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Tota

l hei

ght

of

dom

inan

ts a

nd c

o-d

om

inan

ts in

fee

t

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Black Oak

Total age in years

140

Tota

l hei

ght

of

dom

inan

ts a

nd c

o-d

om

inan

ts in

fee

t

80

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

White Oak

Total age in years

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

30

40

50

60

70

Sit

e in

dex

Sit

e in

dex

Sit

e in

dex

93

Black oak

Cottonwood

Black walnut

Sweetgum

Northern red oak

Sycamore

White oak

Ash

Black cherry

Silver maple

Shortleaf pine

Scarlet oak

Southern red oak

Black oak

Ash

Basswood

Hickory

Post oak2

Hackberry

Sugar & black maple

Elms

Blackjack oak

Blackgum

Chinkapin oak

Persimmon

Mulberry

Dogwood

Sassafras

Black oak

Scarlet oak

Northern red oak

White oak

Shortleaf pine

Black walnut1

Black cherry1

Southern red oak

Sycamore1

Ash1

Hickory

Post oak2

Silver maple

Basswood

Blackjack oak

Sugar & black maple

Blackgum

Elms

Chinkapin oak

Persimmon

Mulberry

Dogwood

Sassafras

Shortleaf pine

Black oak

Eastern redcedar

White oak1

Northern red oak

Post oak2

Hickory

Scarlet oak

Chinkapin oak

1 Better sites2 Post oak can be acceptable if it is the same size as the main stand and has satisfactory form and soundness.3 Undesirable for timber production, but may be acceptable to meet mast, snag and den tree objectives.

75+

40-54

55-74

Preferred Species Undesirable Species3Acceptable SpeciesSiteIndex

Blackjack oak

Sugar & black maple

Blackgum

Elms

Ash

Black cherry

Persimmon

Dogwood

Sassafras

Sycamore

Species recommendations for timber production by site index

94

Appendix 11:Basal Area

Basal area, an index of stand density, is a measurement oftenmade during forest inventory. Basal area is defined and calculatedin two ways.

1. The basal area, or BA, of an individual tree is the cross-sectional area of the trunk at DBH (4 1/2 feet above theground). If a tree were cut at DBH, the basal area would be theflat top of the stump. The basal area of a tree can be calculatedwith the formula: BA = 0.00545 x DBH2. The basal area of atree with a 18-inch DBH is 1.767 square feet (0.00545 x 182).

2. The basal area of a stand is the sum of the basal areas of the individual trees and is expressed in squarefeet per acre. A well-stocked hardwood stand might have a basal area of 60-100 square feet per acre.

From the inventory data collected in a fixed area plot cruise (See Appendix 8), you can determine the basalarea per acre by calculating the basal area of each tree and expanding this figure to a per acre basis. However,since basal area is such a common measure of stand density, tools have been developed to determine itquickly without actually measuring and calculating the basal area of every tree.

Prisms and angle gauges are two such tools. These tools work in different ways, but both indicate thenumber of trees in a sample plot that should be counted and recorded. Prisms and angle gauges in Missouriare calibrated to have a basal area factor of 10. That is, each tree counted represents 10 square feet of basalarea.

A penny works as a 10 basal area factor angle gauge. To measurebasal area using a penny, follow these steps.

1. Locate the plot center (see Appendix 8 for locating sample plots).

2. Standing at plot center, hold the bottom edge of the pennybetween two fingers and aim it at a spot on the tree at DBH.

3. Hold the penny 25 inches from one eye and close the other eye.

4. Count and record trees with trunks that look wider than thepenny. Do not count a tree if its trunk looks narrower than thepenny. Count every other tree with a trunk that is the same sizeas the penny.

5. Holding the penny over the plot center, repeat this test on all treeswithin your view by rotating to the right until you return to thestarting point.

6. Multiply the number of countable trees by 10 (10 basal areafactor) to obtain the square feet of basal area per acre. Forexample, if you counted 9 trees on the plot, the basal area peracre would be 90 square feet.

7. Measure the basal area on several plots in the stand and averageto obtain the average basal area per acre.

The basal area is thecross-sectional area ofthe tree at DBH.

Include the tree ifthe trunk lookswider than thepenny.

Do not includethe tree if thetrunk looksnarrower thanthe penny.

18”DBH

Basal area =1.767 sq. ft.

Illustrations courtesy of Forest Releaf of Missouri

95

Appendix 12:Stand Density

A forest stand must have a sufficient number of trees to efficiently use the available growing space. Standdensity is a way of measuring crowding between trees and may be expressed as basal area per acre, degree ofcrown closure or number of trees per acre. Very dense stands grow slow while low density stands do not fullyuse the productive potential of the site.

Measurements taken during an inventory can be used to determine the stocking level of a forest stand.Using a stocking chart, a stand can be characterized as being overstocked, fully stocked or understocked.Stocking charts relate basal area per acre, average stem diameter and number of trees per acre. The basicpremise of the stocking chart is that as trees grow larger in diameter and crown size, there will be fewer treesper acre.

The basic data needed to determine stand stocking are basal area and number of trees per acre. Followthese steps using the stocking charts on the next page:

1. Draw a vertical line that represents the number of trees per acre.

2. Draw a horizontal line that represents the average basal area per acre.

3. The point of intersection shows the average tree diameter. From the point of intersection, project a lineparallel to the next lower tree diameter diagonal to the B line.

Stands that are stocked above the A line are overstocked. In this situation, the stand will grow slow becauseof competition for sunlight, moisture and nutrients. Although many of the surplus trees in overstocked standswill eventually die, it is a slow process. Overstocked stands should be thinned to increase tree growth andimprove forest health.

When stocking falls between the A and B lines, the stand is fully stocked. Trees make their best growthwhen stocking is at this level. When thinning, stocking levels are usually reduced to the B line.

Stocking between the B and C lines is understocked. Not enough trees are present to use the full growthpotential of the site. When stocking is near the C line, it will take about 10 years for trees to grow to the Bline.

Example

Your inventory shows a stand has 200 trees per acre and an average basal area of 88 square feet. Find theaverage diameter. Is this stand over-, under- or fully stocked? If you were to conduct a thinning to B-level,how many trees per acre would remain after the thinning? What would be their average spacing?

Answers

Average diameter = 8.9 inches

This stand is fully stocked.

130 trees per acre after thinning.

Average spacing after thinning = 18 feet = 18 feet43,560 sq. ft./acre130 trees/acre

Post oak

96

Bas

al a

rea

per

acre

(sq

uare

fee

t)

Hundred trees per acre

Bas

al a

rea

per

acre

(sq

uare

fee

t)

Trees per acre (number)

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

110

100

80

90

70

60

50

30

20

40

40B

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

A

Average tree diameter

Overstocked

Fully stocked

UnderstockedC

B

Stoc

king

per

cent

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

AAverage tree diameter

Overstocked

Fully stocked

Understocked

C

B

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

Stoc

king

per

cent

A15

1413

1211

10

9

8

7

7

6

5

4

3

97

Appendix 13:Conducting a Log Tally

Log scaling estimates the board feet of lumber that can be sawn from a log. The scaling of logs is thenormal basis of transaction between loggers and sawmills or loggers and landowners in the case of a yieldtimber sale. Although not as accurate as the actual lumber tally after sawing, log scaling has certainadvantages. It allows prompt settlement for timber cut without waiting for the actual sawmill yield.

To scale logs, you need a log scale stick, a tally sheet and a logging crayon or chalk. Follow these steps:

1. Obtain a log tally sheet or make one similar to the chart on the next page. Include all the diameter andspecies categories necessary.

2. Measure the length of the log. The logs should be cut to the nearest even foot between 8 and 16 feet withan additional 3 to 4 inches for trim. Logs without adequate trim allowance must be scaled down to thenearest even foot.

3. Measure the diameter of the log inside the bark at the small end of the log. Be sure to use the side of thestick marked “log scale.” On oval-shaped logs, measure the longest and shortest diameters and averagethe two.

4. Write the diameter and length of the log on the small end (12/10 means a diameter of 12 inches and alength of 10 feet) and place a dot in the appropriate box on the tally sheet.

After all the logs have been scaled, calculate the volumes using one of the log rules in Appendix 3. Mostlog scale sticks have the log rule printed on them. If keeping a tally of the logs by species and size is notimportant, you can simply record the number of board feet in each log after scaling it.

Example

Determine the board foot volume for each tree species below using the information given on the samplelog tally sheet and the International 1/4-Inch Log Rule in Appendix 3.

White oak __________

Black oak __________

Hickory __________

Total board feet __________

Answers

White oak: 1,175 bf

Black oak: 1,380 bf

Hickory: 690 bf

Total board feet: 3,245

Bitternut hickory

98

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Location Tallied by:of landing: Date:

Dot and Line Methodof Tallying by Tens

8 10 12 14 16 8 10 12 14 16 8 10 12 14 16

Diameterof logat small endin inches

Kinds of Trees and Length of Logs

White Oak Black Oak Hickory

●● ●

● ● ●

● ●● ●

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10● ● ●

●

●

●

●

●

●

● ●

● ● ●

● ● ●

● ● ●

● ●● ●

● ●

●

● ●

99

Appendix 14:Sources of Assistance

In Missouri several organizations, associations andindividuals can provide publications, technicaladvice, educational programs and financialassistance to help you manage your woodlands. Startwith your local Conservation Department orUniversity Outreach and Extension office. They willassist you or help you find the appropriate agency orindividual for your land management decisions.Below are some of the resources available.

Missouri Christmas TreeProducers AssociationSecretary/Treasurer, 301 County Road 245Armstrong, MO 65230, 660/273-2368

and

National Christmas Tree Association1000 Executive Parkway, Suite 220St. Louis, MO 63141-6372, 314/205-0944

The Missouri Christmas Tree Producers Associationis a nonprofit organization of growers and technicalpersons dedicated to promoting the Christmas treegrowing industry in Missouri. Objectives includeadvancing the production of high-quality Christmastrees, promoting research related to production,keeping members informed about current research,conducting educational meetings and tours ofsuccessful plantations, sharing information andexperiences, and encouraging the use of naturalChristmas trees. Missouri association members alsoare members of the National Christmas TreeAssociation, which entitles them to the nationalpublication and makes them eligible to apply forseveral liability insurance programs.

Missouri Consulting Foresters Association2231 Bluff Blvd., Columbia, MO 65201573/443-3977

Private foresters furnish a variety of forestmanagement activities on a fee basis. Servicesinclude all types of appraisal work: timber land,

timber sales, ornamental shade tree damage orvalue, timber theft, damage to trees due tochemicals, construction, storms, etc. Consultantsalso perform all phases of a timber sale: mark treesto be harvested, summary tally the marked trees byspecies and board foot volume, determine estimatedvalue, solicit bids, assist in the sale, provide timbersale contracts and supervise harvesting operations.They also handle a broad spectrum of work,including forest, wildlife, recreation and watermanagement; insect and disease identification andcontrol recommendations; tax information; treeplanting; timber stand improvement; pruning;thinning; and boundary marking.

Often consultants can provide these services at amore intensive level, provide a quicker response,offer unlimited repeat services and spend more timewith a client than public foresters can. You can get adirectory of consulting foresters in Missouri from thestate forester, the extension forester or the MissouriConsulting Foresters Association.

Missouri Department of AgricultureP.O. Box 630, Jefferson City, MO 65102573/751-2462

The Missouri Department of Agriculture licenses andregulates applicators of pesticides. With theassistance of other state and federal agencies, it alsoconducts surveys to locate and control the spread ofserious insect pests and plant diseases. TheDepartment establishes preservative retentionstandards for treated timber products. It also helpspecan and other nut growers, fish farmers andproduce growers market their products.

Missouri Department of ConservationP.O. Box 180, Jefferson City, MO 65102573/751-4115

The Missouri Department of Conservation, throughits Forestry Division, offers free technical advice and

Blackjack oak

100

services to landowners. Professional foresters cangive on-the-ground advice and assistance on treeplanting, woodland management, fuelwood cutting,timber stand improvement, harvesting andmarketing, wildfire protection, insect and diseasedetection and woodland wildlife management.Foresters will prepare management plans and giveadvice on available financial assistance programs. Ifyou are a landowner, you can receive cost-sharepayments for specific forestry practices, such astimber stand improvement and tree planting. (Alsosee Farm Service Agency on page 101 and NaturalResources Conservation Service on page 102.)

The Forestry Division operates the George O.White State Forest Nursery at Licking, Mo. You canpurchase tree and shrub seedlings at minimal costfor conservation plantings on private lands. Obtainorder forms at your local Conservation Department,University Outreach and Extension, Soil and WaterConservation District office, or on the web atwww.conservation.state.mo.us/forest/. You can orderfrom November through mid-February on a first-come, first-served basis.

Missouri Department of NaturalResourcesP.O. Box 176, Jefferson City, MO 65102800/334-6946

The Department of Natural Resources regulatesstandards for air, water, minerals and energy. It alsoadministers the extensive system of state parks andhistoric sites in Missouri. Staff members in theDivision of Geology and Land Survey restore originalpublic land survey corners to ensure accuratelocation of property boundaries. DNR’s soil andwater conservation program promotes good farmingpractices to prevent erosion and runoff. The staffhelps counties form soil and water conservationdistricts to encourage watershed protection andproper land management.

The Missouri Soil and Water Districts’ Commission

develops statewide resource conservation programs.These programs are administered locally by countySoil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCDs) inaffiliation with the USDA Natural ResourcesConservation Service (see USDA section on pages101-102). Currently, a state-funded soil and waterconservation cost-share program offers financialincentives to agricultural landowners if they installerosion control projects and practices. A soil andwater conservation loan interest-share programoffers rebates to landowners for authorizedconservation projects. Eligible projects for eitherprogram include establishment or protection ofwoodlands. For more information, contact your localSWCD office.

Missouri Forest Products Association611 E. Capitol, Suite 1Jefferson City, MO 65101573/634-3252

The Missouri Forest Products Association providesservices to sawmill owners, loggers, wood productsmanufacturers and forest landowners. You canreceive information and services relating to timberstand improvement, timber sale contracts, markets,insurance, waste use and legislation. MFPA is a co-sponsor of the Missouri Tree Farm program. Theassociation helped pass the Forest Cropland Law andcooperates in a market report on log values. Itsponsors a biennial forest industry regional tradeshow.

Missouri Nut Growers AssociationSecretary/Treasurer, Route 3, Box 196Butler, MO 64730, 660/925-3253

The Missouri Nut Growers Association is a nonprofitorganization of growers of pecan, walnut, hickoryand other nut species. The common interest of allthese individuals is growing and promoting Missouri-grown nuts. Members can exchange ideas, tour nut

101

groves and plantations, obtain information aboutplanting and growing nut trees, and keep informedabout current research. Meetings are held four timesa year, usually at a grower’s farm.

Missouri State Tree Farm Committeec/o Missouri Forest Products Association611 E. Capitol, Suite 1, Jefferson City, MO 65101573/634-3252

The Tree Farm Program is a national programsponsored by wood-using industries and coordinatedby the American Forest Foundation to promotesound forest management on privately ownedwoodlands. To qualify as a Tree Farm, yourwoodlands must be privately owned, 10 acres ormore in size, managed for production of timber andforest products and protected from fire, insects,disease and grazing.

You can have a forester inspect your woodlands tohelp you develop a management plan and todetermine whether your woods qualify for the TreeFarm system. Owners of certified woodlands receivewoodland management information and a green-and-white Tree Farm sign to post on their land. Everyyear, Missouri tree farmers are recognized for wiseforest management through the Outstanding StateTree Farm awards sponsored by the State Tree FarmCommittee. Contact the committee or your localforester for more information.

Walnut Council, International4545 Northwestern Drive, Suite CZionsville, IN 46077, 317/802-0332

The Walnut Council includes walnut growers,researchers, foresters, and walnut buyers andmanufacturers. Their common interest is growingand using black walnut trees. Landowners exchangeideas and discuss problems at the annual meeting.They also can obtain information about planting,growing and tending black walnut trees for nut,

lumber and veneer crops at the meeting or from theoffice. As a member of the Walnut CouncilInternational, you may join the Missouri chapter forcloser-to-home information.

University of Missouri-ColumbiaSchool of Natural Resources203 Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources BuildingColumbia, MO 65211, 573/882-7242

As a land-grant institution, the University ofMissouri has three functions: teaching, research andextension. The School of Natural Resources (a partof the College of Agriculture, Food and NaturalResources) offers undergraduate and graduateprograms in forest resource management, forestrecreation, urban forestry and industrial forestry. Italso has degree programs in fisheries and wildlife;soils and atmospheric science; and parks, recreationand tourism. Faculty research focuses on the naturalresources of Missouri. The school also administerscenters for agroforestry, tourism and water quality.

USDA Cooperative Extension Service,University Outreach and Extension2-28 Agriculture Building, Columbia, MO 65211573/882-6385

The Cooperative Extension Service providestechnology transfer in cooperation with local andstate extension services through land-grantuniversities, such as the University of Missouri-Columbia and Lincoln University. UniversityOutreach and Extension offices are located in eachcounty of Missouri.

USDA Farm Service Agency601 Business Loop 70 West, Suite 225Columbia, MO 65203, 573/876-0932

The Farm Service Agency administers theConservation Reserve Program. This program is

Ohio buckeye

102

available in all counties in Missouri. The CRP offerscost-share incentives that provide landowners theopportunity to carry out conservation andenvironmental practices that result in long-termpublic benefits. Trees, as well as wildlife coverpractices, are eligible for cost-share assistance. Inaddition to cost-share assistance, CRP also provides10-15 year annual rental payments to thoseproducers who participate in the program.

The FSA also assists the USDA Forest Service inadministering the Stewardship Incentives Program.Under this program, cost-share assistance isavailable for a wide range of forestry-relatedpractices. You can discuss eligibility requirementsand fill out applications for CRP or SIP at the countyFSA office where your farm is located.

USDA Forest ServiceMark Twain National Forest401 Fairgrounds Road, Rolla, MO 65401573/364-4621

The U.S. Forest Service manages the federal lands ofthe Mark Twain National Forest in Missouri,providing the multiple benefits of timber, recreation,watershed protection, grazing and wildlife. The staffconducts research on oak culture and management.The Forest Service cooperates on programs designedto benefit private woodland owners.

USDA Forest ServiceNorth Central Research Station202 Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources Bldg.Columbia, MO 65211-7260, 573/875-5341

The North Central Forest Experiment Station hasfield laboratories at Columbia and Jefferson City.Laboratory staffs conduct forest and wildliferesearch on upland forests in Missouri andsurrounding states. Research information is availableon silviculture and ecology of hardwood forests,growth and yield, oak flowering and acorn

production, forest wildlife, propagation, groundcovers, old-growth forests, site productivity andecosystem management.

USDA Natural ResourcesConservation ServiceParkade Center, Suite 250, 601 Business Loop70 West, Columbia, MO 65203, 573/876-0900

The Natural Resources Conservation Service(formerly the Soil Conservation Service) providestechnical assistance and guidance to land users,groups, and units of government to protect, developand wisely use soil, plant, air, water, and animalresources. NRCS programs and initiatives includereducing erosion, improving water quality,preventing floods, enhancing fish and wildlifehabitat, promoting good land use, and conservingsoil, water and other natural resources.

NRCS administers three cost-sharing programswith forestry-related uses: Forestry IncentivesProgram, the Wetland Reserve Program and theWildlife Habitat Incentives Program. FIP is a forestryprogram that encourages landowners to plant treesand perform timber stand improvement work fortimber production and other related forestresources. WRP is a voluntary USDA easementprogram designed to restore and protect wetlands.WHIP is a voluntary USDA program that encourageslandowners to improve wildlife habitat.

Producers can discuss eligibility requirements, fillout applications for these programs or requesttechnical assistance at any of the county field officesin Missouri. Check your telephone directory underU.S. Government for your local NRCS office.

103

Glossary

Acre — An area of land containing 43,560 squarefeet.

Advance regeneration — Seedlings or saplings thatdevelop or are present in the understory.

Agroforestry — A land-use system that involvesdeliberate introduction or mixing of trees in cropand animal production.

Aspect — The direction that a slope faces (north,south, etc.).

Basal area — The cross-sectional area of a tree, insquare feet, at 4.5 feet from the ground (breastheight). When the basal area of all the trees in astand are added together, the result is expressed assquare feet of basal area per acre, which is ameasure of a stand’s density.

Biltmore stick — A graduated stick used to estimatetree diameters by holding it against the tree atbreast height.

Board foot — A unit for measuring wood volumes. Itis commonly used to express the amount of wood ina tree, sawlog or individual piece of lumber. A pieceof wood 1 foot long, 1 foot wide and 1 inch thick(144 cubic inches).

Bolt — A short log or a squared timber cut from alog, usually less than 8 feet long.

Browse — Twigs and buds of small shrubs and treesthat are eaten by deer and livestock.

Buck — To saw felled trees into shorter lengths.

Buffer strip — A protective strip of land or treesadjacent to an area requiring attention orprotection. For example, a protective strip ofunharvested trees along a stream.

Cambium — The growing layer of cells beneath thebark of a tree from which new wood and barkdevelop.

Canopy — The more or less continuous cover of

branches and foliage formed collectively by thetops, or crowns, of adjacent trees.

Cavity tree — See den tree.

Chain — A unit of linear measurement, which is 66feet.

Clearcut — A harvest and regeneration techniquethat removes all trees from an area at the sametime, resulting in an even-aged stand.

Clinometer — An instrument for measuring verticalangles or slopes.

Co-dominant tree (crown class) — Trees whosecrowns form the general level of the forest canopyand receive full sunlight only from above.

Competition — The struggle for survival that occurswhen organisms make similar demands onenvironmental resources.

Conifer — A cone-bearing tree with needles, suchas pines, spruces and firs, that produces woodcommonly known as softwood.

Cord — A stack of wood containing 128 cubic feet.A standard cord measures 4 feet by 4 feet by 8 feetof wood and air.

Crop tree — A tree identified to be grown tomaturity for the final harvest cut, usually on thebasis of its location with respect to other trees andits timber quality.

Crown — The branches and foliage of a tree.

Cruise — A survey of forest land to locate timberand estimate its quantity by species, products, size,quality or other characteristics; the estimateobtained in such a survey.

Cruiser stick — See Biltmore stick.

Cull — A tree or log of merchantable size that,because of a defect, is useless for its intendedpurpose.

Sweetgum

104

DBH — See diameter breast height.

Defect — Any feature that lowers the utility orcommercial value of timber. Defects include rot,crookedness, cavities and cracks.

Dendrology — The study of trees and theiridentifying characteristics.

Den tree — A living tree with a cavity large enoughto shelter wildlife. Also called cavity tree.

Diameter breast height (DBH) — The diameter of atree at 4.5 feet above the ground.

Diameter inside bark (DIB) — The diameter insidethe bark; used in log scaling.

Diameter tape — A specially graduated tape used todetermine tree diameter when stretched around thecircumference of the tree stem.

Dibble bar — A flat or round metal tool used tomake holes for planting seedlings.

Dominant tree (crown class) — Tree with its crownabove the general level of the canopy that receivesfull sunlight from above and partial light from thesides.

Edge — The more or less well-defined boundarybetween two or more elements of the environment,e.g. a field adjacent to a woodland or the boundarybetween two different silvicultural treatments.

Epicormic branch — A weak stem arising from thetrunk or branch of a tree, often following exposureto increased light or fire.

Even-aged management — Forest management withperiodic harvest of all trees on part of the forest atone time or over a short period to produce standscontaining trees all the same or nearly the same ageor size.

Face cord — A stack of wood 4 feet high and 8 feetlong composed of logs of varying length.

Felling — The process of cutting standing trees.

Firebreak or fireline — A natural or constructedbarrier used to stop a fire from spreading.

Firsts and seconds (FAS) — The highest standardgrade for hardwood lumber.

Forest — A plant community dominated by treesand other woody plants.

Forest inventory — See cruise.

Forest management — The application of scientificand business principles to the conservation of foreststo meet specific goals.

Forest type — A category of forest usually definedby its dominant vegetation. For example, the oak-hickory type.

Forester — A person who has been professionallyeducated in forestry at a college or university.

Girdling — Completely encircling the trunk of a treewith a cut that severs the bark and cambium of thetree. Herbicide is sometimes injected into the cut toensure death of the tree.

Grading — Evaluating and sorting trees, logs orlumber according to quality.

Habitat — The place where a plant or animalnormally lives, such as a forest, prairie or swamphabitat.

Hardwood — A term describing broadleaf trees,usually deciduous, such as oaks, maples and ashes.

Harvest — In general use, the removal of all orportions of the trees on an area. It can meanremoving trees on an area to obtain income, todevelop the environment necessary to regeneratethe forest and, on occasion, to achieve specialobjectives, such as the development of wildlifehabitat. Contrast this technique with intermediatecuttings.

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Heel-in — To store young trees before planting byplacing them in a trench and covering the roots withsoil.

Height, merchantable — The commercial heightabove the ground at which a tree stem is salable fora particular product.

Height, total — Tree height from ground level to top.

High-grading — Cutting only the high-value treesfrom a forest property, leaving a stand of poorquality with decreased future timber productivity.

Hypsometer — A graduated stick used to estimatetree height. It is often combined with a Biltmorestick.

Increment borer — An augerlike instrument with ahollow bit that is used to extract cores from trees forgrowth and age determination.

Intermediate cut — Removing immature trees fromthe forest sometime between establishment andstand harvest to improve the quality of theremaining forest stand. Contrast this technique witha harvest cut.

Intermediate trees (crown class) — Trees withcrowns below the general level of the canopy thatreceive some sunlight from above but none from thesides.

Landing — A place where logs are taken to beloaded on trucks for transport to the mill.

Log rules — A table showing estimated amount oflumber that can be sawed from logs of given lengthsand diameters. Two log rules are commonly used inMissouri:

Doyle rule is a simple formula rule used in theeastern and southern United States. It under-estimates the amount of lumber in small logsand overestimates large logs.

International 1/4-inch rule is a formula rule

allowing 1/2-inch taper for each 4 feet of lengthand 1/16-inch shrinkage for each one-inchboard. This measure closely approximates theactual sawmill lumber tally.

Logger — An individual whose occupation isharvesting timber.

Lump sum timber sale — Standing timber is sold fora fixed amount agreed upon in advance; the salemay cover a given acreage, tracts, certain species ordiameter classes of trees. Distinguished from a scaleor unit sale in which payment is based on theamount harvested, e.g. so many dollars per thousandboard feet.

Mast — Nuts of trees, such as oak, walnut andhickory, that serve as food for many species ofwildlife.

Mature tree — A tree that has reached the desiredsize or age for its intended use.

MBF — Abbreviation for 1,000 board feet.

Merchantable — The part of a tree or stand of treesthat can be manufactured into a salable product.

Multiple use — Land management for more thanone purpose, such as wood production, water,wildlife, recreation, forage and aesthetics.

Overstocked — Forest or stand condition where toomany trees are present for optimum growth.

Overstory — That portion of the trees in a standforming the upper crown cover.

Overtopped — See suppressed trees.

Planting bar — A hand tool used to plant seedlings.See dibble bar.

Plot sample cruise — A method of estimatingstanding timber, stocking or volume whereby alltrees are tallied on plots with fixed boundaries.

Point sample cruise — A method for estimating

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standing timber stocking or volume withoutestablishing sample plot boundaries. An instrumentsuch as a prism or angle gauge is used to make a360-degree sweep from a series of sampling points.At each point, the number of stems at which breast-height diameters appear larger than the fixed angleof the instrument are counted. The average stemnumber multiplied by a factor appropriate to boththe fixed angle and the units of measurement chosengives the basal area per unit area of stand. Alsocalled variable plot sampling or prism cruising.

Pole saw — A saw attached to a long pole forpruning tree limbs without using a ladder.

Pole timber — Trees from 6 inches to 12 inches indiameter at breast height.

Prescribed burn — To deliberately burn naturalfuels under specific fuel and weather conditions,which allows the fire to be confined to apredetermined area and produces the fire intensityto meet predetermined objectives.

Props — In mining, round, squared or split timbersthat support the roof.

Prism, wedge — An instrument that incorporates afixed angle and can be used to determine basal area.See point sample cruise.

Pruning — Removing live or dead branches fromstanding trees to improve wood quality.

Pulpwood — Wood cut primarily for manufacture ofpaper, fiberboard or other wood fiber products.

Regeneration — Seedlings or saplings existing in astand. The process by which a forest is renewed,either artificially by direct seeding or planting, ornaturally by self-sown seeds and sprouts.

Regeneration cut — Any removal of trees intendedto assist regeneration already present or to makeregeneration possible.

Release — To free trees from competition by cutting,removing or killing nearby vegetation.

Riparian zone — The area adjacent to or on thebank of rivers and streams. Identified by vegetation,wildlife and other characteristics unique to theselocations.

Rotation — The number of years required toestablish and grow trees to a specified size, productor condition of maturity. For example, oaks mayhave an 80-year rotation for sawlogs and Scotchpine a 10-year rotation for Christmas trees.

Salvage cut — Cutting dead trees, or trees damagedor dying due to pests, fire or disease, to recovereconomic value that would otherwise be lost.

Sapling — Trees from 2 inches to 6 inches indiameter at breast height.

Sawtimber — Trees at least 12 inches in diameter atbreast height from which a sawed product can beproduced.

Scale stick — A flat stick calibrated so that logvolumes can be read directly when the stick isplaced on the small end of a standard length log.

Scaling — Estimating usable wood volume in a log.

Seed-tree harvest — A harvest and regenerationmethod where nearly all trees are removed at onetime except for scattered trees to provide seed for anew forest. Results in an even-aged stand.Sometimes used in Missouri to regenerate pine.

Seedlings — New trees less than 2 inches indiameter at breast height grown from seeds orsprouts. Also, trees grown in a nursery for one ormore years.

Selection harvest — Harvesting trees to regenerateand maintain a multi-aged structure by removingsome trees in all size classes either singly or in smallgroups.

Shade tolerance — The capacity of a tree to developand grow in the shade of and in competition withother trees. An example of a tree with high shadetolerance is sugar maple.

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Shake — A crack in a log that follows a growth ring.

Shelterwood harvest — A harvesting andregeneration method that entails a series of partialcuttings over a period of years in the mature stand.Early cuttings improve the vigor and seed produc-tion of the remaining trees. The trees that areretained produce seed and also shelter the youngseedlings. Subsequent cuttings harvest shelterwoodtrees and allow the regeneration to develop as aneven-aged stand.

Silviculture — The art and science of producing aforest to meet the objectives of the landowner.

Site — The area in which a plant or stand grows,considered in terms of its biological, climatic andsoil factors.

Site index — An expression of forest site qualitybased on the height of a free-growing dominant orco-dominant tree at age 50 (or age 100 in thewestern United States).

Site preparation — Preparing an area of land forforest establishment. May include clearing, chemicalvegetation control or prescribed burning.

Skid trail — A road or trail over which equipment orhorses drag logs from the stump to a landing.

Skidding — Pulling logs from where they are cut to alanding or mill.

Slash — The treetops and branches left on theground after logging or as a result of a storm, fire orpruning.

Snag — A standing dead tree from which leaves andmost of the branches have fallen. Used for wildlife.

Softwoods — See conifer.

Stand — A group of trees with similar charac-teristics, such as species, age or condition, that canbe distinguished from adjacent groups. A stand isusually treated as a single unit in a managementplan.

Stave bolts — Material cut from the white oak groupand used in the manufacture of wooden barrels.

Stocking — An indication of the number of trees ina stand in relation to the desirable number of treesfor best growth and management. See overstockedand understocked.

Stumpage — The value of timber as it stands uncutin the woods on the stump.

Succession — The natural process of change on asite from one plant community to another.

Sustainable forest management — The practice ofmeeting forest resource needs and values of thepresent without compromising the similar capabilityof future generations.

Suppressed trees (crown class) — Trees with smallcrowns that are entirely below the level of thecanopy and receive no direct sunlight. Also calledovertopped trees.

Sweep — The extent to which a tree trunk or logdiverges from straight.

Shearing — To trim back and shape tree branches,making foliage dense and giving the tree a conicalform. Used to produce Christmas trees.

Taper — The decrease in diameter from the largeend of a log to the small.

Thinning — Generally, a cutting or killing of trees inan immature forest stand to reduce the tree densityand concentrate the growth potential on fewer,higher quality trees.

Timber stand improvement (TSI) — A thinningmade in immature stands to improve the com-position, structure, condition, health and growth ofthe remaining trees.

Tree Farm — A privately owned forest or woodlandwhere the production of wood fiber is a primarygoal. It is certified as a Tree Farm by the AmericanTree Farm System, an organization sponsored by the

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American Forest Foundation in Washington, D.C.

Undesirable growing stock — Trees of low quality orless valuable species that should be removed in athinning.

Understocked — Insufficiently stocked with trees.

Understory — All forest vegetation growing under anoverstory.

Uneven-aged management or stand — A stand oftrees containing at least three age classesintermingled on the same area.

Veneer — A thin sheet of wood sliced or peeled on aveneer machine and often used for plywood or forsurfacing furniture.

Veneer log — A large (usually more than 18 inchesin diameter), knot-free, high-quality log from whichveneer is obtained.

Volume — The amount of wood in a tree, stand oftrees or log according to some unit of measurement,such as board foot, cubic foot, etc.

Volume table — A table estimating volume of woodin a standing tree based on tree measurements. Themeasurements most commonly used are DBH andmerchantable height.

Wolf tree — A very large, overmature tree.

Local Resources

When you look up the name and number of a local resource person in yourtelephone directory, make a note below for later use.

Regional Conservation Department Office

Phone No.

Conservation Agent

Phone No.

Wildlife Management Biologist

Phone No.

Local Fire Department

Phone No.

Fisheries Management Biologist

Phone No.

Regional Forestry Supervisor

Phone No.

Resource Forester

Phone No.

Other Conservation Department resource

Phone No.

Farm Service Agency

Phone No.

NRCS District Conservationist

Phone No.

University Outreach & Extension

Phone No.

Other Agency

Phone No.

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