FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES No. 30 · Forest Genetic Resources No. 30. FAO, Rome, Italy (2002) OBITUARY GENE NAMKOONG (1934-2002) Professor Gene Namkoong, our mentor and friend, who

FOREST GENETIC RESOURCESNo. 30

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 2002

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

©FAO 2002

Forest Genetic Resources No. 30. FAO, Rome, Italy (2002)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Note from the Editors.............................................................................................................................................................1

Obituary for Gene Namkoong (C. Palmberg-Lerche)...........................................................................................................2

Forest reproductive material (M. Robbins).............................................................................................................................4

The status of invasive alien forest trees species in southern Africa (B.I Nyoka)...........................................................11

Ex situ conservation of Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Ktze. In São Paulo State, Brazil (A.M.Sebbenn et al.).….....14

The role and implications of biotechnology in forestry (A.D. Yanchuk)………………………...............................18

The Mexican island populations of Pinus radiata (D.Don): An international expedition and ongoing collaboration for genetic conservation (D.L. Rogers et al.)…............................................................................................23

Tree seeds and the Millennium Seed Bank Project (H.W. Pritchard and S.H. Linington)...............................................27

Southeast Asian workshop on forest genetic resources (J. Koskela et al).........................................................................31

Updated ICRAF tree seed suppliers directory………………………………………………………………….35

Assessment of four Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) international provenance trials in Tanzania (P.Iversen et al.)………………………………………………………………………………………………….36

Forest genetic resources conservation in the Republic of Korea (S-W. Lee).................................................................40

Twelfth Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources………....................................................44

The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture........................................................47

Forest genetic resources conservation in Sudan (E.I. Warrag et al.)..................................................................................48

On the doorstep to new legislation on forest reproductive material: policy framework and legislation on trade with forest reproductive material (L. Ackzell)……………...............................................................................................52

Computer programmes for evaluation and analysis of trials of genetic resources collections (IPGRI publication).53

Recent publications from Danida Forest Seed Centre......................................................................................................54

New publication on practical experiences with ex situ conservation of tropical pines ...............................................55

Report of meetings and conferences held……………………………………………………………………...56

Recent publications from FAO………………………………………………………………………….……..57

Other publications of interest ……………...………………………………………………………………….61

Cover photo: Acacia mangium, an important plantation species in the tropics. Phu To, Vietnam. (Photo: Peter Iversen, FAO)


_______________________________

Editors of this issue in the Forest Resources Development Service were:

Christel Palmberg-Lerche Peter Aarup Iversen Pierre Sigaud

All contributions for the next issue should be

sent by 15 July 2003 to:

Forest Resources Development Service Forest Resources Division

FAO of the UN Viale delle Terme di Caracalla

I-00100 Rome, Italy Fax +39 06 570 55137

E-mail: [email protected]


NOTE FROM THE EDITORS

At its 12th Session, held in Rome in November 2001, the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources discussed the place and role of traditional breeding and new biotechnological tools in the wise management of forest genetic resources. In regard to biotechnologies, the Panel noted that such technologies had considerable potential provided that due attention and resources were allocated to conservation and conventional breeding programmes underpinning their application and safe use. The Panel noted with concern that the present public and scientific debate often misleadingly over-publicized the potential of transgenic technologies and single gene effects, with the underlying assumption that “genes for growth”, or “genes for adaptation to harsh environments”, might be found. It stressed that such assumptions under-estimated the complexity of genetic systems and underlying physiological processes and that they tended to divert attention away from more realistic approaches and goals. The Panel welcomed FAO’s increased inter-Departmental activities in biological diversity, biotechnology and bioprotection, and recognized the role of the Organization as “An Honest Broker” in these fields. The Panel took note of the on-going international dialogue, and warmly welcomed the recent approval by the 31st Session of the FAO Conference of the International Treaty on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (see an information item on the International Treaty in the present issue of Forest Genetic Resources, FGR). A brief note on the 12th Session of the Panel can be found in this issue of FGR.

The present issue of FGR also includes information on the 6th meeting of the Conference of Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD/COP-6), which was held in The Hague, Netherlands, in April 2002. CBD/COP-6 discussed and agreed in principle upon an expanded work programme on forest biological diversity and, in regard to its implementation, called for collaboration and support from relevant international and national organizations. The need for close links with the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF), was underlined. While identifying a number of specific activities related to regional and international cooperation, CBD/COP-6 stressed that signatory countries should set their own priorities when addressing those issues in the work programme which targeted action at the national level. The 52 Secretariat Notes, 48 Information Notes and 14 other documents which were used as a basis for discussions in CBD/COP-6, can be accessed at: http://www.biodiv.org/meetings/cop-06.asp

Over the past months, the FAO Forestry Department Homepage has been substantially revised (http://www.fao.org/forestry/index.jsp). Also the forest genetic resources homepage has been given a new look. In addition to information on inter-departmental work, international activities and relevant forest genetic resources topics, direct links are provided to a large number of Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, available both on-line and in printed version. Many of these documents contain recent, country based information on national, sub-regional and regional forest genetic resources programmes and priorities. For access, see http://www.fao.org/FORESTRY/FOR/FORM/FOGENRES/homepage/fogene-e.stm.

Contributions in FGR No. 30, as customary, report on programmes and projects carried out by partner institutions in all regions of the world, and cover a range of activities from in situ and ex situ conservation, species and provenance testing, to breeding, biotechnologies and potentially invasive tree species. Proposed contributions for future issues, not exceeding 2000 words, are welcome. Please address correspondence to:

Forest Resources Development Service Forest Resources Division

FAO of the UN Viale delle Terme di Caracalla

I-00100 Rome, Italy Fax: (39) 06 5705.5137

E-mail:[email protected]

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OBITUARY

GENE NAMKOONG (1934-2002)

Professor Gene Namkoong, our mentor and friend, who died on 3 March 2002, will be remembered and missed by colleagues throughout the world. Gene will live on in our thoughts, his ideas will continue to guide our action, and his work will no doubt influence generations of forest geneticists to come.

Gene Namkoong’s death ended four decades of work, which he relentlessly continued throughout his illness. Gene started his career as geneticist, then as Pioneer Research Scientist, with the U.S. Forest Service (1963-1992), during which time he was also professor of forest genetics at the North Carolina State University, USA (1972-1992). From 1992-1998, Gene acted as Professor and Head of the Forest Sciences Department, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, from where he retired in 2001. His sabbaticals included work at i.a. Oxford, UK; Göttingen, Germany; Uppsala/Umeå, Sweden; and the University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil. Gene Namkoong was member of the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources (1989-2002), the Board of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, IPGRI (1997-2002), and the Technical Advisory Board of the Danida Forest Seed Centre (1996-2002).

Gene Namkoong became, over the years, increasingly interested in international and global issues, and he had a sincere and deep wish to contribute to development and to help developing countries. His visit to Korea, country of his ancestors, in 1974, seemed to have had great personal importance and greatly impacted his later work. His brief contacts with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and, later, his involvement, in the work of IGRI, strengthened his cross-sectoral thinking. Gene also, notably, worked with inter-Departmental issues in FAO in 1990, clarifying links and bridges between the management of crop, domestic animal, fish and forest genetic resources. This laid the foundations for his later involvement in the study, “Managing Global Genetic Resources: Forest Trees”, published by the National Research Council, U.S. National Academy of Sciences, in 1991.

Many words have been written about the fundamentally important, professional role of Gene Namkoong, who helped lay the theoretical and quantitative foundations for modern forest genetics and tree breeding. For this, he received the prestigious Marcus Wallenberg prize in 1994, “for pathbreaking contributions to quantitative and population genetics, tree breeding and management of forest genetic resources”. In parallel with his scientific work, Gene increasingly stressed over the past years the need to further ethical issues in the management of forest genetic resources.

Like his thinking, Gene Namkoong’s contribution to forestry and forest genetics extended to more dimensions than can be easily perceived. The complexity and sophistication of Gene’s technical and scientific writing were underpinned by a genuine wish to contribute and to advance science. At the same time, Gene was deeply concerned about justice and well-being of less developed countries and less fortunate humans. He was an excellent listener who took to heart issues and problems conceived as important and raised with him; these were frequently followed up and included in his subsequent work programme.

Gene Namkoong noted in his work that forests are, “the epitome of diversity”. He stressed the need to think outside strict use of the resources and outside strict conservation of a, “.. mythical, stable, ideal or optimal state of forests and forest ecosystems”. In his Retirement Seminar in 20011, Gene strongly re-stressed his earlier stated conviction that breeding was a form of controlled evolution, and that, therefore, there was no qualitative difference between breeding and conservation. He highlighted the evolutionary interdependence between forests and humans, and the need to focus on the issue of how to manage forest ecosystems, rather then whether to manage them. In this regard, Gene noted that humans no any longer had, “the luxury of ignorance of our effects [on nature]”. “We cannot withdraw management and assume that, in principle, we are not influencing a particular direction for forest evolution that is any less interventional than any other forest treatment”. At the same time, he sounded a warning: “Present

1 The presentation given by Dr. Gene Namkoong in his Retirement Seminar, “Forest Genetics: pattern and complexity”, frequently quoted above, has been published in Can.J.For.Res. 31:623-632 (2001).

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efforts at forest conservation often reflect values of dominant economic powers or the counter-culture, preservationist counter forces, neither of which brings any higher level of justice to the people affected by management”. He stressed that our obligation was not to abuse a complex system, “neither through management which would simplify forests to [wood] manufacturing factories, nor for restoring or preserving a world that never existed”.

Gene Namkoong was over the past years also increasingly worried about what he called, “a mechanical view of the world”. ”In his Retirement Seminar he noted: “Biological reductionism is sometimes driven to considering forests only as a wood-production system. In extreme reductionism, ‘selfish genes’ are considered to control everything including individualfunction, and both forestry and genetics are equivalent to engineering.” In a message to his fellow Members of the FAO Panel of Experts on Gene Resources which Gene sent in January 2002, less than two months before his death, he noted i.a.: “Problems arise when sophisticated techniques [advanced biotechnologies] are applied to un-developed genotypes and when efforts are focussed on those techniques rather than on developing the basic breeding resource. So while it is important to develop the sophisticated techniques that can put the finishing touches on advanced varieties, at least as much effort should go to ensuring the development of the basic breeding varieties. Almost all national agencies that I have seen, put preference on the sophisticated finishing stages of breeding programs and less on the basic genetic development program, so a part of the audible FAO effort has been to support a balanced development of genetic resources”.

Let us value Gene Namkoong’s achievements and honour his memory by striving to interpret and implement the many-faceted principles outlined in his work, and in so doing let us attempt to apply the scientific rigour and the honesty, the deep ethics, the readiness to share and cooperate and the genuine concern for fellow humans which characterized his life-long career.

Christel Palmberg-Lerche Forest Resources Development Service Forestry Department, FAO, Rome (Italy) July 2002

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FOREST REPRODUCTIVE MATERIAL1,2

byMarcus Robbins3

INTRODUCTION

Forest reproductive material (or germplasm) plays a vital role in forestry. Whether sexual or asexual - seeds, pollen or cuttings - it is the means by which previous generations of trees and forests produce future generations through artificial or natural regeneration. It is also the means by which their quality and quantity can be maintained or improved, and is a key source of biodiversity. Demand for seed etc. is increasing in direct proportion to regeneration programmes world-wide. In such programmes, it is essential to start with the right reproductive material, and use it properly. This article reviews some key points and developments, and serves as an introduction to FAO's new web-site4 on forest reproductive material, which will provide a framework for obtaining further information on this important topic.

SELECTION

Species and provenances: Assuming that the aims of tree regeneration are clear, and end-uses are known, the first step in getting appropriate germplasm is the selection of suitable species and provenances. The approach, strategy and methods used will depend on knowledge of the potential species' natural habitat, and existing trials. Around the world, countries continue to be involved in the underlying vital taxonomic, biological, and silvicultural studies of species and provenances. Many collaborate in networks at national, eco-regional, regional and international levels (e.g. the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute's European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN), FAO's International Poplar Commission (IPC), International Neem Network (INN) and the informal network for Leucaena (LEUCNET)). Literature steadily increases on individual species, ranging from brief datasheets to detailed monographs (e.g. those produced by the Forest Research Institute/CSIRO; the Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Centre (CATIE); the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF); the Danida Forest Seed Centre (DFSC); and the Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI). An example of a very useful compilation of such information is CAB International's Global Forest Compendium (see CABI in references). But site-specific trials that confirm species and provenance choice continue to be needed and established.

Kinds of material: Seed remains the forest reproductive material of choice. But extensive use is also made of vegetative material, as many tropical species produce seed infrequently, or are difficult to store, and therefore vegetative means may be the only way to propagate. Currently, micropropagation techniques requiring specialized material are being developed to support genetic improvement. Table 1 below summarizes current methods and materials.

1 Received July 2002. Original language: English.2 This article was written as part of a consultancy by Marcus Robbins at FAO, which also included the development of a web site for information on forest seed and germplasm. 3 Independent Forestry Consultant, 119 Harefields, Oxford, OX2 8NR, United Kingdom; Email: [email protected] 4 http://www.fao.org/FORESTRY/FOR/FORM/FOGENRES/homepage/fogene-e.stm

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Table 1: Key forest reproductive material - kinds and propagation A CLASSIFICATION AND TERMINOLOGY

OF KEY FOREST REPRODUCTIVE MATERIAL KINDS AND PROPAGATION

TYPE OF REPRODUCTION

INITIAL PROCESSES

KINDS OF MATERIAL

DEVELOPMENT STAGES OR ACTIVITIES

END STAGE

NATURAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Natural growth and development of tree

(i.e. internal reproduction)

Meristematic growth > Differentiation of tissues

Leaves, Stem,

Shoots,Roots,

Flowers etc.

Growth > Elongation > Maturation > Senescence >

Death

Mature tree (from which forest

reproductive material is produced)

USE OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION PRODUCTS AND PROCESSES

Natural regeneration Flowering > Pollination > Fertilisation >

Fruiting >

Pollen + Ovule >

Embryo > Seed

Dissemination > Germination >

Natural establishment

Seedling

Artificial direct seeding As above As above Collection Seed coating

Sowing / broadcasting

Seedling

Breeding and artificial regeneration

(Induced) Flowering > (Artificial) Pollination >

Fertilisation > Fruiting

Pollen + Ovule >

Embryo > Seed

Seed harvesting > Nursery germination >

(Transplanting) > (Stumping)

Planting

Seedling (Stumped plant)

Sapling

USE OF ASEXUAL (VEGETATIVE) REPRODUCTION PRODUCTS AND PROCESSES Natural re-growth of

existing plantDifferentiation >

Growth of vegetative organs

Root Sucker, Tuber, etc.

Elongation > Shoot growth

Shoots

Cutting (coppicing) of stem

Tree stump Stump coppicing > Shoot growth

New stems or branches

Artificially induced re-growth of existing plant

Lopping (pollarding) of crown

Pollarded trunk

Pollard shoots Re-sprouted crown

Natural regeneration ofseparate plants

Development of vegetative parts

Leaves, Shoots,

or Plantule

Abscission > Rooting >

Dissemination > Establishment

Rooted plantlets

Shoot cutting Cutting Planting > Rooting >

(Transplanting)

Rooted cutting (ramet)

Shoot / bud and root-stock cutting and

preparation

Scion or Bud +

Root stock

Grafting/budding >Fusion of tissues >

Growth

Grafted tree In-grafted branch

Macro-propagation(Parent tree = ortet offspring = ramet,

ramets from same ortet form a clone)

Branch layering Layer Rooting > Severance >

Planting

Layered plant

Separation of fascicle (conifer)

Fascicle Rooting > Planting

Rooted propagule

Callus formation > Treatment > Rooting/shooting >

Development(= Organogenesis)

Plantule(in-vitro)

Callus formation / cell suspension Treatment >

Somatic embryos >Embryo development

(= Somatic embryogenesis)

Plantule(In-vitro)

Micro-propagation in laboratory (in-vitro)

Excision of plant tissue (from meristematic

tissue)

Explant

As above + Artificial coating >Somatic (artificial) seed

Sowing > Germination (as seeds above)

Plantule

PROCUREMENT

Once appropriate species, provenances and type of material have been determined, procurement follows, ensuring that quality (genetic, physical, physiological) and quantity are appropriate. There are many steps and factors to consider, particularly if collections are arranged direct, rather than purchasing from a dealer.

Collection requires consideration of management, logistics, and reproductive biology. Estimations of seed yield and optimum time of collection are improving as species studies provide data, but it is still an inexact

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science. Harvesting of seed from large forest trees continues to attract the inventive side of seed workers, and many techniques have been devised in an effort to develop effective, efficient and, above all, safe methods of tree climbing. The most successful methods use mountaineering techniques and equipment (see DFSC leaflets for example).

Seed suppliers: Commercial suppliers are increasing, and although many have built up a good reputation, quality must always be checked upon receipt. Several research or development institutions can supply material of high quality, but usually in small quantities. Directories of seed suppliers are available to guide the purchaser, such as that produced by ICRAF (Kindt, R. et al.). All reproductive material, especially material moving in international trade, should be accompanied by recognized certificates of genetic quality and physical quality, such as devised by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): and the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). Phytosanitary certificates are obligatory to ensure control of pests and diseases. Another document which is becoming mandatory, and which complements documentation on genetic and physiological quality of the seed, is the Material Transfer Agreement (MTA), mentioned below.

Handling and analysing: This part of procurement is critical for maintaining the quality of reproductive material. Activities include reception of material at the centre of operations, processing, testing, storage, treatment, distribution, and documentation. A comprehensive review of current issues can be found in Edwards (1999).

Storage: As tree seed crops are often erratic, harvesting needs to be maximized in good seed years. Seed storability is traditionally classified into two classes. Orthodox seeds store best when dried and kept cool. Recalcitrant seeds need to be kept moist and may not withstand cooling for storage. Current research indicates that these form extremes of a spectrum, and in practice there are many intermediate types. There is considerable collaborative work to improve the storability of the more recalcitrant seeds, for instance, that done by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK) and the DFSC-IPGRI Project on Handling and Storage of Tropical Forest Tree Seeds. The use of ultra-low temperatures for storage (cryostorage) is being developed for specialized reproductive material.

Testing: A good knowledge of physical, physiological, and phytosanitary quality of seed is important to monitor collection, processing, storage, distribution and to decide on techniques of propagation in the nursery. Seed laboratories (along with storage facilities) form the core of the many new dedicated seed centres that are being established nationally. Rules and regulations are available which build on experience with agricultural seed, and are used for certifying seed quality. ISTA is the leading source of information on seed analysis (see, for example, Gordon, A.G. et al. 1991).

The International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) Research Group "Seed physiology and technology" provides effective help to exchange information on forest tree seed physiology and developments in seed technology concerned with reforestation and afforestation. See IUFRO in the references.

PROPAGATION

Nurseries: By far the commonest method of propagating new plants is in nurseries - seed is germinated to provide seedlings and young plants which are then planted out in the field. A wealth of information on techniques has been developed for many species, which are recorded in the many nursery extension manuals that have been produced. For commercial production, containerized plant systems have continued to be developed. The importance of microsymbionts is now well recognized.

Regeneration in the field: There are many instances where forests or reproductive material are regenerated or propagated in the field, outside nurseries. Natural regeneration - many silvicultural systems have been developed to help regenerate both temperate and tropical natural forests. They are being refined as reproductive ecology is better understood. However, as frequently emphasized in forestry and conservation fora, enough is known to ensure successful management - but it must be put into practice. Forest management criteria and indictors (i.e. those produced by the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)) can help monitor effects of management interventions with a view to improving such interventions over time. Direct seeding is

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sometimes appropriate and practiced in special cases - DFSC are currently reviewing experience. Vegetative propagation - vegetative material (e.g. cuttings) can be planted direct in the field to form plantations, individual trees, agro-forestry systems, and there has been detailed work to improved methods (see, for example, Longman 1993). A technique recently receiving attention is so-called bio-engineering, where living plants are used to stabilize or rehabilitate degraded soils or contaminated waters (e.g. Howell, J. 1999). This is not to be confused with genetic engineering.

Advanced propagation methods: Techniques of grafting and budding are well established for seed orchards. The most recent advances are in micropropagation which involves the production of plants from very small plant parts, tissues, or cells grown under strictly controlled conditions in the laboratory. The aim is to multiply material for research purposes, or as a first step in a large planting programme to rapidly increase desirable genetic stock. The techniques which have developed from tissue culture include somatic embryogenesis (i.e. regeneration of embryo-like structures from callus cell suspensions). The young plants are referred to as micropropagules. Although procedures have been successfully developed for both hardwoods and some conifers, the cost is high and it is not always certain how well the micropropagules will develop in the field. See table 1 for a summary of methods of propagation.

IMPROVEMENT

In its broadest sense, there are three aspects to improvement of forest reproductive material: conservation of sources, genetic improvement, and sustained production.

Conservation: If resources are considered valuable and/or threatened or endangered, active conservation takes two forms: In situ conservation aims to conserve genetic variation where it originated in natural stands within the range of the species or ecosystem. There are different types of conservation areas defined by forestry and conservation organizations, depending on their legal status, and objectives and intensity of management (see FAO, DFSC and IPGRI, 2001). Forest harvesting and logging carried out as an integral component of forest management, in an environmentally sensitive manner (e.g. in line with Model Code on Forest Harvesting Practice published by FAO (see FAO in references) is compatible with and contributes to maintaining biological diversity. Ex situ conservation aims to conserve genetic variation outside the natural range of the species, as individual planted trees, in clone banks or seed stands, or as reproductive material conserved in long-term storage facilities (e.g. The Millennium Seed Bank Project of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK). New biotechnological methods have the potential for making it easier to conserve larger amounts of genetic variation for longer.

Genetic improvement starts with selection of species and provenances, through selection of individuals, to establishments of seed production areas, seed orchards, selection and development of superior clones, and various levels of controlled pollination. The most advanced stage may incorporate techniques of genetic engineering. The sequence can be summarized as in the figure 2 below:

Table 2: Different methods used in genetic improvement

Species selectionProvenance selection

Plus tree selection Seed stand establishmentSeedling or clonal seed orchards and controlled pollination

Advanced breeding techniques Genetic engineering

In genetic engineering, desirable genes are identified and introduced, or chromosomes are modified using biochemical techniques to remove or switch off genes controlling undesirable traits, or to introduce desirable ones. Such a process produces genetically modified organisms (GMOs), or - frequently - transgenic species. These are mentioned later.

Sustaining production: Seed production areas or seed orchards continue to be established, but many biological constraints remain. Flowering and seed production of forest trees are often erratic, and so far cost-

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effective methods of stimulating seed production, as in agriculture, have not been devised. Even if fruiting is abundant, actual pollination may be poor so that many seeds are empty. The actual time of seed harvest is important to ensure that seed is at its peak physiological maturity. Tackling these constraints requires a good understanding of the reproductive biology of the species.

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS:

Many agreements, policies, legislation and standards have been developed that have a direct or indirect bearing on forest reproductive material and how it is used.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) – an outcome of UNCED - recognizes that forests are an important repository of biological biodiversity, and promotes conservation and sustainable use, the equitable sharing of benefits, and sets out desirable in situ and ex situ conservation measures. There are important implications for forest management, not only for conservation purposes, but also for the availability, development and use of biological resources, including forest reproductive material. The Convention recognizes national sovereignty of countries over such material, rather than being a common heritage, but calls for countries to facilitate access to material for environmentally sound use by others mainly via bilateral agreements. The practical implications of such access and benefit sharing are the subject of continuing dialogue and study in various fora and work programmes (see CBD in the references and box on COP 6 in this issue of forest genetic resources).

The Non Legally Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the

Management and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests (Statement of Forest Principles) – another UNCED outcome - recognizes the importance of forest genetic material, where it affirms (in section 4) "The vital role of all types of forests…. as rich storehouses of biodiversity and biological resources and sources of genetic material for biotechnology products …".

The legally binding International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

(ITPGR) was adopted by the FAO Conference in November 2001. Its objectives are “the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security" (Articles 5 and 6). (see separate box in this issue of Forest Genetic Resources(FGR)).

Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs), are intended to specify the range of conditions that must apply concerning access and benefit sharing by any person or organization wishing to use genetic resources, such as: purpose of access, facilitation, documentation, intellectual property rights, future availability, and national legislation. In forestry, MTAs have been in existence for a number of years in one form or other to cover forest reproductive material, and are currently used on a multi- or bilateral basis by many institutions such as CSIRO, CATIE, ICRAF, OFI, DFSC and the Millennium Seed Bank Project of the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, UK (see article in this issue of FGR).

OECD Scheme for the Certification of Forest Reproductive Material moving in International

Trade - is concerned with the certification of genetic quality of reproductive material, and has been in existence for many years. The scheme defines four broad categories of forest reproductive material: (1) Source-identifiedmaterial, (2) Selected Material, (3) Qualified Material, and (4) Tested Material. and seven types of basic materials: (1) SeedSource; (2) Stand; (3) Seed Plantation; (4) Seed Orchard; (5) Parents of Families; (6) Clone; and (7) Clonal Mixture. These categories and types are used to define fourteen authorized combinations for certification. See Nanson 2001 for an overview of the new scheme. The European Union directive EU EC 105/99 on marketing of forest reproductive material is harmonized with the OECD scheme, entering into force on January 1st, 2003 in all EU countries (see article in this issue of FGR).

ISTA rules and regulations. Seed testing laboratories accredited to ISTA can issue internationally recognized certificates of seed physical and physiological quality. The rules and regulations define the conditions and tolerances required for tests of e.g. seed weight, purity, moisture content, germination and vigour. ISTA has continued to develop rules and procedures for tree seed.

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SOME EMERGING ISSUES:

A number of issues have recently emerged in the forest reproductive materials field, at national or international level. Issues most likely to have an impact include:

Ownership of Forest Reproductive Material: bioprospectingThe Convention on Biological Diversity and subsequent initiatives highlight the importance of

understanding ownership of biodiversity - which includes forest reproductive material. A review of the main issues has been made by Midgley and Boland, 1998. Importance is now attached to the elaboration of material transfer agreements (MTAs), which specify the terms and conditions for access and sharing of benefits. Bioprospecting is a relatively new term and describes the search for economically valuable genetic and biochemical natural resources.

Introduction of Species: alien invasives Some introduced (exotic, foreign or alien) species have often been a success since they have been

selected from a wider range of desirable forestry traits (e.g. fast growth), than was expected to be available from local (native or indigenous) species. In the majority of cases, introduced species are frequently of great economic, environmental and social value and, at times, they help sustain national and local economies; they are thus acceptable or desirable. However, such species can give cause for concern when insufficient consideration is given to the context of their use and their management. This has led to exotic species getting a bad name, and being rejected for real or perceived environmental and cultural reasons that may or may not be justified (see article in this issue of FGR about a case study on invasive alien forest tree species in Southern Africa). "Invasives",and especially "alien invasives" are now presently a political as well as technical issue. More emphasis is being given to the study, testing and use of indigenous species for planting programmes. More generally, the moving of seeds and plants as well as the increasing international trade and travel leads to greater risk of introducing insect pests, diseases or micro-organisms to new areas with sometimes fatal implications for existing ecosystems. These issues are part of the problems addressed by the concept biosecurity, which encompasses all policy and regulatory frameworks to manage risks associated with food and agriculture, including forestry (see box in this issue of FGR).

Modification of Genotypes: genetic engineering and genetically modified organisms Genetic engineering is used extensively in some important crops in agriculture. FAO notes that genetic

modification has considerable potential; however, it is not a good in itself, but a tool which must be integrated into a wider research agenda (see note on recommendations by the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources in this issue of FGR). In forestry, genetic modification is being tested, using techniques such as recombinant DNA and asexual gene transfer, to introduce herbicide and pest resistance, or to reduce or modify the lignin content of wood. Experiments have been carried out on several species, but are most advanced for poplar, pine and eucalyptus. FAO is launching a study of the extent of genetic modification in forest trees, which results should be available in the next issue of Forest Genetic Resources. A useful account of the pros and cons of genetic engineering, in the context of certification, is given in Strauss et al 2001. See also FAO in references.

CONCLUSION

This paper has highlighted some issues concerning forest reproductive material. Because of the central importance of seed and other material, projects and programmes have been implemented to ensure supply through institutional strengthening and capacity building. Many national seed centres have been established, in some areas linked together with regional centres (e.g. in the SADC and ASEAN regions, and Central America). Many have been a success, although sustainability is sometimes of concern. There are many opportunities in such development to incorporate participatory approaches in management and community development, thus helping to increase understanding and sharing of benefits, and to maintain access to forest reproductive material.

Because of the vital role of reproductive material in tree and forest regeneration, FAO has created a new website aimed at giving a variety of stakeholders an overview of the techniques and issues, and a practical guide to sources of further information. This article has been based on a sample of the material that will appear on the website (and eventually in a printed version). We hope you will find it useful, and look forward to comments on how to improve it to suit your needs.

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REFERENCES

CABI (CAB International) - For further information on the Global Forest Compendium, visit the website: http://tree.cabweb.org/Compendium/compenfrm.asp

CBD (Convention of Biological Diversity) For the full text see the CBD website page: http://www.biodiv.org/convention/articles.asp

CIFOR (Centre for International Forest Research) Criteria and Indicators. For information, visit the website href="Http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/ "Http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/

DFSC (Danida Forest Seed Centre). For full details of the publication titles, many of which are available on line, visit the website: http://www.dfsc.org

Edwards, D.G.W. Compiler. 1999. Forest Tree Seeds at the End of the 20th Century: Major Accomplishments and Needs. A State of the Knowledge Report on Forest Tree Seeds. IUFRO Unit 2.09.00 Seed physiology and technology. Available on-line at:

http://iufro.boku.ac.at/iufro/iufronet/d2/wu20900/skr20900.htmFAO: The Model Code on Forest Harvesting Practice can be found at the following website:

http://www.fao.org/forestry/include/frames/english.asp?section=http://www.fao.org/docrep/v6530e/v6530e00.htm

For articles about biotechnology and genetically modified crops, see the following websites: http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0201sp1.htmhttp://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0111sp.htm

For references on biotechnology in forestry, see under biotechnology at the Forest Genetic Resources website:http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOR/FORM/FOGENRES/homepage/fogene-e.stm

http://www.fao.org/biotech/sector5.asp?lang=enFAO, DFSC & IPGRI. 2001. Forest genetic resources, Conservation and management: In natural forests and protected areas (in

situ). IPGRI, Rome. 90 pp. Gordon, Dr.A.G.; Gosling, Dr.P. & Wang, Dr B.P.S. 1991. ISTA Handbook of Tree and Shrub Seed Testing,

International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) Howell, J. 1999. Roadside Bio-engineering: a reference manual, His Majesty's Government of Nepal. ITPGR (International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources) For the full text of the Treaty, see the website:

http://www.fao.org/ag/cgrfaIUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organisations) Seed physiology and technology research group.

Unit 2.09.00. For further information, visit the website: href="http://iufro.boku.ac.at/iufro/iufronet/d2/hp20900.htm

"http://iufro.boku.ac.at/iufro/iufronet/d2/hp20900.htm Kindt, R.; Salim, A.S.; et al. Tree Seed Suppliers Directory: Published by ICRAF (International Centre for

Research in Agroforestry). Can be accessed online at: http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/TSSD/treessd.htmLongman, K.A. 1993 - 95 Tropical Trees: Propagation and Planting Manuals Vol 1-5, Commonwealth Science Council. Midgley, S. & Boland D. 1998. Influences on the international exchange of forest genetic resources - An

Australian Perspective. In Forest Genetics and Sustainability, edited by Csaba Mátyás,November 1999. 300 pp. Nanson, A. 2001. The new OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) Scheme for

the Certification of Forest Reproductive Materials, Silvae Genetica 50: 5-6. Strauss, S.H.; Coventry, P.; Campbell, M.M.; Pryor, N.R.; Burley, J. 2001 Certification of genetically modified

forest plantations. International Forestry Review 3(2):87–104.

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THE STATUS OF INVASIVE ALIEN FOREST TREES SPECIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA1,2,3

byBetserai Isaac Nyoka4

INTRODUCTION

With the actual and projected development of plantation forestry, the issue of potential invasiveness is of growing concern (see the overall paper on forest reproductive material in this issue of Forest Genetic Resources).FAO has initiated a corporate-wide work on biosecurity in food and agriculture, which includes, from a forestry perspective, the issue of invasive forest trees. This paper is based on a report commissioned by FAO entitled ‘Acase study on the status of invasive forest trees species in Southern Africa’’. The specific objective of the study was to review available literature on the importance of invasive tree species, their impact on biodiversity and on economic development in the three countries of Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa.

Documented introduction of tree species in southern Africa dates back to the middle of the 17th century when the first tree species were introduced in South Africa (Troup, 1932; Streets, 1962). In Zimbabwe, the earliest recorded case of forest tree introduction was about 1874, some 16 years before the occupation of the country by European settlers (SRFC, 1956). As many as 750 tree species are recorded as having been introduced in southern Africa (van Wilgen et al., 2001).

The plantation forestry sector, the source of timber and tannin bark is entirely based on exotic tree species. The economic and social contribution of this sector to the southern African countries is shown in Table 1. Besides the direct and tangible economic benefits derived from exotic trees species used in commercial forestry, exotic trees species have also been used to provide firewood in areas deficient of native tree species, fodder, fruits, windbreak, shade, etc.

INVASIVE TREE SPECIES AND EXTENT OF INVASIONS

The introduction and subsequent use of exotic tree species in southern Africa has not been without cost. Some of the species introduced naturalized and became invasive, causing immense environmental damage. Table 1 shows some of the major invasive tree species in southern Africa. It is apparent that exotic tree species from a cross section of uses are all contributing to the invasions. The total area invaded by alien trees in South Africa is about 100 739 km2 which is 8.07 percent of the country’s total area (van Wilgen et al., 2001). In Zimbabwe, the total area invaded is not known but estimates put the area at more than 450 000 ha. All the major ecosystems in South Africa and Zimbabwe have been affected. Zambia is considered safe although lack of awareness could be contributing to this notion. This scenario may be attributable to the fact that South Africa has had the highest number of species introduced and the longest period of tree species introduction of over 300 years. Thirteen Acacia species (A. baileyana, A. cyclops, A. dealbata, A. decurrens, A. elata, A. implexa, A. longifolia, A. mearnsii, A.melanoxylon, A. paradoxa, A. podalyriifolia, A. pycnantha and A. saligna) have all been declared invader species or weeds in South Africa while six of the same species (A. decurrens, A. elata, A. mearnsii, A. melanoxylon and A.podalyriifolia) are known to be in invaders in Zimbabwe. Nine Pinus species (P. canariensis, P. elliottii, P. halapensis, P.patula, P. pinaster, P. pinea, P. radiata, P. roxburghii, P. taeda) have been declared invaders in South Africa and 6 Pinusspecies (P. elliottii, P. kesiya, P. patula, P. radiata, P. taeda, P. roxburghii,) have been identified as invaders of varying degrees in Zimbabwe. The other invader tree species occurring in at least two countries are Populus canescens,Psidium spp., Melia azedarach, Jacaranda mimosifolia, Albizia procera, Grevillea robusta, Bauhinia spp., Senna spp. and Caesalpinea decapetala and Cedrela toona all in South Africa and Zimbabwe and Ziziphus mauritiana in both Zimbabwe and Zambia.

1 Received June 2002. Original language: English. 2 Paper based on FAO report ‘A case study on the status of invasive forest trees species in Southern Africa’. Forest Resources WorkingPapers . Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome. (in press 2002). 3 Paper presented at a workshop on “Prevention and Management of Invasive Alien Species: Forging Cooperation throughout SouthernAfrica”, 10-12 June 2002, Lusaka, Zambia 4 Forest Research Centre, P. O. Box HG 595, Highlands, Harare, Zimbabwe

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Besides Z. mauritiana, most exotic tree species in Zambia are regarded as noninvasive. There is documented evidence that species such as P. patula and A. mearnsii the most invasive tree species in South Africa and Zimbabwe were unsuccessful in Zambia due to environmental limitations.

Table 1: Summary of forestry statistics and invasive alien woody species in three southern African countries. South Africa Zimbabwe Zambia

Land Area (000 ha) 122 760 38 685 74 39

Area under plantation (ha) 1.5 million 118 000 57 000

Contribution of plantation to GDP 2% 3% 1%

Contribution of plantation forestry US$300 million US$90 million US$6 million

No. of people employed 100 000 13 600 na

Annual control programme budget US$20 million US$100 000 na

Uncondensed area affected by invasive trees

10.7 million ha 450 000 ha* na

Major invasive alien species (plantation)

9 Pinus spp. 2 Acacia spp.

6 Pinus spp. 2 Acacia spp.

na

Major invasive alien species (ornamentals, windbreak, shade, etc)

11 Acacia spp. Melia. azedarach,

Jacarandra. mimosifolia,Populus canescens

Bauhinia spp.

4 Acacia spp. M. azedarach,J. mimosifolia,P. canescens,

Bauhinia spp.

na

Major invasive alien species (fruits) Psidium guajava P. cattleianum P. guineense

P. guajava P. cattleianum

Ziziphus mauritiana

Z. mauritiana

Major invasive alien species (fodder) Prosopsis spp na na

na = information not available or not an issue; *figures are estimates.

ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE CAUSED BY INVASIVE TREES AND THEIR CONTROL

Documented environmental damages caused by invasive alien tree species in southern Africa include reduction in stream flow, change in soil nutrient status, reduction in species richness, increase in biomass of some ecosystems and genetic pollution (Van Wilgen et al., 2001).

The control of alien invasive species in South Africa began in the 1940s and in the 1980s in Zimbabwe. Early efforts were largely uncoordinated and erratic, and as a result did little to stem their spread. Today, the main methods of control are mechanical, chemical, fire and biological control.

Control programmes of invasive alien tree species in Zimbabwe and South Africa spend respectively US$100 000 and US$20 million annually.

CONCLUSION

A wide range of trees species were introduced in southern Africa (South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe) for a very wide range of purposes. Unfortunately some of these species have naturalized and have become invasive threatening the biodiversity of the region. South Africa is now the worst affected by invasive tree species followed by Zimbabwe.

The cost of managing invasive alien tree species has to be weighed against the economic and social benefits derived from them. The wattle industry, based on A. mearnsii for example, a major invasive tree species in South Africa and Zimbabwe contribute respectively US$75 million and US$3 million annually. P. patula,another major invasive alien tree species in South Africa and Zimbabwe is planted to an area of 337 337 ha and

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49 141 ha respectively and forms multi-million dollar timber resource for pulp and paper industries in the two countries.

There is therefore, a need to look at both the advantages and disadvantages associated with each species and decisions need to be taken, species by species rather than a wholesome approach in order to best balance contradictory requirements.

A more global review on the issue of invasive forest trees, worldwide, is being initiated by CABI for FAO. The preliminary findings of the review will be outlined in the next issue of Forest Genetic Resources.

REFERENCES

SRFC. 1956. Exotic Forest Trees in the British Commonwealth. Southern Rhodesia Forestry Commission. 37 pp. Streets R. J. 1962. Exotic Forest Trees in the British Commonwealth. Oxford University Press, Oxford. U.K. 750 pp. Troup, R. S. 1932. Exotic Forest Trees in the British Empire. Claredon Press, Oxford. U.K. Van Wilgen, B. W., Richardson, D. M. Le Maitre, D. C., Marais C. & Magadlela. 2001. The Economic

Consequences of alien plant invasions: Examples of Impacts and approaches to sustainable management in South Africa. Environment, Development and Sustainability 3: 145-168.

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EX SITU CONSERVATION OF ARAUCARIA ANGUSTIFOLIA(BERT.) O. KTZE. IN SÃO PAULO STATE, BRAZIL1

byAlexandre Magno Sebbenn2; Ananias de Almeida Saraiva Pontinha2;

Edgar Giannotti2 ; Paulo Yoshio Kageyama 3

INTRODUCTION

Araucaria angustifolia (Bertoloni) Otto Kuntze (Araucariaceae) or Paraná Pine is one of the rare native South American conifers. It has great economical value through wood production and also provides human and animal food. It is distributed in Brazil between latitudes 19º15´S and 31º39´S and from latitude 41º00’W to 54º30’W, and is also found in small patches in Argentina and Paraguay. The original area occupied about 200 000 km2 in Brazil, mainly in the state of Paraná (40 percent of the surface), Santa Catarina (31 percent) and Rio Grande do Sul (25 percent) and in scarce patches in the south of the state of São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro (1 percent) (Carvalho, 1994). The wide distribution probably contributes to the differentiation of this species in geographic races or ecotypes (Gurgel & Gurgel, 1965). Originally, the species dominated the landscape in South Brazil, probably from the last ice age to the end of the last century. The species grows presently exclusively in the Tropical Wet Mixed Forest (Araucaria Forest), in the Alluvial (gallery), Sub-Montane, Montane and High-Montane formations, with 5-25 individuals per hectare. It is distributed between altitudes of 500 and 2 300 m, most commonly between 500 and 1 500 m. The species is long lived, reaching a mean age of 140 to 250 years with records of individuals of up to 386 years of age. A. angustifolia is dioecious, but there are reports of monoecious individual trees. Pollination is by wind, seed production occurs after 20 years of age. The seeds are self dispersed, and dispersal is limited to the neighbourhood of the mother tree, due of the high seed weight. Birds and rodents contribute to dispersion to some degree. Trees reach 10 to 35 m height and 50 to 120 cm DBH, occasionally 50 m in height and 250 cm DBH. The trunk is straight and almost cylindrical, the main trunk is 20 m or more. Initial growth is slow, subsequently reaching 30 m3/ha/year, wood is of high quality and used for construction, plywood, furniture, boxes, pencils, chipboard, etc. It also produces long fiber cellulose and paper of exceptionally high quality. The A. angustifolia seeds are a source of protein, for human, domestic and wild animal nutrition (Carvalho, 1994). A. angustifolia is the native Brazilian species most intensively used in breeding and in genetic conservation studies (Carvalho, 1994). Genetic variation has been observed among populations, and geographically delimited races have been described (Gurgel & Gurgel, 1965; Baldanzi et al.1973; Kageyama & Jacob, 1980; Timoni et al. 1980). However A. angustifolia is still considered a “vulnerable” species (FAO, 1996). The paper will present some ex situ conservation efforts of the species in São Paulo State, Brazil.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The Genetic Conservation Program at the São Paulo Forest Institute (PCGIF), in partnership with EMBRAPA4, has developed a genetic conservation program which includes sampling of A. angustifoliapopulations over the area of its natural occurrence. Activities include studies on physiology and genetic structure of these populations, through progeny and population tests established at the São Paulo Forest Institute Experimental Station at Itapeva, using open-pollinated seed from 15 populations occurring in four states. A total of 123 progenies were sampled, with the number of progeny per population varying from 4 to 14 (Table 1).

Variance Component Estimates Variance components, phenotypic variation, heritability, genetic and phenotypic correlations and expected genetic gain were estimated according to standard procedures outlined e.g. in Zheng et al. (1994), SAS (1999), Namkoong (1979), and Falconer and Mackay (1998). Effective population size and probability of not capturing rare alleles, were estimated according to Crow and Kimura (1970) and Brown and Hardner (2000).

1 Received September 2001. Original language: English. 2 Instituto Florestal, São Paulo, Caixa Postal 1322, 01059-970, SP. 3 ESALQ/USP, AV. Pádua Dias, 11, CEP 13418-900, Piracicaba, SP. 4 Centro da Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Brazilian Organization for Agricultural Research)

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Table 1: Details of the populations and number of progeny sampled per population. Populations Progenies Lat. (o S) Long. (o W) Alt. (m)

Region A 1 Barbacena -MG 9 21°00' 43°50' 1 206 2 Ipiúna de Calda - MG 14 21°40' 46°10' 1 300

Region B 3 Congonhal - MG 6 21°42' 46°15' 854 4 Lambarí - MG 5 22°00' 45°30' 878 5 Vargem Grande do Sul - SP 5 21°30' 46°30' 800

Region C 6 Camanducais - MG 7 22°30' 46°20' 1 600 7 Campos do Jordão - MG 9 19°00' 45°30' 1 800

Region D 8 Itapeva - SP 9 24°17' 48°54' 930 9 Itararé -SP 10 24°30' 49°10' 930

Region E 10 Iratí - PR 7 25°30' 50°36' 880 11 Iratí (Tardio) - PR 10 25°30' 50°36' 880 12 Quatro Barras - PR 9 25°20' 49°14' 915 13 Caçador - SC 4 26°46' 51°01' 960

Region F 14 Chapecó - SC 9 27°07' 52°36' 675 15 Três Barras - SC 10 25°15' 50°18' 760

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Significant differences by the F test of the analysis of variance were found among regions, among populations, populations/region and progeny/population for all the traits, except for the survival trait for region and progeny/population. This indicate that A. angustifolia has maintained its natural genetic variability structured at several hierarchical levels. The genetic variation among regions shows that the populations of the same region are more similar than populations from distant regions, so the genetic flow among populations within regions is greater than the genetic flow among populations of distant regions. This result is in line with the “isolation by distance” theory that assumes that distant populations will have less probability of intercrossing than close populations.

The variance component attributed to regions was null for the DBH and volume, and low for height (<1 percent). The component attributed to individuals within the progeny had a high value (minimum 92 percent) followed by that attributed to populations within regions (4.9 percent) and among progeny within populations (1.7 percent). The significant genetic variations detected among populations and populations/ region for all the traits reinforces the hypothesis of Gurgel & Gurgel Filho (1973) of the existence of ecotypes or geographical races of A. angustifolia. Races or ecotypes are populations adapted to specific environmental conditions, such as climate and soils. This is likely to be caused by directional selection for adaptation to specific environments, combined, probably, with low genetic flow acting against the homogenization of populations. Selection seems to be the strongest evolutionary force, moulding the genetic variability of the A. angustifoliapopulations towards an optimum of adaptation, giving rise to local races, and increasing the genetic homogeneity within the populations and consequently, also the genetic divergence among populations. The genetic variance among populations/region was generally superior to genetic variance among progeny/population, suggesting a clear structuring of the populations. Similar results were observed in progeny/provenance tests by Li et al. (1993) on Picea glauca, in Canada, Zeng et al. (1994) for Pinus caribaea var bahamensis in China and Buliuckas et al. (1999) for Acer platanoides, Alnus glutinosa, Fagus sylvatica and Fraxinus excelsios in Sweden.

The high genetic variation at different hierarchical levels detected in A. angustifolia indicates that the sampling strategy adopted was efficient in retaining part of the quantitative genetic variation of the species. The high survival observed in the experiment (> 84 percent) shows that A. angustifolia presents a high genetic

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plasticity and adaptation potential. Therefore, the recombination of individuals from distinct regions and populations/region could widen the genetic variability and the effective size of the original populations.

In general, populations from the Southern region of Brazil (regions E and F) showed the best growth and those from the north the poorest, except for the two populations, Barbacena-MG and Vargem Grande do Sul populations which, although originating in a northern region (A and B), were classified among the five best. The differences observed in growth were possibly associated to overall climatic characteristics, regions A and B being drier than E and F regions.

All the genetic and phenotypic correlations among the traits were high (> 0.8) and statistically significant (P < 0.01). The genetic correlations were superior to the phenotypic correlations and highest for DBH and volume. Therefore, selection on one trait may also bring gains in another. The heritabilities for the traits at individual level (h²i) and within families (h²w), were lower (mean 0.06) than those reported in other studies on A.angustifolia (Pires et al., 1980). The low heritability observed indicated that genetic control of the traits was weak and predicted genetic gains through selection limited. However this was likely due to the fact that heritability coefficients were estimated on the genetic variation among a maximum of 14 progenies within populations.

The mean heritability at the level of progeny was higher than the heritability at individual level or within progenies, indicating the possibility of greater gains through selection among progenies. However, in this specific case, selection will be made only among progenies to maintain also the original objective of genetic conservation. Two subplots will be kept with female trees and one with male trees for the best performing progenies, and the inverse for worst performing progenies. As there are 123 progenies, 62 will be kept with two sub-plots with three female plants and one plot with three male plants and 61 with two subplots with three male plants and one plot with three female plants. The sex ratio resulting in the test will be close to 1:1 and the effective size will be maximized with the possible limits (Crow & Kimura, 1970). This selection scheme creates low genetic gains for DBH and height (< 3 percent) but reasonable gains for volume (6.7 percent) with the advantage of keeping the wide genetic base and maximized effective population size, capitalizing gains and minimizing crossing among relatives.

The effective population size varied among populations. The Ipiúna de Caldas population had the highest effective size (54) and the Caçador population had the lowest (16). However, all the populations reached more than 90 percent of expected maximum possible effective size if an infinite number of seeds (>10.0) had been collected in each progeny (Ne). Generally, the Ne was less than the minimum usually required (50) for conservation of a population in the short term (Frankel & Soulé, 1981) except for the Ipíuna de Caldas population (54). This showed that the sample scheme adopted for intra population variability conservation was insufficient. Equally, the probability of not retaining an allele with 0.05 frequency was low. The effective size of the populations was high (433) indicating together with the significant genetic variations among region for height, among populations and among populations/region, that a large proportion of A. angustifolia genetic variability will be conserved here ex situ using this scheme.

The few remaining natural A. angustifolia populations in Brazil, approximately 2 percent of the total of existing stands are generally fragmented and degraded. The reduction in the number and size of the native populations and the intensive spread of agriculture and urbanization, prevent the species from surviving or migrating in response to possible future climatic changes. In Campos do Jordão, in the Northern part of São Paulo State, the São Paulo Forest Institute lost an important A. angustifolia progeny test to fire. In situ and ex situconservation strategies must take into account the probability of fire in addition to the reduction in the size and number of native populations, their fragmentation, and unmanaged exploitation.

The results obtained here showed that the quantitative genetic variation within the populations is smaller among progeny in the populations than between parent populations, indicating that these populations may already be suffering the negative effects of exploitation, fragmentation and isolation. If these negative influences continue, the loss of some populations can be expected coupled with loss of genetic variation in others. There is a need to introduce alternative, sustainable management measures and measures for in situ conservation of these resources. For effective conservation of the A. angustifolia genetic resources it is fundamental to delimit additional native stands of A. angustifolia for in situ conservation and to establish “gene flow corridors” between the

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populations. It is also necessary to assist reproduction in native populations and to carry out enrichment planting in them to avoid that due to very few individuals there will be loss of variation through genetic drift. The in situ conservation measures should be complemented by establishing ex situ conservation stands of local population. The sampling of approximately five populations/regions, and of at least 30 progeny/population, along with replication of each of the ex situ banks in at least two localities within each region is recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the technical support team for support to research at the São Paulo Forest Institute for measuring the quantitative traits in the experiment, more specifically Carlos Bagdal, Gilson Soares de Guimarães, Valdecir Benedito Ferreira, Sivaldo Alves de Freitas e Waldinei Ferreira.

REFERENCES

Baldanzi, G.; Rittershofer, F.O. & Reissman, C.B. 1973. Ensaio comparativo de procedências de Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Ktze. In Congresso Florestal Brasileiro, Curitiba, 1973. Anais, Curitiba, FIEP.2o, Com., trab. 23 pp.Brown, A.H.D. & Hardner, C.M. 2000. Sampling the gene pools of forest trees for ex situ conservation. In A. Young; D. Boshier & T. Boyle (Ed.). Forest Conservation Genetics: Principles and practice. CSIRO Publishing, Australia, p. 185-198. Buliuckas, V.; Ekberg, I.; Eriksson, G.; Norell, L. 1999. Genetic variation among and within populations of four Swedish hardwood species assessed in a nursery trial. Silvae Genetica, 48(1): 17-25. Carvalho, P.E.R. 1994. Espécies Florestais Brasileiras: Recomendações Silviculturais, Potencialidades e Uso de Madeira.Brasília: EMBRAPA-CNPF. 640 pp. Crow, J.F. & Kimura, M.A. 1970. An introduction to population genetics theory. London: Harper & Row. 591 pp. Falconer, D.S. & Mackay, T.F.C. 1997. Introduction to quantitative genetics. Harlow: Edit. Longman Group Ltd, 463 pp.FAO. 1996. Report of the Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources. Ninth Session. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 64 pp. Frankel, O.H. & Soule, M.S. 1981. Conservation and evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 327 pp. Gurgel, J.T.A. & Gurgel Filho, O.A. 1965. Evidências de raças geográficas no pinheiro brasileiro Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Ktze. Ciência e Cultura, 17(1) 33-39. Gurgel, J.T.A. & Gurgel Filho, O.A. 1973. Caracterização de ecótipos, em âmbito nacional para o pinheiro brasileiro. Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Ktze. Silvicultura em São Paulo, p. 127-134. Kageyama, P.Y.; Jacob, W.S. 1980. Variação genética entre e dentro de populações de Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Ktze. In: IUFRO Meeting on Forestry Problems of the genus Araucaria, 1979, Curitiba. Curitiba, FUPEF. p. 83-86. Li, P.; Beaulieu, J.; Corriveau, A. & Bousquet, J. 1993. Genetic variation in juvenile growth and phenology in a White Spruce procedence-progeny test. Silvae Genetica, 42(1)52-60. Namkoong, G. 1979. Introduction to quantitative genetics in forestry. Technical Bulletin No 1588, Forest Service, Washington, D.C.. 342 pp. Pires, C.L.S., Barbin, D., Gurfinkel, J. & Marcondes, M.A.P. 1980. Teste de progênies de Araucaria angustifolia(Bert.) O. Ktze em Campos do Jordão. In: IUFRO Meeting on Forestry Problems of the genus Araucaria, 1979, Curitiba. Curitiba, FUPEF, p. 437-439. S.A.S. Institute Inc. 1999. SAS Procedures Guide. Version 8 (TSMO). SAS Institute Inc. Cary, N.C., 27513, USA. Timoni, J.L.; Coelho, L.C.C.; Gianotti, E.; Mariano, G.; Buzatto, O.; Kageyama, P.Y.; Higa, A.R. & Shimizu, J.Y. 1980. Conservação genética da Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Ktze. In: IUFRO Meeting on Forestry Problems of the genus Araucaria, 1979, Curitiba. Curitiba, FUPEF. p. 115 -117. Zheng, Y.O.; Ennos, R. & Wang, H.R. 1994. Provenance variation and genetic parameters in a trial of Pinuscaribaea Morrelet var. bahamensis and Golf. Forest Genetics, 1(3):165-174.

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THE ROLE AND IMPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN FORESTRY1,2

byAlvin Yanchuk3

INTRODUCTION

Forest biotechnology has witnessed many new inventions and techniques over the past decade, and it is likely this will continue at an even more rapid pace in the future. As such, it may be difficult to know what to expect from biotechnology, nevertheless, it is important we continue to evaluate the basic forest genetic management principles that should be considered, irrespective of the options that technologies will offer forest managers.

While the biotechnology debate in agriculture will continue to be very instructive to forestry, several issues in forestry are different and will require special attention. This article will briefly 1) summarise biotechnology currently used and being developed in forestry, and 2) explore some of the issues and controversies related to their use.

BIOTECHNOLOGIES USED IN FORESTRY

Biotechnology can be described as “any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use” (CBD, 2000). This can encompass a wide variety of techniques, but the three main areas in forestry that will likely be important are: 1) the use of vegetative propagation methods, 2) the use of molecular genetic markers, and 3) the production of genetically modified trees (GM trees).

Vegetative propagation methods Vegetative propagation comprises a broad range of techniques involving manipulation of plant tissue

(e.g. sections of stems, leaves, roots, seeds or even cell cultures) which ultimately allows for complete vegetative “re-propagation” of the whole plant, i.e., the production of clonal “varieties” or lines.

The simplest forms of vegetative propagation are the various techniques of grafting and the rooting of stem sections or “cuttings.” Some species can root or graft easily onto rootstock, whereas other species may require more elaborate “treatments” in order to be successfully rooted or propagated. In forestry, most commercial scale cloning methods rely on rooted cuttings for reforestation purposes, however, advanced cloning techniques (see below) are also a basic prerequisite for the production of genetically modified (GM) trees. Specific “biotechnologies” related to vegetative propagation in forestry fall into the three main categories of micropropagation, cryopreservation and in vitro storage, and in vitro selection.

Micropropagation. Micropropagation is the development of clonal lines from small tissue samples such as buds, roots or embryos extracted from seeds. The last, referred to as somatic embyrogenesis (SE), will likely be the most promising micropropagation technology for long-term storage and large-scale production of trees from selected clonal lines, particularly for conifer species. SE can be particularly useful once the genetic value of the clones has been determined through field testing. However, the development costs of such advanced tissue culture technologies are high compared with simpler techniques.

Cyropreservation and in vitro storage. With this technique small tissue samples are maintained at very cold temperatures to maintain their current physiological condition. Therefore, the evaluation of genotypes for efficient production of plant material later on is usually one of the main goals of cyropreservation (e.g., in SE

1 Received March 2002. Original language: English.2 This article is the updated summary of a paper published in UNASYLVA No. 204(52):52-61, while the author was at FAO under theVisiting Expert from Academic and Research Institutions Program. 3 Research Branch, British Columbia Forest Service, 712 Yates St. 3rd floor, Victoria, Canada. V8W 9C2

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storage). While the technology is useful and necessary for many applications in clonal forestry, it may also have applications in programmes for species with recalcitrant seed, where basic seed storage is a major problem (Englemann, 1997).

In vitro selection. This technique involves selecting for a trait (e.g. heavy metal or salt tolerance) at an early stage in the micropropagation phase. Although in vitro selection has been used to some degree in crop plants, attempts in forest trees have been limited to selection of expressed GM traits in trees (i.e., in vitro selection techniques are a basic requirement in the process of screening for successfully GM transformed clonal lines). Other traits, therefore, can be combined with basic in vitro selection criteria required for GM screening (e.g. mercury tolerance in yellow poplar [Rugh et al., 1998]), which could be used for identifying clonal lines useful for phyto-remediation purposes (Guller et al. 2001).

Molecular genetic markers Genetic markers are essentially DNA sequences that are indicative of common ancestry. The challenge

to the geneticist is to look for relationships between these markers and characteristics of trees from pedigrees or specific populations. With correct interpretations, genetic markers are invaluable for examining patterns of genetic variation among and within populations, assessing levels of outcrossing and inbreeding, and genetic identification or “fingerprinting” of varieties or pedigrees.

Genetic marker data can also be used for assisting with early selection of better genotypes, rather than waiting for the tree to express the trait much later. However, marker-assisted selection (MAS) is yet being routinely applied in tree breeding programmes, largely because of economic constraints (i.e., the additional genetic gains are generally not large enough to offset the costs of applying the technology). Thus it is likely that MAS will only be applied for a handful of species and situations, e.g. a few of the major commercially used pine (e.g. Frewen et al., 2000) and Eucalyptus species. Molecular markers are therefore primarily an information tool and are used to locate DNA/genes that can be of interest for genetic transformation, or information on population structure, mating systems and pedigree confirmation.

GM trees Genetic modification of plants usually involves the artificial introduction of well-characterized genes

from other species into a new plant genome, which then expresses itself as a new novel trait. “Biolistics” (i.e. blasting DNA into the cell nucleus) or microorganism vectors (e.g. Agrobacterium) that carry the specific gene of interest are typically used to introduce the gene(s). Of course, long-term or adequate expression of the gene in the GM plant is critical.

To be of economic value, GM trees must offer unique features that cannot be economically delivered through conventional breeding programmes, and that are capable of offsetting the costs in developing the technology. The traits that have so far been considered for potential genetic modification of forest trees are herbicide resistance, reduced flowering or sterility, insect resistance and wood chemistry. While conventional tree breeding programmes have been able to make changes to insect resistance and wood quality, they have limited possibilities of incorporating traits such as herbicide resistance, specific changes in wood chemistry or reduced flowering. With GM technologies, these possibilities are likely to come within reach.

ISSUES SURROUNDING THE USE BIOTECHNOLOGY IN FORESTRY

Most of the concern about genetically modified plants, derives from concern about these products grown as food. Although this will rarely be a direct issue in forestry, careful evaluation will still be necessary to all aspects of use of the trees because they can have many purposes.

It is difficult to say that any particular technique in itself can pose increased biological risk. It is the gene products that pose a risk, irrespective of the technology used to obtain them. To evaluate possible risks fully, in-depth knowledge of the particular genetic transformation is necessary, e.g., what is the protein products produced by the transformation in the plant and their possible interactions with other genes. This may be particularly true when more than one or two transgenes are incorporated. In such cases there may be requirements for longer field testing, more environmental assessments and caution in deployment (Burdon, 1999). These issues, however, should not be considered unique to GM trees per se, as they are considerations that tree breeders must consider even for conventionally bred trees.

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Issues associated with specific types of traits Herbicide resistance. Herbicide resistance in poplars is probably the most well developed GM

technology in forest trees. The first concern with herbicide-resistant GM plants is the evidence of the development of resistance in the weeds. The risk may be substantially less in forestry than in agriculture, as herbicides are only applied for a short period of time, with fewer applications as total weed control is not necessary in forest tree plantations. The introduction of herbicide resistance with GM technology may be one of the most feasible and applied genetic modifications in trees; however, it is only likely for a few well-developed species in certain situations, such as in intensive poplar fibre farms.

The second question is of course related to the effects on adjacent or local wild populations of trees, if cross-breeding does occur (e.g. in important in situ conservation areas). If the acceptability of this risk is too great, reduced flowering or sterility transgenes (see below) may need to be incorporated into GM tree lines.

Reduced flowering or sterility. Reduced flowering in forest trees may be desirable to re-direct products of photosynthesis into wood production, rather than into reproductive tissues. However, since our knowledge of the reallocation of such internal resources in a tree is not well quantified at this point, the main justification for reduced flowering or sterility development is to substantially reduce gene flow to wild adjacent populations of the same species. Although substantial research on flowering mechanisms is under way (e.g., Strauss and Bradshaw, 2001), the stability of sterility-gene expression over time will have to be confirmed in field trials that reflect expected rotation lengths.

Insect resistance. The development of GM insect resistant is now common, but it also creates some of the most complex ecological questions. First, is the possible toxicity of the compounds produced in GM insect-resistant plants when they are grown specifically for human consumption, or in forestry, on non-target animals. Second, there are ecological concerns of cross-breeding with wild relatives as well as the evolution of resistance in the pest populations. Moreover, the long generation time of most tree species allows for many generations of insect populations to challenge a new single-gene resistance mechanism.

The most developed GM approach for insect resistance in both forestry and agriculture, has been the use of genes from a natural insect pathogen, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Poplars are again among the tree species in which the technology is most advanced (e.g. TGERC, 1999; Yifan and Jainjun, 2001). Research and development of other compounds is under way to reduce the reliance on the relatively narrow group of natural Bt toxins (ffrench-Constant and Bowen, 1999). Because of the complex ecological ramifications and public concerns surrounding GM insect-resistant plants, high levels of scientifically sound laboratory and field testing will be required.

Wood property chemistry. Genes important in the pathway of lignin development in wood have been modified to produce unique wood composition in very young trees (e.g. Lapierre et al. 1999: Akim et al. 2001), with the goal of easier and more environmentally friendly pulping. Two important questions that remain in developing lignin-modified varieties or clones are, “how much extra value would there be in plantations using such trees”and “would altered wood show susceptibilities to environmental stresses?” Once again, substantial periods of field testing will be required to answer such questions.

Can genetically modified trees be safely deployed in the environment? The primary ecological concern with GM plants appears to be from potential problems arising from

gene exchange with wild populations. However, in many situations for which GM trees will be considered, it will be with exotic plantation species so this would not be a factor. If not, reduced flowering or sterility is likely to be a basic requirement, as well as implementing more restrictions in deployment. Some investigations to look at these specific questions are under way in forestry (e.g. DiFazio, et al., 1999).

Current regulations of the Forest Stewardship Council (1999) prohibit the use of genetically modified trees, but they also state that “the use of an exotic species shall be carefully controlled and actively monitored to avoid adverse ecological impacts.” However, the idea that GM trees might be functionally analogous to some invasive exotic species does not seem very likely (Strauss and Bradshaw, 2001). On the other hand, a large genetic change made to the overall fitness of a native species, even by a single gene addition, and released without adequate consideration of local environmental risks is not appropriate either. Clearly, potential risks must be balanced with benefits in all types of improved forest trees, considering the deployment schemes that will be used in space and time. In any event, deployment strategies should be designed to minimize the risks of

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economic losses of the stand as well as future biological losses, such as the development of resistance in pest and disease populations (e.g. Roberds and Bishir, 1997).

To help address many of these types of concerns, several countries have developed regulations and restrictions specifying the requirements of confined field testing needed before commercial release of GM plants (OECD, 2000). These requirements, necessary to reduce biological and economic risks, will undoubtedly continue to evolve, as will national laws and regulations, and other broader international agreements on biosafety, e.g. the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CBD, 2000). New institutions are also surfacing to assist with critical research in the applications and policy around the use of GM trees (Burke, 2001).

Equity of access to genetic modification technologies Private investors have taken the lead for most investments in modern biotechnology, and in so doing

have also had to manage the associated economic risks. In many situations these investment risks are protected by patents, and agreements for the use of techniques or material could then be prohibitively expensive.

In order to offset some of these concerns, the role of governments may have to expand in research and development in order to provide a flow of material and information that can be used and shared by both private and public institutions (Santos and Lewontin, 1997). The allocation of funds, whether through private or public agencies, needs to achieve a balance between building scientific capabilities and knowledge, and supporting more applied, well proven forestry technologies (Burdon, 1994). In this regard, the investment and use of any biotechnology needs to be assessed on a case-by-case basis.

Public acceptance of genetic modification

Although the rapid generation turnover in crops has allowed genetic modification technology to develop quickly, the ecological ramifications in forestry will likely be much more difficult to evaluate. Due to the relatively long period a tree requires to grow to a usable size, it is likely they will encounter more environmental stresses (e.g., variable weather, pests), that could trigger unpredictable genetic responses. Long periods of testing will be required for proper evaluation under both laboratory and field conditions. Public and government acceptance of GM plants is now as dependent on biological risk assessment and risk issue management (Leiss, 1999) as it is on any technical or economic issues.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE CHALLENGES

The following are few summary points and conclusions that can be drawn from the discussion above:

• The development time, from the laboratory to the field, for all new types of tissue culture or GM trees will be substantially longer than in crop species. While this may provide forest scientists and managers time to learn from the issues being faced in agriculture, the economic realities of relatively long generations will continue to be a major challenge to investors in biotechnology.

• It appears that GM trees will become a reality only for novel and particularly valuable traits in short-rotation tree species in intensively managed forest plantations. It will usually be in the context of high intensity clonal forestry that most of the issues need to be examined and evaluated.

• The public must be confident that regulatory frameworks are in place so that commercial development of biotechnology does not take precedence over biosafety issues. However, the development of useful biotechnology in forestry should not be put at risk with extraordinary regulatory compliance costs that are driven by unwarranted concerns.

• Government participation in the development of biotechnology appears necessary to keep some flow of material and knowledge in the public domain. Without this, the costs of using privately owned genes could seriously limit further interest and development of GM technology in trees.

• Even if GM trees are not used on a wide scale in the future, research and development in GM technology will provide a great deal of information about gene action and regulation, which could be of long-term value to conventional breeding programmes.

• Other forest management decisions with potentially more serious ecological consequences, including large-scale species introductions or inappropriate use of provenances or improved trees from conventional breeding, need to be evaluated by foresters, managers and regulatory agencies in the same way as products of modern biotechnology.

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• Finally, while those in the forefront of any technology are likely to appreciate its potential benefits, in the end it will be the economic and regulatory systems of governing bodies at national and world levels that must evaluate the technology’s relevance and appropriateness.

REFERENCES

Akim, L.G., Argyropoulos, D.S., Jouanin, L., Leple, J.C., Pilate, G., Pollet, B. & Lapierre, C. 2001. Quantitative P-31 NMR spectroscopy of lignins from transgenic poplars. Holzforschung. 55:386-390.

Burdon, R.D. 1994. The role of biotechnology in forest tree breeding. Forest Genetic Resources, 22: 2-5. FAO, Rome.

Burdon, R.D. 1999. Risk-management issues for genetically engineered forest trees. New Zealand Journal of Forest Research, 29:375-390.

Burke, S.W. 2001. Responding to new trees and to the issues at hand: The institute of forest biotechnology. In: Proc. of the First Symposium on Ecological and Societal Aspects of Transgenic Plantations. S.H. Strauss and H.D. Bradshaw, eds. College of Forestry, Oregon State University. pp. 62-69.

[www.fsl.orst.edu/tgerc/iufro2001/eprocd.pdf]CBD 2000. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Convention on Biological Diversity. Available on the Internet at

http://www.biodiv.org/biosafe/Protocol/Protocol.html Englemann, F. 1997. In vitro conservation methods. In J.A. Callow, B.V. Ford-Lloyd & H.J. Newbury, eds.

Biotechnology and plant genetic resources: conservation and use, p. 119-161. Biotechnology in Agriculture Series No. 19. Wallingford, UK, CAB International.

DiFazio, S.P., Leonardi, S., Cheng, S. & Strauss, S.H. 1999. Assessing potential risks of transgene escape from fiber plantations. In: Proc. of Gene Flow and Agriculture: Relevance for Transgenic Crops, 72: 171-176.

ffrench-Constant, R. & Bowen, D. 1999. Photorhabus toxins: novel biological insecticides. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 2: 284-288.

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). 1999. Principles and criteria for forest stewardship. Internet document (http://www.fsc-uk.demon.co.uk/PrinciplesCriteria.html)

Frewen, B.E., Chen, T.H.H., Howe, G., Davis, J., Rohde, A., Boerjan, W., & Bradshaw, H.D. Jr. 2000. QTL and candidate gene mapping of bud set and bud flush in Populus. Genetics, 154: 837-845.

Guller, G., Komives, T. & Rennenberg, H. 2001. Enhanced tolerance of transgenic poplar plants overexpressing gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase towards chloroacetanilide herbicides. Journal of Experimental Botany.

Lapierre, C., Pollet, B., Petit-Conil, M., Toval, G., Romero, J., Pilate, G., Leple, J.C., Boerjan, W., Ferret, V., De Nadai, V. & Jouanin, L. 1999. Structural alterations of lignins in transgenic poplars with depressed cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase or caffeic acid O-methyltransferase activity have an opposite impact on the efficiency of industrial kraft pulping. Plant Physiology, 119: 153-162.

Leiss, W. 1999. The trouble with science: public controversy over genetically-modified foods. Presented at the Eastern Regional Meetings of the Canadian Society of Plant Physiologists, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, 12 December 1999.

Available on the Internet at: http://www.ucalgary.ca/~wleiss/news/trouble_with_science.htm Merkle, S.A. & Dean, J.F.D. 2000. Forest biotechnology. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 11: 298-302. OECD. 2000. Biotechnology regulatory developments in OECD member countries. Organisation for Economic Co-

operation and Development (Internet document (http://www.oecd.org/ehs/country.htm) Roberds, J.H. & Bishir, J. 1997. Risk analysis in clonal forestry. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 27: 425-432. Rugh, C.L., Senecoff, J.F., Meagher, R.B. & Merkle, S.A. 1998. Development of transgenic yellow poplar for

mercury phytoremediation. Nature Biotechnology, 10: 925-928. Santos, M. de Miranda & Lewontin, R.C. 1997. Genetics, plant breeding and patents: conceptual contractictions

and practical problems in protecting biological innovations. IPGRI Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter, 112: 1-8. Strauss, S.H. & H.D. Bradshaw. 2001. Tree biotechnology in the new millennium: International symposium on ecological and

societal aspect of transgenic plantations. Oregon State University. (http://www.fsl.orst.edu/tgerc/iufro2001/eprocd.htm) Tree Genetic Engineering Research Cooperative (TGERC). 1999. TGERC highlights of 1998-1999. Internet

document (http://www.fsl.orst.edu/tgerc/1998-99.htm)Yifan, H. & Jianjun, H. 2001. Field evaluation of insect-resistant transgenic Populus nigra trees. In: Proc. of the First

Symposium on Ecological and Societal Aspects of Transgenic Plantations. S.H. Strauss & H.D. Bradshaw, eds. College of Forestry, Oregon State University. (http://www.fsl.orst.edu/tgerc/iufro2001/abstract.htm)

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THE MEXICAN ISLAND POPULATIONS OF PINUS RADIATA: AN INTERNATIONAL EXPEDITION AND ONGOING

COLLABORATION FOR GENETIC CONSERVATION1

byD.L. Rogers2, J.J. Vargas Hernández3, A.C. Matheson4, and J.J. Guerra Santos5

INTRODUCTION

On May 14, 2001, 14 people from five countries struggled along a precarious ridge within the inhospitable landscape of Guadalupe Island, Mexico. Their mission was to collect seeds from the few remaining trees of Monterey pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) on this island for genetic conservation, restoration, and research purposes; to describe the status of the trees and their ecosystem context; and to illuminate the urgent situation and conservation needs for this native gene pool of an internationally significant commercial plantation species. The pine population on Guadalupe Island, Mexico’s westernmost land, is one of only five native populations of Monterey pine (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Map of the area of natural distribution of Pinus radiata

Although there are some seeds remaining in seedbanks in California and Australia from a previous seed collection trip in 1978 (Eldridge 1978), those seed supplies have diminished in number by use and in viability over time. Further, there was a need to increase the diversity of the ex situ genetic collections by sampling from as many of the remaining trees as possible before they died, allowing opportunities to restore the natural populations if and when the goats were controlled or removed. Genetic research on these seeds can provide insight into the genetic relationships among the trees, determine the level of inbreeding, and provide direction for restoration efforts.

CONSERVATION STATUS

Expedition members mapped and described individual trees, checked for insect and disease damage, and collected cones from almost half of the remaining trees. The main reason for not collecting seeds from all of the trees was their location along steep slopes, making the effort too risky. After five days on Guadalupe Island,

1 Received June 2002. Original language: English 2 Genetic Resources Conservation Program, University of California (UC), Davis, California, United States 3 Colegio de Postgraduados, Montecillo, Estado de México, Mexico 4 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Canberra, Australia 5 Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuautitlán Izcalli, Estado de México, Mexico

Organized by the authors of this paper, this trip was inspired by the dire situation of the pines on Guadalupe Island, having had no successful regeneration for decades (Ledig et al. 1998). Goats introduced to the island in the 1800s have multiplied far beyond the habitat carrying capacity, and any pine seedlings are eaten shortly after germination. The remaining pines, approximately 200 in number, are all very old. The pines here are very different from their mainland California relatives. The trees are very large in diameter, with widespread branches and wind-broken tops. Various genetic studies over the last 15 years have confirmed a high level of genetic differentiation among the five native populations of this species. Indeed, varietal names have been given to the mainland (var. radiata) and island (var. binata)populations, and some taxonomists even give separate varietal names to the island populations (Guadalupe = var. binata,Cedros = var. cedrosensis).

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expedition members reboarded their charter boat ‘Searcher’ and continued south to Cedros Island, just off Baja California. The pines on this Mexican island are not in any apparent danger of extinction. The pines here are far more numerous than those on Guadalupe Island and grow in stands of various sizes from the middle to the northern end of the island. As on Guadalupe, they grow only in the upper elevations, along mountain ridges and, in a few cases, in (intermittent) stream gorges. But unlike their Guadalupe Island relatives, many of the pines are young and of the same age: indications that they have grown up quickly and uniformly after a major disturbance (fire). And although goats have also been introduced to this island, they have not multiplied significantly and there does not appear to be any direct threat to the pines from grazing. If there is a threat to the pines here, it might be from future changes in the fire cycle. Not only are the pines in general quite young (apparently), but in some stands it was difficult to find any that had reached reproductive maturity. If the average period between fires on this arid island shortens, because of climate change, for example, or increased human impact, reproduction might be negatively affected. Seeds were collected from trees on this island in a design suitable for studying fine-scale genetic structure and investigating the level of inbreeding.

Guadalupe Island is remote, lying some 280 km off the coast of Baja California. The pines there are a challenge to access, being located only at the north end of this volcanic-origin island and spread out sparsely along the uppermost elevations and down steep slopes (see photo below6). As such, this expedition was a logistical, financial, and physical challenge for the organizers and other participants. Funding for the trip came from a variety of sources (see acknowledgements).

PLANTATIONS

Monterey (or radiata) pine is currently grown in plantation culture on over 4.1 million hectares worldwide, primarily in the southern hemisphere countries of New Zealand, Chile, Australia, Argentina, and South Africa. Some significant plantations of this species are also grown in the northern hemisphere, most notably Spain. Total plantation area dwarfs the amount of native habitat remaining for the species: the current natural range of Monterey pine covers less than two-tenths of one percent of the plantation area. In Chile,

6 Photo: Jesús Vargas Hernandez

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Australia, and New Zealand, these plantations represent a major commercial activity. In Australia, for example, Monterey pine plantations account for 75 percent of the total pine plantations currently established. Current value of the sawn timber produced from the total pine plantations is over US$550 million. Although these and other countries where Monterey pine is grown commercially have their own advanced-generation stock and seed banks, the native gene pools in California and Mexico remain of interest. Genes and gene combinations from the native populations could be useful in enhancing traits that are currently valued or determining traits of future interest. Genetic diversity within the Guadalupe Island population, for example, may be useful in improving drought hardiness or resistance to red band needle blight (caused by Scirrhia pini [Mycoshaerella pini]). Both island populations have been shown in field studies to have somewhat thinner bark, higher wood density, and greater frost resistance than the mainland populations—all traits of interest in some plantation contexts. Most importantly, there is interest and concern that the native gene pools regain or maintain their ability to naturally regenerate and respond to natural processes. This dynamic state and purity of stock are near impossible to recreate in ex situ genetic reserves.

FUTURE EFFORTS

Conserving the natural resources on Guadalupe and Cedros Islands is a matter of national and international interest and pride for Mexico and, in the case of Guadalupe Island, a matter of policy. That island is under the protection of the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources through the National Commission for Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) and the National Institute of Ecology (INE). The two island pine populations are also classified as ‘endangered’ in the Red List of the International Union of Nature and Natural Resources (Hilton-Taylor 2000). However, it is difficult to translate this interest into the direct activities needed for protection and restoration, mainly because of insufficient funding. The major immediate needs for the islands are goat removal (from Guadalupe Island) and funding for conservation and research. Goat removal should be immediate to build on the recent efforts by some Mexican ranchers who removed several thousand goats and to prevent further erosion of Monterey pine and other native species. However, it should be done within the context of a broader plan that considers and mitigates the possible explosion of exotic invasive plant species following release from grazing pressure. In addition to financing the goat removal effort, funds are also needed for island visits, monitoring efforts, restoration (if required), research, longterm ex situ conservation, and production of public education documents (regarding the value and significance of the pines and precautions against introduction of diseases such as pitch canker that could be fatal to the pines). Recently, the FAO and the University of California (including the UC MEXUS program and the Pacific Rim Program) provided some funding towards research and conservation efforts for these pine populations.

The conservation and technical outcomes from the 2001 expedition continue to accumulate. The seeds have been extracted from the cones and currently reside at the new forestry germplasm bank of CONAFOR7 in Mexicali, Mexico. Risks to the ex situ collections will be minimized by maintaining a portion of the seeds at several facilities. Genetic research on some of the seeds is being planned that would inform conservation and restoration activities by indicating levels and patterns of genetic diversity and inbreeding. The modest proportion of filled seed for some individual trees has already signaled some evidence of inbreeding depression.

The profile of the pines - which will hopefully contribute to the political will and the public constituency for conservation - continues to rise as presentations are given by the participating scientists in the USA, Mexico, and Australia. They continue to work on behalf of genetic and overall conservation of the island pine populations by explaining to government officials the significance of these island populations, by writing funding proposals, and by providing information and recommendations about the pines to related plans and conservation activities. The interest of scientists from the Southern hemisphere in Pinus radiata conservation was highlighted in an earlier issue of this bulletin (Matheson et al. 1999). Several publications are in preparation, including a journal article on genetic conservation of the island populations and a report on in situ genetic conservation of Monterey pine, containing information on the status and conservation needs of the five native populations (Rogers 2002). Although the latter report puts more emphasis on the mainland California populations, there is some information and recommendations for the island populations. Finally, complementary activities for in situ and exsitu conservation of Monterey pine are under development in various countries. For example, a recently released report from CSIRO (Eldridge 2002) calls for a leading role by CSIRO and the Southern Tree Breeding

7 Comisión Nacional Forestal, Programa Nacional de Reforestacion

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Association in maintaining the integrity and longevity of genetic resources of Monterey pine in Australia, and gives specific recommendations towards achieving that objective. And a binational nonprofit organization (Island Conservation) is developing a plan and fundraising for a comprehensive goat removal effort. If the momentum from this international collaboration continues and effectively translates into funding and conservation action, the Monterey pines on Guadalupe and Cedros Islands, and the genetic heritage they contain, may be able to move from ‘endangered’ status to a more optimistic category.

More of the story at http://www.grcp.ucdavis.edu/projects/MPGCdex.htm

REFERENCES

Eldridge, K.G. 1978. Seed collections in California in 1978. p. 9–17 In: CSIRO Division of Forest Research Annual Report 1977–78. CSIRO. Canberra, Australia.

Eldridge, K.G. 2002. Conservation of Genetic Resources of Radiata Pine: CSIRO Role. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Divisional Report No. 180.

Hilton-Taylor, C. (compiler) 2000. 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xviii + 61pp. (www.redlist.org).

Ledig, F.T., J.J. Vargas Hernández, & K.H. Johnsen. 1998. The Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources – Case Histories from Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Journal of Forestry, 96(1): 32-41.

Matheson C., Spencer D. and Eldridge K., 1999. A Workshop on Issues and Strategies to Conserve the Genetic Resources of Pinus radiata Ex situ. Forest Genetic Resources No 27. FAO, Rome. 75-78.

Rogers, D.L. 2002. In situ Genetic Conservation of Monterey Pine (Pinus radiata D. Don): Information and Recommendations. Genetic Resources Conservation Program, Report No. 26. University of California, Davis, California, USA. Also available at:

http://www.grcp.ucdavis.edu/publications/MPinedex.htm

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the following organizations for sponsoring the expedition: the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; UC MEXUS (a University of California program aimed at increasing collaboration between UC and Mexican scientists); the Australian (federal) Department of Industry, Science, and Resources; the University of California’s Genetic Resources Conservation Program; the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (Australia); and personal contributions from several of the participants. In addition to the four principle investigators, the participants included five conservation-spirited Americans who provided various resources for the expedition (David Bates, Richard Hawley, Carl Jackovich, Laurie Lippitt, and Nicole Nedeff), two Mexican scientists (Javier López Upton, also from the Colegio de Postgraduados, and Ernesto Franco, California State University Monterey Bay and CICESE, Mexico), a graduate student from UC Berkeley (Tadashi Moody), and two Mexican conservation authorities from the Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna (Ana Ma. Padilla Villavicencio and Celerino Montes). We thank the Mexican Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources and their offices in the National Commission for Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) and the National Institute of Ecology (INE) as well as the Ministry of Interior (Secretaria de Gobernación) and Secretaria de Marina who provided permission and support for the seed collections.

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TREE SEEDS AND THE MILLENNIUM SEED BANK PROJECT1

byHugh W. Pritchard2 and Simon H. Linington2

INTRODUCTION

The Millennium Seed Bank Project (MSBP) is an international partnership for the conservation through seed storage of research quantities of endangered, endemic and useful, though mainly undomesticated, plant species. It was established in 1995 with a substantial grant from the UK’s lottery Millennium Commission to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The Project’s origins lie within Kew’s seed banking effort started in the 1960s and moved in 1974 to its Wakehurst Place site. It is here that the Project’s focal point, the Wellcome Trust Millennium Building (WTMB) has been built. This 5 000m2 building comprises a seed bank vault, a number of processing and research laboratories, seminar and library facilities, visitor accommodation and interactive interpretation for the public. A strong impetus for the launch of the Project was the establishment of the Convention on Biological Diversity. There was international recognition both that a great number of the world’s plant species are under threat of genetic erosion leading to loss and that seed banks are a cost-effective means of countering some of this threat. Consequently, a key aim of the Project has been to draw together partner organisations from around the world with the aim of banking seeds from 24 000 species before 2010. While samples are sent to the UK for duplicate storage, a key aim of the work has been to strengthen ‘within country’ banking through training and joint research. A major channel for data outputs from the Project is the Seed Information Database that can be found on the Project’s website (access via www.rbgkew.org.uk).

SEED CONSERVATION PRACTICE

Targeting of tree (and other) species by the MSBP is led by the priorities of the partner countries. The initial aim of the Project is directed towards the conservation of inter-specific variation (one well-sampled population of each species). Inevitably, multiple population samples of many species are being conserved and these often have a wide geographical background. Apart from their conservation role, these samples can act as the basis for studies including those on seed biology (mainly carried out ‘in-house’) and other conservation biology such as genetic analysis. The latter will in due course inform further subsequent sampling. The quantities made available for research and trialling reflect the primarily conservation role of the collections. Insufficient material is being stored for large-scale trials. With regard to distribution to users from stocks held at the WTMB, this is done under a material supply agreement that enables RBG Kew to retain rights over the material on behalf of the country from which each sample was collected. Some of the access and benefit-sharing agreements (ABSAs) signed between RBG Kew and the partner countries permit such distribution and some do not3.Consequently, each collection is tagged on the seed bank database with the conditions of its ABSA. It is anticipated that web-site access to the collections that are available for use will be available by the end of December 20024.

The field collecting effort attempts to capture a significant proportion of the alleles present within each targeted population. Collections are then returned to the local facility where part is retained and part swiftly forwarded to the Millennium Seed Bank. The Wakehurst Place facility has a permit to import into the UK material that is restricted on plant health grounds. Collections are contained and debris carefully destroyed during processing. Subsequent long-term storage of collections closely follows that used for crops (see FAO / IPGRI, 1994).

1 Received June 2002. Original language: English. 2 Seed Conservation Department, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Wakehurst Place, Ardingly, West Sussex RH17 6TN, United Kingdom E-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] 3 The principles to which RBG Kew adheres on access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing can be found at: www.rbgkew.org.uk/conservation/principles.html4 Access will be by free subscription to bona fide users via the RBG Kew website http://www.rbgkew.org.uk

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TREE SEED STORAGE

It is difficult to predict exactly how many tree species the Project and its partners will be involved with at the conservation level, but the importance of such species is well established. Deforestation affects the daily lives of millions of people, and the suggestion has been made that around 10 percent of the known tree species, i.e. about 7 000, are threatened with extinction (Oldfield et al., 1998). The starting material for reforestation is, primarily, seed and it is also the most useful material for the conservation of species (see Linington and Pritchard, 2001). Nonetheless, the driving force currently for the collection of tree seeds is essentially commercial rather than conservation. The potential benefits of tree seed conservation may have been underestimated previously, with suggestions that there was little point in storing such material unless longevity approached the life span of the species. This view is rather short-sighted, for two reasons. Firstly, short-term storage and regeneration is a valuable means of protecting some species, and is the only large scale approach available for species with desiccation intolerant, Type III seeds (i.e. recalcitrant in their storage behaviour), e.g. many dipterocarps and oaks (Pritchard, 2002). Secondly, the predictions for seed longevity in some tree species, based on extensive studies, are in the order of many decades (Tompsett, 1986; Tompsett and Kemp, 1996; Medeiros etal., 1998). For instance, the FAO base collection of land stabilisation species held at Wakehurst Place has declined very little in viability since initial storage in the mid 1980’s. This confirms that seed storage is an attractive proposition for the conservation of many tree species.

However, baseline data on the storability (desiccation tolerance and longevity) of tree seeds is very limited (Hong et al., 1998; Dickie and Pritchard, 2002; Tweddle et al., 2002), as is basic information on the control of tree seed germination, including (for some species) the method by which dormancy can be alleviated. To maximise the effective use of genetic resources, we need far greater knowledge in these areas, and this is one of the primary aims of tree seed conservation research by the MSBP.

PRIORITY SPECIES FOR INVESTIGATION: THE THREE E’S

But out of the estimated 70 000 tree species globally, what should we aim to research and conserve first? In terms of mobilising a global effort to achieve this, it is probably the case that most support would be given to the preservation of trees that are classified as either Economic, Endangered or Endemic, or a combination of these categories (the three E’s). Undoubtedly, the first group of species (economic) is the primary driver of much tree science and technology work, and some regions of the world have developed target lists of trees for use in plantations, sustainable management projects and large-scale conservation efforts. As an example, FAO’s Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources produces updated lists of priority species on the basis of their actual or potential value either as taxa or populations at the global, regional and / or national level5. As another example, 27 sub-Saharan African countries have identified 62 priority species for work (including seed research), the so-called SAFORGEN list (see Sacandé et al., 2002). These species - which are of value either as edible fruits, forage, timber and amenity or craft and non-wood products - are drawn from 51 genera and 27 families, thus representing considerable biodiversity. The MSBP is currently working with the African Tree Seed Centres to develop a network approach to essential studies on the seeds of these species. This work follows on from the Project’s recent work on tree seeds of economic, endemic or endangered status. Case histories are presented below.

RECENT CASE HISTORIES FOR FOUR SPECIES ACROSS FOUR FAMILIES

Hyophorbe lagenicaulis (Arecaceae) This palm species is endemic to Round Island in the Mascarenes. It is highly prized horticulturally

because of its attractive bottle-shaped trunk and because it is easy to grow. Nowadays, it is highly endangered in the wild as there are very few adult individuals. However, recent in situ conservation management efforts are helping the recovery of native populations of young individuals. As a backstop to these efforts, the MSBP has assessed, in association with the Mauritian Government, the storage potential of the seeds about which nothing was known previously. The seeds tolerated drying to an embryo moisture content of 8 percent and survived 18 months at 15°C (Wood et al., 2002). Such longevity and desiccation tolerance suggests possibilities for their exsitu conservation. Palms (Arecaceae) are one of the most highly threatened families globally (Oldfield et al., 1998)

5 For more information see the FAO website: http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOR/FORM/FOGENRES/GENEPANE/general/FGRframe-e.stm

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and yet there is seed storage information on only about 100 species ( < 5 percent of the family). Semina Palmarum, a five year initiative within the MSBP, aims to assess the seed conservation potential of 400 palm species.

Kigelia africana (Bignoniaceae) This species has multiple uses: timber for construction or furniture, fruit as a dressing for sores and the

bark to treat dysentery. This is a widespread species in sub-Saharan African, although it is considered to be rare in some regions. Previous indications were that the seeds could survive drying to 13 percent moisture content, which is probably not dry enough for conventional seed storage, and that they may require special pretreatment to ensure a high level of germination. The MSBP has established as part of an IPGRI-DFSC project and in collaboration with CNSF in Burkina Faso, that the seeds can tolerate desiccation to 3 percent moisture content and germinate at a warm temperature (25°C) without the need for pretreatment (Dudley et al., 2001).

Prunus africana (Rosaceae) This species has multiple uses, providing hardwood timber and medicinal products, especially from the

bark. Bark extract is used traditionally as a purgative for cattle and in the treatment of prostate-related illness (benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate gland hypertrophy). The species is currently assessed by IUCN as “vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the medium term future” (Oldfield et al., 1998) and is listed on Appendix II of CITES. However, the general trend towards greater human longevity almost certainly means that the threat of over-exploitation of this species for bark will increase. Consequently, there is an urgent need to improve the conservation prospects for the species, and we have recently assessed this at the ex situ seed conservation level. The experiments conducted so far have revealed, contrary to earlier reports, that seeds of this species can tolerate desiccation to around 5 percent moisture content as long as they are extracted from mature, purple fruits. In addition, it was noted that the seed germination capability of this species extends as low at 1°C, matching the moist highlands (up to 3 400 m) origin of this sub-Saharan African species (Sacandé et al., 2002). This work was facilitated by KEFRI, Kenya and future studies will assess seed longevity under dry, cool conditions.

Salix hybrids (Salicaceae) This group of species is being assessed for use in agroforestry, especially for their potential as biomass

producers. Many of these trials involve species crosses and only a small quantity of the resulting seeds can be used in any one breeding season. Storing seeds is an obvious way of supporting such breeding efforts, but willow seeds are reputed to be inherently short-lived. Our research, with the Institute of Arable Crops Research, Long Ashton, UK, has revealed that seeds of two hybrids are tolerant of dehydration, that drying increases their longevity in a manner similar to that of crops, e.g. barley, and that ultra-low temperature storage (i.e. cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen) of the seeds is possible (Wood et al., 2002).

CONCLUSIONS

The MSBP is a long-term project that complements efforts such as those by IPGRI and DFSC to study seed conservation and at the same time assist national institutes in seed storage. The Project formally comprises institutes in 14 countries with informal links to those in many others. Its key aim is to conserve population samples of 24 000 species by 2010 of which perhaps 10-25 percent are likely to be trees.

REFERENCES

Dickie, J.B. & Pritchard, HW. 2002. Systematic and evolutionary aspects of desiccation tolerance in seeds. Pp 239-259 In: Desiccation and survival in plants: drying without dying. M Black and HW Pritchard (eds). CABI Publishing, UK.

Dudley, A., Wood, C.B. and Pritchard HW. 2001. Quantification of dryland tree seed storage behaviour. Kigelia africana. The Project on Handling and Storage of Recalcitrant and Intermediate Tropical Forest Tree Seeds, Newsletter No. 9, 6-11. Published by IPGRI/DFSC.

FAO / IPGRI (1994). Genebank Standards. Food & Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations / International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome.

Hong, T.D., Linington, S.H. and Ellis, R.H. 1998. Compendium of Information on Seed Storage Behaviour. Volumes 1&2. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, UK.

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Linington, S.H. and Pritchard, H.W. 2001. Genebanks. p 165-181. In: Encyclopaedia of biodiversity. Volume 3. S Levin (editor-in-chief ). Academic Press.

Medeiros, A.C.S., Probert, R.J., Sader, R. and Smith, R.D. 1998. The moisture relations of longevity in Astronium urundeuva (Fr. All.) Engl. Seed Science and Technology 26, 289-298.

Oldfield, S., Lusty, C. and MacKinven, A. 1998. The World List of Threatened Trees. World Conservation Press, Cambridge, UK. 650 pp.

Pritchard, H.W. 2002 (in press). Classification of seed storage ‘types’ for ex situ conservation in relation to temperature and moisture. E. Guerrant, K Havens, M. Maunder (eds). Island Press, USA

Sacandé, M., Pritchard, H.W. and Dudley, A.E. 2002 (in press). Germination and storage characteristics of Prunus africana seeds. New Forests.

Sacandé, M., Pritchard, H.W., Ouedraogo, L.G. & Dulloo, E.M. 2002 (in press). An agenda for seed research on Sub-Saharan African Forest Genetic Resources (SAFORGEN) listed tropical trees: a critical role for the African Tree Seed Centres and the seed science community. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter.

Tompsett, P.B. 1986. The effect of temperature and moisture content on the longevity of seed of Ulmuscarpinifolia and Terminalia brassii. Annals of Botany 57: 875-883.

Tompsett, P.B. and Kemp, R. 1996. Database of tropical tree seed research (DABATTS). Database contents and user manual. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, UK.

Tweddle, J.C., Turner, R.M. and Dickie, J.B. 2002. Seed Information Database (Release 2.0, Jan. 2002). http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/data/sid

Wood, C.B. and Pritchard, H.W. 2002 (in press). Germination characteristics of fresh and dried Hyophorbe lagenicaulis seeds. Palms.

Wood, C.B., Pritchard, H.W. & Lindegaard K. 2002 (in press). Seed cryopreservation and longevity of two Salixhybrids. CryoLetters.

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SOUTHEAST ASIAN WORKSHOP ON FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES1

byJarkko Koskela2, Anders P. Pedersen3 and D. Baskaran Krishnapillay4

INTRODUCTION

A regional workshop on conservation, management and utilization of forest genetic resources was organized by the Forest Genetic Resources Conservation and Management Project (FORGENMAP) in Thailand between 25 February and 10 March 2001. FORGENMAP is implemented by the Royal Forest Department (RFD) of Thailand and funded jointly by RFD and the Danish Cooperation for Environment and Development (DANCED, now under the Danish International Development Agency (Danida)). FORGENMAP works on improvement of tree seed sources and supplies bulk quantities of quality seeds. Presently, similar Danish-supported tree seed projects are also carried out in several other Southeast Asian countries, i.e. Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR and Vietnam. These projects have promoted conservation and management of forest genetic resources although initially they had little focus on conservation aspects

The Southeast Asian workshop was the first regional meeting on forest genetic resources, which brought together delegates from Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. Myanmar was unable to send a delegate but provided a country report. The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), the FAO Forestry Research Support Program for Asia and the Pacific (FORSPA) and the Danida Forest Seed Centre (DFSC) provided additional support and their staff also participated in the workshop. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Australia also provided technical contribution to the workshop.

The Southeast Asian workshop was part of the series of regional workshops that have been organized in different parts of the world to facilitate global assessment of forest genetic diversity (see Hald et al. 2002). In the Asia Pacific region, a sub-regional workshop had been held only in South Pacific in 1999. The workshop in Thailand outlined the national status of forest genetic resources in Southeast Asian countries and learnt experiences outside the region. It also initiated strategic thinking to improve conservation and management of forest genetic resources both national and regional levels.

The proceedings of the workshop were recently published as a joint effort between FORGENMAP, IPGRI, FAO, DFSC and RFD (see references). The publication includes status reports on conservation and use of forest genetic resources from all participating Southeast Asian countries. It also contains a number of invited papers reporting relevant studies and experiences from the region and elsewhere. In the following, we report some of the major findings and conclusions of the workshop as well as its recommendations. More detailed information can be found from the Proceedings.5

STATE OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES CONSERVATION AND USE

The country reports presented during the workshop provide an overview on the conservation and use of forest genetic resources in Southeast Asia. As an overall observation, the Southeast Asian countries have recognized the importance of conserving forest genetic resources for present and future use. However, there are considerable differences in the state of work the countries have carried out so far in strategic conservation planning and the practical implementation hereof. Common features among the countries are that forest sector often has an important role in national economies and that forest-based products and services significantly contribute to the livelihood of millions of rural people.

1 Received August 2002. Original language: English 2 IPGRI Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania, Serdang, Malaysia 3 Danida Forest Seed Centre, Humlebaek, Denmark 4 Forest Research Institute Malaysia and APAFRI Secretariat, Kepong, Malaysia 5 The proceedings are available from the FAO, FORSPA office in Bangkok, Thailand. For copies, contact Dr S. Appanah, Senior Programme Advisor ([email protected]).

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As deforestation is still a concern, several countries have launched large-scale tree planting programmes to tackle it and to enhance wood supply and environmental benefits of forests. This subsequently has created a tremendous need for seed and planting material. However, lack of high quality material for tree planting programmes are still a common problem, especially in case of native species, which are much less used as compared to exotic species. Although several countries have initiated actions to secure the domestic availability of reproductive material, they still have a great need to exchange germplasm externally. In addition to reforestation efforts, many countries are involved in the international efforts to promote sustainable forest management especially in natural forests.

Two approaches seem to prevail in conserving forest genetic resources in Southeast Asia. The first one emphasizes genetic conservation as a part of tree improvement programmes, i.e. ex situ conservation of important commercial tree species, mainly exotic, through provenance trials and other conservation stands. The second approach is biodiversity conservation in natural parks and other protected areas in which in situconservation of native tree species is only carried out as a secondary management objective. In protected areas, conservation of forest genetic resources is often based on the assumption that these areas host a wide range of forest genetic diversity even if these areas are commonly established for other purposes than active in situ gene conservation. It is less common that ex situ and in situ conservation are used in a complementary manner to ensure a holistic conservation approach for carefully selected priority species. Positively, many countries in Southeast Asia have recognized the importance of involving local people in conservation of forest genetic diversity. However, although the participatory approach has been applied by various implementing agencies, the use of this approach needs to be further increased.

All the participating Southeast Asian countries have initiated national forest planning process in the form of ‘national forest programmes’ (NFPs, see FAO 1999). NFP is a generic term covering the different strategic frameworks, such as national forestry action plans, forestry sector master plans, forestry sector reviews, national biodiversity strategies, national environmental action plans and national conservation strategies, for example. The FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources has stressed out that national programmes on forest genetic resources conservation should make a full use of the existing national forest programmes (FAO 2000). Some Southeast Asian countries have already incorporated conservation measures as a part of their NFPs. However, the country reports indicate that the linkages between conservation of forest genetic resources and NFPs need to be further strengthened. It is also obvious that national programmes on forest genetic resources are not yet well established in Southeast Asian countries. There is collaboration between national institutions and several donor-funded projects are focusing on forest genetic resources. However, national lead institutions with coordinating responsibility have not been properly identified and the commitment of governments and policy-makers in terms of funding is often insufficient to achieve any significant impact.

Policy-makers’ commitment to conservation of forest genetic diversity can be increased if they are more aware of the potential of forest genetic resources for development. Experiences from Southeast Asia and the neighbouring regions demonstrate that tree domestication, for example, can accelerate the use and subsequently conservation of forest genetic resources. Attempts to increase the use of forest genetic resources will bring along evidently the need to increase regional collaboration as well as to identify common priority species. However, before any regional efforts can be meaningful, it is necessary that active national programmes on forest genetic resources are operational and supported by policy-makers.

WORKING SESSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

The delegates were assigned into four groups to discuss various topics in several sessions during the workshop. Topics were: 1) criteria for priority setting; 2) common species priorities; 3) utilization and partnership in conservation of forest genetic resources; and 4) management of forest genetic resources. The first group focused on criteria, how to weigh them, and how to value species. The second group was requested to process the species lists from the country reports and provide a list of common priority species. The third group discussed utilization, domestication and partnership in conservation based on Southeast Asian experience and lessons learnt so far. The fourth group exchanged ideas and experiences on management of forest genetic resources in Southeast Asia, with special focus on legislation and other policy issues.

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The outputs from discussions on priority setting suggested that regional and national priority species need to be identified to spearhead the development of conservation strategies and action plans. It was acknowledged that such species would, due to limited resources and capacity, represent only a small proportion of species in need of research, development and conservation efforts. The group also discussed how to implement the strategies and action plans, and how to assign interest in activities by species and countries. Increased networking among countries was mentioned as a mean to increase coordination and this would also facilitate exchange of information and germplasm.

The second group processed the lists of priority species presented in the country reports and compiled a tentative list of regional priority species (Table 1). The list was compiled based on two criteria; 1) a species should be indigenous to Southeast Asia, and 2) a species must have been mentioned in two or more country reports. A total of 65 species met these criteria and seven of them were listed in five or more country reports. The group pointed out that the list should only be considered as tentative since the processes to identify priority species were quite different in each country. Furthermore, selection criteria and stakeholder groups involved in varied.

For Cambodia, the species list is based on a national workshop held in August 2000 with a large group of different stakeholders. In case of the Philippines, no national workshop has been held for this purpose but the species list was compiled based on some feedback from different stakeholders. The report by Thailand used information from four regional in-country and one national workshops held in 1998. For Indonesia, the country report derived the information from a series of workshops organized in 1978, 1995 and 2000. In Laos, three regional in-country workshops were organized in 1999. The Malaysian list was based on existing and available literature as no national workshop had been held. Neither had Myanmar organized a national workshop to discuss priority setting and conservation strategies. In Vietnam, a national workshop was held in 2000 and before that, several regional in-country workshops had been held.

Table 1. Tentative list of Southeast Asian priority forest species as an output of the workshop. (Note: species are not in any order of priority). Common priority species Malaysia Indonesia Philippines Laos Cambodia Thailland Vietnam Total Afzelia xylocarpa + + + + 4

Agathis borneensis + + 2

Albizia lebbeck + + 2

Albizia procera + + 2

Alstonia scholaris + + + + + + 6

Anisoptera costata + + + + + 5

Aquilaria crassna + + + + 4

Artocarpus heterophyllus + + + 3

Avicennia alba + + + 3

Azadirachta excelsa + + + 3

Azadirachta indica + + + 3

Calamus manan + + + 3

Cassia siamea + + + + 4

Casuarina equisetifolia + + + 3

Chukrasia tabularis + + + 3

Dalbergia bariensis + + 2

Dalbergia cochinchinensis + + + + 4

Dipterocarpus alatus + + + + + 5

Dipterocarpus grandiflorus + + + + 4

Dipterocarpus tuberculatus + + 2

Dryobalanops aromatica + + 2

Durio sp. + + + 3

Dyera costulata + + 2

Eusideroxylon zwageri + + 2

Fagraea fragrans + + + + + 5

Gonystylus bancanus + + 2

Hopea odorata + + + + + + 6

Intsia bijuga + + 2

Intsia palembanica + + + 3

Koompassia malaccensis + + 2

Lagerstroemia ovalifolia + + + 3

Litchi sinensis + + 2

Melaleuca cajuputi + + + 3

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Common priority species Malaysia Indonesia Philippines Laos Cambodia Thailland Vietnam Total Metroxylon sagu + + 2

Palaquium rostratum + + 2

Parashorea stellata + + + 3

Parkia speciosa + + + 3

Peltophorum ferrugineum + + + 3

Pinus kesiya + + + + 4

Pinus merkusii + + + + + + 5

Pterocarpus indicus + + + + 4

Pterocarpus macrocarpus + + + + 4

Rhizophora sp. + + + + + 5

Samanea saman + + 2

Schima wallichii + + + 3

Shorea cochinchinensis + + 2

Shorea hypochrea + + 2

Shorea laevis + + 2

Shorea leprosula + + 2

Shorea macrophylla + + 2

Shorea ovalis + + 2

Shorea parvifolia + + 2

Shorea roxburghii + + + 3

Shorea stenoptera + + 2

Sindora cochinchinensis + + + 3

Sterculia lychnophora + + 2

Tarrietia javanica + + 2

Tectona grandis + + + 3

Terminalia chebula + + 2

Toona sinensis + + 2

Toona sureni + + 2

Vatica odorata + + 2

Vitex parviflora + + 2

Xylia dolabriformis + + 2

Xylia xylocarpa + + + 3

The third group, which focused on utilization and domestication, developed general recommendations and discussed how to put them into practice under varying social, economic and legal conditions. The group also emphasized the role of local people in forest management and pointed out that land tenure and ownership by local people increases their level of interest in forest management and conservation. It was highlighted that the participation of local people is not only important for managing non-wood forest products but also in granting concession licenses and implementing commercial logging.

The fourth group analysed issues on management of forest genetic resources based on the country reports and identified the most common issues or problems as follows: 1) weak law enforcement; 2) lack of participation by local people; 3) improper management; 4) wildlife conservation is given more emphasis that plant conservation; 5) conservation efforts emphasizing more on ecosystems than species and genes; and 6) insufficient scientific data, information sharing and networking

The group pointed out that while laws and regulations are in place in several countries, the enforcement is not implemented adequately. It was also noted that enforcement should be carried out hand in hand with participation of local people and that regulations should originate from lower levels (bottom up approach). While several countries demonstrate increasing participation of local people in management of forest genetic resources, there is still a lot to do to increase active involvement of local people in this regard. Improper management of forest genetic resources originates from a lack of well-trained field staff specifically assigned to conservation work. In addition, profit-making branches of governmental agencies often received higher budget allocations than conservation sections. Conservation efforts are often focused on wildlife and ecosystems while conservation of forest genetic resources, if acknowledged as a separate effort at all, is implemented as a secondary management objective. The group also considered that scattered scientific data is due to not only poor research management and funding availability but also lack of coordination and a more holistic research approach. It was concluded that increased networking among countries and stakeholders at national level can alleviate these problems as well as enhance distribution of existing information.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

The workshop made several recommendations for further action to conserve forest genetic resources in Southeast Asia. Firstly, a regional consultancy should be carried out to complete the process of identifying priority species for regional activities. Secondly, following the consultancy, a follow-up meeting should be organized to develop a regional action plan and identify country-specific activities as a part of regional efforts. Thirdly, the delegates suggested that IPGRI should coordinate further action in collaboration with other relevant international and regional organizations. It was also recommended that special emphasis should be given to enhance regional networking on conservation and use of forest genetic resources.

REFERENCES

FAO 2001. State of World's Forests 2001. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 181 pp.

FAO 2000. Report of the Eleventh Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources. FAO, Rome. 90 pp. Hald, S., Barnekow Lillesø, J.-P. & Sigaud, P. 2002. Regional workshops on conservation and use of forest

genetic resources: their contribution to a global assessment of forest genetic diversity. In J. Koskela, S. Appanah, A.P. Pedersen & M.D. Markopoulos, (eds). Proceedings of the Southeast Asian Moving Workshop on Conservation, Management and Utilization of Forest Genetic Resources, 25 February–10 March 2001, Thailand, pp. 165–175. FORGENMAP/IPGRI/FAO/DFSC/RFD, Bangkok.

UPDATED ICRAF TREE SEED SUPPLIER DIRECTORY

Tree seed suppliers directory: sources of seeds and microsymbionts. R. Kindt with S. Muasya, J. Kimotho and A. Waruhiu. Nairobi, ICRAF.

The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has recently updated the directory of seeds and microsymbionts, multipurpose trees and shrubs - sources of seeds and inoculants.

This directory is intended to:1. contribute to the informed use of tree germplasm, which is an essential component of

sustainable forestry and agroforestry practices, and 2. promote wider use of quality germplasm.

Quality has both a genetic and a physiological component, and both are described in the directory. Quality descriptors can be used as criteria to select suppliers, and this will ensure that both the users and the suppliers recognize seed quality requirements.

The directory also highlights the importance of biosafety issues, and it presents biosafety information that suppliers have provided.

Although the directory focuses on tree taxa of importance in the tropics, it lists temperate taxa as well. It does not discriminate between taxa used for agroforestry and forestry. The purpose is to ensure that the information is useful to a wide range of users.

The information from the directory is available on line at: http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/TSSD/treessd.htm and in a book

version as well as on CD-ROM.

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ASSESSMENT OF FOUR NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA A. Juss.)

INTERNATIONAL PROVENANCE TRIALS IN TANZANIA1

byPeter Iversen2, Jan Svejgaard Jensen3 and John Mtika4

INTRODUCTION

An assessment of the four international provenance trials of neem in Tanzania took place in October 2001 as recommended by the International Neem Network (INN) at the workshop on data analysis held at the Arid Forest Research Institute (AFRI), in Jodhpur, India, March 20015.

The objective of the assessment was to evaluate the trials and give recommendations for the future management and assessment of the international provenance trials both for Tanzania and for the INN. Important questions in this case are: which provenances are the best suited to a particular environment and a particular purpose? How is the performance of the local provenance compared to introduced material, and could better reproduction material improve the utilization of neem as a contribution to development?

MATERIAL

Four provenance trials of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) were established in Tanzania in 1996 as randomized complete block design trials with 21 provenances and seed sources from 11 countries, with five or six replications at each site (table 1).

Tabel 1. Provenances in the international neem provenance trials in Tanzania (Anonymous 1998) Locality Country Latitude Longitude Precipitation

mm/year

Altitude

m

1 Yezin Myanmar 19°51’N 96°16’E 1 269 100

2 Ban Bo Thailand 16°17’N 103°35’E 1 400 150

3 Ban Nong Thailand 14°05’N 99°40’E 1 145 40

4 Doi Tao Thailand 17°57’N 98°41’E 1 250 300

5 Vientiane Laos 18°00’N 102°45’E 1 540 180

6 Chamwino Tanzania 6°20’S 35°50’E 475 1 030

7 Chitradurga India 14°02’N 76°04’E 417 615

8 Ghaati India 13°22’N 77°34’E 741 950

9 Mandore India 26°18’N 73°01’E 373 224

10 Allahabad India 25°28’N 81°54’E 910 320

11 Annur India 11°17’N 77°07’E 875 360

12 Sunyani Ghana 07°21’N 02°21’W 1 270-1 400 950-1 000

13 Ramannaguda India 19°05’N 83°49’E 1 100 250

14 Sagar India 21°51’N 78°45’E 1 405 527

15 Multan Pakistan 30°11’N 71°29’E 276 >150

16 Geta Nepal 28°46’N 80°34’E 1 725 170

17 Lamahi Nepal 27°52’N 82°31’E 1 500 350-440

18 Balharshah India 19°51’N 79°25’E 1 000 250

19 Tibbi Laran Pakistan 28°24’N 70°18’E 140 115

20 Kuliyapitiya Sri Lanka 7°80’N 80°00’E 1 397 100

21 Bandia Senegal 14°30’N 17°02’W 436 50

1 Received August 2002. Original language: English2 Forest Resources Division, FAO,Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome. 3 Danish Forest and Nature Research Institute, Hørsholm Kongevej 11, 2970 Hørsholm, Denmark 4 National Tree Seed Programme, P.O. Box 373 Morogoro, Tanzania. 5 The report of the workshop is available online at http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOR/FORM/FOGENRES/Inn/publications/wjodhfr.stm

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All trial sites have been described and documented (Anon. 1998). The trials were established with 16 (4x4) trees per plot, planted at 3.5 x 3.5m spacing.

Table 2. Geographical key data for the Tanzanian trials. Data is based on Hansen et al. (2000). Lat Long Altitude

(m.a.s.l.) Rain

(mm/year) Kwalukonge 04°57´S 38°42É 488 739 Mkundi 06°40´S 37°39É 475 793 Ubena 06°36´S 38°09É 305 842 Chamwino 06°02´S 34°39É 910 570

Figure 1. Map of Tanzania with the trial sites.

ASSESSMENTS

Field measurements were carried out in October 2001, after six growth seasons, at the end of the dry season. At this time the growth was apparently slow as the crown leaf mass was scarce or even missing. Slashing of grass under the trees was done before the quantitative characteristics were measured. The characters tree height and diameter of all stems above one cm at breast height (DBH) were measured, the number of stems originating from below 1.3 m were counted, and straightness of the main stem(s) on a scale from one to nine were measured on all trees in the trials, where one was given for a tree with straight stem(s) and nine for very crocked stem(s).

Health status was recorded when possible, but no attempt was made to quantify this character. Leaf mass is frequent used as a health indicator, but as the present assessment carried out during the dry season, many trees have dropped their leaves. Several trees at the Kwalukonge trial were seriously attacked by termites. This damage might be secondary following an unknown stress factor, may be water deficiency. Top-dying of trees was recorded if observed.

0 100 200

Kilometer

Lat. 32° E

Long. 6° S

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STATISTICAL METHODS

Calculations were based on plot means. Plots with less than five living trees were left out of the analysis. Only a few plots from the Ubena trial and Chamwino trials were left out because of low survival. A general linear model was used for data analysis of each trial.. The principles of 2-way analysis of variance, univariate test of normality and test for outliers are described in details by Hansen (2000), and have been suggested to be used for data analysis in the International Neem Network.6

RESULTS

There is consistency between trials exhibit a good consistency between growth values among the trials (Table 3). However it should be noted that the highest mortality is found in the second and third best growing trials, whereas the typical dry area of Chamwino has quite low mortality. There seems to be a negative relation between missing trees and flowering frequency. It is noted that maintenance of the trials is carried out locally and it is likely that there is some variance in how it is done and this can be a source of differences in survival rates.

Table 3. Average tree parameters (arithmetic mean) for four neem provenance trials. Trial Height

dmDiameter

cmStemform

(1-9)Stem.No.

Missing(%)

Flower(%)

Kwalukonge 4,6 7,3 5,8 1,9 30 2 Mkundi 6,2 10,6 6,1 2,1 11 29 Ubena 3,6 6,6 6,1 1,6 28 8 Chamwino 3,1 5,4 6,1 2,8 11 14

Provenance means for all four Tanzanian provenance trials are presented in table 4.

Table 4. Provenance mean data for four Tanzanian provenance trials with deviations from average means. Locality Height

mDev%

Diametercm

Dev%

Sterm form“1-9”

Dev%

Stem Nber. number

Dev%

Missing%

Dev%

1 Yezin, Myanmar 4.8 4 8.9 16 5.9 -4 3.5 63 5 -61 2 Ban Bo, Thailand 5.2 12 8.9 16 6.6 8 1.3 -38 14 3 3 Ban Nong, Thailand 5.7 22 8.8 15 7.2 18 1.2 -43 13 -8 4 Doi Tao, Thailand 5.4 16 7.8 1 7.3 19 1.2 -45 18 30 5 Vientiane, Laos 4.7 1 7.5 -3 6.6 8 1.2 -44 23 67 6 Chamwino, Tanzania 4.4 -5 7.5 -2 5.8 -6 2.5 15 18 32 7 Chitradurga, India 4.9 7 7.6 -1 5.8 -6 2.0 -7 10 -24 8 Ghaati, India 5.5 19 9.1 18 5.5 -10 2.2 0 9 -34 9 Mandore, India 3.2 -31 4.6 -40 6.5 7 1.9 -13 33 140 10 Allahabad, India 4.5 -3 7.8 1 6.0 -2 2.8 32 10 -28 11 Annur, India 4.8 4 8.7 13 5.5 -11 2.7 24 7 -49 12 Sunyani, Ghana 4.7 2 9.0 17 5.6 -8 3.4 56 5 -64 13 Ramannaguda, India 4.9 6 8.8 14 5.6 -9 2.5 14 9 -37 14 Sagar, India 4.5 -3 6.8 -12 6.4 4 1.8 -19 11 -16 15 Multan, Pakistan 3.6 -23 5.7 -26 6.3 2 2.0 -9 21 56 16 Geta, Nepal 4.0 -14 6.1 -20 6.2 1 2.1 -3 15 9 17 Lamahi, Nepal 4.4 -5 7.7 0 5.9 -3 2.5 13 17 25 18 Balharshah, India 4.7 0 8.0 4 5.8 -5 2.4 12 6 -55 19 Tibbi Laran, Pakistan 3.6 -23 6.2 -20 6.4 4 2.3 7 9 -33 20 Kuliyapitiya, Sri Lanka 5.0 8 8.5 10 5.7 -6 2.0 -10 18 31 21 Bandia, Senegal 4.9 5 7.8 1 5.9 -4 2.0 -6 16 14 Mean 4.6 7.7 6.1 2.2 14 Standard deviation 0.65 1.4 0.38 0.47 0.13 R2 0.91 0.87 0.78 0.82 0.7

6 A more comprehensive report will be published later, including results on Genotype x Environment interaction.

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DISCUSSION

The provenances from Thailand were among the best provenances in regards to growth rate in general (height and diameter). The Thai and the Lao provenances almost always had one stem only, and the stem was much straighter for these provenances. These provenances were significantly different in the characteristics assessed. This has lead to the suggestion that they are a different subspecies A. indica ssp. siamensis (Cutshall 1998) often referred to as the “Thai neem”. This subspecies differs from the spp. indica by being single stemmed and by having different leaf morphology. The other provenances seem to belong to the more common, A. indica ssp. indica, which is native to Northeast India and Myanmar (Schmidt & Jøker, 2000).

The Thai provenances will be the best ones if production of timber is the main objective of planting neem, on the other hand, survival of these provenances is lower than average, and at the Kwalukonge trial also quite large trees were suffering dieback.

Among the A. indica var. indica provenances, the provenances of Ghaati and Rammanaguda showed good growth, high survival and an intermediate number of stems, and could possibly be grown for many purposes. The provenances of Multan, Tibbi Laran and Mandore, all from the dry region around the Thar Desert, had the poorest growth. Except for the Multan provenance, these provenances also had low survival. Notably, the Mandore provenance failed in three trials but showed good survival in Chamwino – the most typical dry site locality. The National Tree Seed Program in Tanzania have noted that these three provenances were performing poor at the nursery stage and generally looked weaker than other provenances during the raining season, which could indicate that they are better adapted for more arid conditions.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Provenances from central and eastern India seem to be superior: they grow well and have low mortality. They perform better than the South Indian and the Nepalese provenances and especially the provenances originating from very arid conditions in Western India and Pakistan.

Most important is probably the finding that the local seed source, Chamwino, performs below average, and that there could be gains from introducing other provenances. The provenance trials give indications on regions from which introductions should take place. At this stage, after six years of growth, it is recommended to import seeds from seed zone which have shown promising in this series of trials e.g. central and eastern India, and to establish demonstration plots in different parts of the country.

For the future management of the international neem provenance trials in Tanzania it is recommended to maintain and monitor the trials for at least 5 more years and carry out selective thinning when the tree canopy closes. This will provide a better idea of the phenotypes, when grown without story competition from neighboring trees, in the same way as neem trees are grown in Tanzania.

REFERENCES

Anon., 1998. Description of neem seed sources. International Neem Network. FAO Forest Resources Division. Rome, Italy. Also available at:

http://www.fao.org/forestry/foris/webview/forestry2/index.jsp?siteId=2021&langId=1&30392167 Cutshall, B. K. 1998. A comparison of the potential Benefits from Two Types of Small Scale Neem Tree

Farming in Thailand. Abstract. http://www.chiangmai.ac.th/abstract1998/eco/abstract/eco980418.html. Hansen, C.P. 2000. Preliminary analysis report. Preliminary results of provenance trials of neem (Azadirachta

indica) in Myanmar. DFCS, Denmark. Internal document. 16 pp + annexes.Hansen, C.P., Lunde, G. & Jørgensen, M. (Compilers) 2000. International provenance trials of neem.

Description of international trials of Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) established by collaborators of the International Neem Network. FAO, Forest Resources Division. Rome. 230 pp.

Schmidt, L. & Jøker, D. 2000. Seed leaflet Azadiractha indica A. Juss. 12 Sept. 2000. Danida Forest Seed Centre. 2 pp.

40


FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES CONSERVATION IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA1,2

bySeok-Woo LEE3

Forest trees are essential for human society. They provide fuel, fiber, building materials, food and medicines among other things. Forests stabilize environments and trees are cornerstones of ecosystems. While trees are the dominant components of the ecosystem, forests are also rich reservoirs of other biological diversity, and home to many animal and plant species. To maintain and improve our forests, the genetic resources of forest trees must be conserved. Management of forest genetic resources involves developing overall strategies, applying specific methodologies, implementing new techniques, and coordinating local, national, regional, and global efforts.

Forests are a dominant feature of Korea’s landscape. They cover 6.42 million ha or 65 percent of the country. However, over the past four decades human population pressures, industrialization and land use changes have gradually reduced Korea’s forests.

At the beginning of the 20th century, modern silvicultural practices and regulated forest management practices were introduced in Korea. Silvicultural activities such as clear-cutting and the establishment of plantation monocultures, together with overexploitation during the Japanese occupation and severe devastation during the Korean war, had a negative effect on Korean forests, by simplifying forest ecosystems, reducing biodiversity, and diminishing ecosystem resilience.

When the Institute of Forest Genetics (IFG) was established in 19564, the Korean government initiated a conservation program of forest genetic resources. At that time, the conservation program focused on ex situconservation, such as the establishment of clone banks of selected superior trees showing good stem form and/or outstanding growth. In 1972, the IFG began exploring, evaluating, and conserving natural stands of some economically important tree species. However, these efforts were not systematic and emphasis was placed on securing breeding materials rather than on conserving genetic diversity.

In 1994-1995, the IFG developed a new strategy for the systematic conservation of forest tree genetic resources. The new strategy combines in situ and ex situ conservation approaches. The choice of strategy will depend on various factors, for instance, the size of the population considered, its genetic characteristics, isolation of the population, capacity for regeneration, and possibility to ensure its long-term survival.

The implementation of the new strategy includes, (1) collection of existing information, mapping of distribution range and genetic variation of target species covered by the strategy; (2) exploration and evaluation of target tree species, including determination of their ecological traits and genetic diversity; (3) field inspection, selection, and demarcation of in situ conservation stands; and (4) field inspection, selection, and collection of reproductive material for the establishment of ex situ conservation stands and conservation in a seed bank.

FOREST ZONATION

Forest classification in Korea is based primarily on vegetation and climate. Due to the topographical complexity and a range of climatic conditions, the forest types of Korea are highly diverse and the number of indigenous tree species is very high in spite of the small land area of the country. To date, over 1 000 tree species have been described in Korea.

The evergreen deciduous forests are found south of 34°N, especially along the coastlines, and contain species of the genera, Camellia, Daphniphyllum, Ilex, Pittosporum, evergreen Quercus and others. Annual average temperature of this zone is over 14°C.

The broad-leaf deciduous tree zone (temperate forests), is located between 35°N and 43°20Ń, excluding high mountainous regions and plateaus. The annual average temperature of this zone ranges from 5 to

1 Received June 2002. Original language: English 2 This is a revised version of a paper, “Republic of Korea responds to UNCED treaty obligations with new conservation strategies for forest tree resources” published in Diversity 13: 11-13. 3 Dept of Tree Breeding, Korea Forest Research Institute, 44-3 Omokchun-dong, Kwonsun-ku, Suwon 441-350, Rep. of Korea, Email: [email protected] 4 In 1998 the Institute of Forest Genetics was combined with the Korea Forest Research Institute (KFRI) to become the Dept of TreeBreeding and in 2002, Dept of Tree Breeding were renamed to Dept of Forest Genetic Resources.

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14°C. Dominant tree species are of the genera, Quercus, Betula, Zelkova, and Fraxinus . In addition, Pinus densifloraand P. thunbergii are widely distributed in this zone.

The coniferous forest zone covers the extreme north of Korea and high altitude mountainous regions; the annual average temperature does not exceed 5°C. This zone is characterized mainly by the species of the genera, Picea, Abies, Pinus, Larix, Taxus and others.

IN SITU CONSERVATION

In the past, in situ conservation initiatives in Korea were largely driven by heritage value and aesthetic concerns. More recently, the issues of habitat protection for rare and endangered species and protection of genetic resources have increasingly influenced in situ conservation efforts.

To date, the KFRI has set aside 33 natural forest stands of approximately 2 674 ha for in situconservation of forest genetic resources of 13 tree species (nine coniferous and four broad-leaved tree species) see table 1.

Table 1. In situ conservation of forest genetic resources in Korea Species No. of populations Area (ha) Pinus densiflora 4 2 015 Pinus thunbergii 1 14 Pinus koraiensis 2 33 Pinus pumila 1 2 Abies nephrolepis 2 28 Abies koreana 2 32 Abies holophylla 1 30 Picea abies 1 9 Taxus cuspidate 4 110 Populus maximowiczii 1 5 Quercus mongolica 9 354 Quercus variabilis 4 31 Cornus controversa 1 11 Total 33 2 674

Only limited silvicultural interventions, such as thinning and salvage cutting, are permitted in the in situconservation stands. Seeds and other propagules have been collected for ex situ conservation, including gene conservation stands composed of identical progenies and seed storage. The gene conservation stands, include genetic materials found in the in situ conservation stands as a safeguard against unintended losses caused by natural and/or man-made causes and they thus complement these.

In addition to the in situ conservation stands for forest genetic resources, various kinds of protected areas, such as “natural environment conservation area”, “natural ecosystem conservation area”, “biosphere reserve”, “virgin forest protection area”, and “reserved forest”, make a contribution to the conservation of forest genetic resources. The total area of these protected areas is 206 947 ha. Protection in such areas includes all associated plants, animals, fish, and other biological resources. A large number of national and provincial parks also contribute to the in situ conservation of forest genetic resources. Since the early 1980s, 20 national parks (383 357 ha) and 20 provincial parks (73 248 ha) have been designated.

TREE IMPROVEMENT AND EX SITU CONSERVATION

Tree breeding in Korea to date has been mainly focused on commercially important conifers. Pinuskoraiensis and P. densiflora are by far the most important tree species in tree breeding programmes. P. thunbergii and Abies holophylla are also of interest.

Among the deciduous tree species, tree improvement efforts have been made mainly in Populus spp. Several fast growing hybrids such as Populus alba × P. gladulosa, P. nigra × P. maximowiczii and P. koreana × P. nigravar. italica have been developed and released for large-scale planting.

Ex situ conservation includes seed banks, clonal archives, arboreta, and breeding populations etc.

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The first seed orchard in Korea was established in 1968. To date, a total of 726 ha of seed orchards for 20 tree species (9 conifers and 11 broad-leaved tree species) have been established. The seed orchards began to produce seeds in 1976. During the past 20 years, these seed orchards have produced about 75 tons of seeds.

So far, a total of 2 724 plus trees of 29 tree species (1 582 trees of 11 conifers and 1 142 trees of 18 deciduous species) have been selected. Since 1962, clonal genebanks have been established for 11 conifers (1 568 clones covering 45.3 ha) and nine deciduous tree species (510 clones covering 23 ha).

Provenance tests for 14 native and 99 exotic tree species and progeny tests (14 species), are managed to also yield information on genetic variation, useful in developing gene conservation strategies for the species concerned.

The cultivar collections, especially for fruits (and nuts) and ornamental tree species, amount to 21.3 ha, including 1 536 cultivars of 53 species, such as Castanea crenata, Hibiscus syriacus, Juglans sinensis, Corylus heterophylla,and Rubus coreanus. The KFRI has also established a botanical garden which has value also for gene conservation, and includes a total of 103 rare and endangered tree species and varieties such as Abeliophyllum distichum and Berchemia berchemiaefolia.

In 1998, the KFRI constructed modern facilities for short- and long-term storage of tree seeds. Since that time, around 2 200 seeds from 220 tree species have been collected and are being stored at low temperatures (4, -4, and -18°C)

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NEW STRATEGY

Survey of Genetic Variation Knowledge of the diversity and distribution of genetic variation is crucial to managing genetic resources,

because such information makes it possible to predict the likelihood of gene loss in a population. It also makes it possible to develop strategies to prevent such loss and to conserve genetic diversity in a more efficient way.

While our factual knowledge of genetic variation for most tree species is still very sparse, a considerable amount of knowledge of genetic variation has been gained by isozyme analysis in some economically important tree species such as pines, oaks, and yew (Kim et al., 1993; Kim et al., 1997; Lee and Lee, 1997; Lee et al., 2000); and in rare and endangered tree species such as Koelreuteria paniculata, and Abeliophyllum distichum (Lee et al.. 1997a and c; Lee et al.. 1998). Additionally, other molecular techniques are being developed to clarify the genetic variation of a number of tree species. The molecular markers being developed and applied in Korea are: Random Amplified Polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs), Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs), Inter Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSRs), and microsatellites (Lee et al.. 1997b; Hong et al.. 2000).

Ecological and Genecological Studies Extensive ecological studies on forest tree stands which will be conserved in situ are underway. Species

composition, the number of trees by species, and the soil’s physical and chemical properties are being investigated, such information is vital to successful management of the natural stands intended for in situconservation.

Temporal and spatial genetic variation of a number of tree species are also under study, including species studies of Pinus densiflora, P. koraiensis and Abies holophylla. The results of these studies can be used to support in situ conservation, in the development of sampling strategy for ex situ conservation, and in the determination of effective population size. For these purposes, various kinds of advanced geostatistical analyses are used, such as spatial autocorrelation and variography (Hong et al. 2001a and b).

Silvicultural practices could have differing genetic effects in forest stands. Thus, there is a need to establish how different management activities may influence the genetic structure of naturally and/or artificially regenerated forests. The KFRI is trying to assess the impacts of the various silvicultural treatments on the genetic structure of tree species, especially conifers. Such studies may provide valuable information for the successful management of in situ and ex situ conservation stands.

Database of Forest Genetic Resources In 2001, the KFRI developed a user-friendly database for forest genetic resources, for the following

purposes: (1) to provide an up-to-date national overview of in situ and ex situ conservation activities; (2) to promote collaboration among Korean forestry institutes involved in conservation activities; (3) to serve as a centralized, national archive of Korean forest genetic resources and (4) to provide easy access to information on

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the distribution and the availability of genetic resources in Korea with a view of supporting research activities and preventing duplication of scientific efforts.

OUTLOOK

There will be increasing emphasis on the conservation of forest resources in the near future of Korea. By ensuring the conservation of genetic resources, the country will be better able to utilize them using new biotechnologies as well as conventional tree breeding. The inventory of forest resources will also enable the country to be well-prepared in international negotiations with regard to forest gene conservation. Finally, the approach used in Korea can provide valuable information to other countries intending to establish a conservation strategy for forest tree genetic resources.

REFERENCES

Hong, Y.P., Cho, K.J., Kim, Y.Y., Shin, E.M., and Pyo, S.K. 2000. Diversity of I-SSR variants in the population of Torreya nucifera. Jour. Korean For. Soc. 89: 167-172.

Hong, K.N., Kwon, Y.J., Chung, J.M., Shin, C.H., Hong, Y.P. and Kang, B.Y. 2001a. Spatial genetic structure at a Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) stand on Mt. Jumbong in Korea based on isozyme studies. Jour. Korean For. Soc. 90: 43-54 (in Korean).

Hong, K.N., Choi, Y.C., Kang, B.Y. and Hong, Y.P. 2001b. Spatial genetic structure of needle fir (Abies holophylla) seedlings on the forest gap within a needle fir forest at Mt. Odae in Korea. Jour. Korean For. Soc.90: 565-572 (in Korean).

Kim, Z.S., Lee, S.W. and Hyun, J.O. 1993. Allozyme variation in six native oak species in Korea. Ann. Sci. For.50(suppl. 1): 253s-260s.

Kim, Z.S., Lee, S.W. and Hwang, J.W. 1997. Genetic diversity and structure of natural populations of Pinus thunbergii in Korea. Silvae Genetica 46: 120-124.

Lee, S.W., Kim, S.C., Kim, W.W., Han, S.D. and Yim, K.B. 1997a. Characteristics of leaf morphology, vegetation and genetic variation in the endemic populations of a rare tree species, Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm. Jour.Korean For. Soc. 86: 167-176 (in Korean).

Lee, S.W., Kim, Y.Y., Hyun, J.O. and Kim, Z.S. 1997b. Comparison of genetic variation in Pinus densiflora natural populations by allozyme and RAPD analysis. Korean J. Breed. 29: 72-83 (in Korean).

Lee, S.W., Kim, C.S., Cho, K.J. and Choi, W.Y. 1997c. Genetic variation in the endemic rare tree species, Empetrum nigrum var. japonicum K. Koch. Korean J. Breed. 29: 376-381 (in Korean).

Lee, S.W. and Lee, M.H. 1997. Genetic variation of Juglans sinensis in Korea. Silvae Genetica 46: 102-107.Lee, S.W., Kim, S.C., and Lee, H.S. 1998. Allozyme variation in Abeliophyllum distichum Nakai, an endemic tree

species of Korea. Silvae Genetica 47: 294-298. Lee, S.W., Choi, W.Y., Kim, W.W. and Kim, Z.S. 2000. Genetic variation of Taxus cuspidata Sieb. et Zucc. in

Korea. Silvae Genetica 49: 124-130.

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TWELFTH SESSION OF THE FAO PANEL OF EXPERTS ON FOREST GENE RESOURCES1

The above meeting was held at FAO Headquarters, Rome from 21 to 23 November 2001. All fifteen standing Members of the Panel and one invited Resource Person attended the meeting. Collaborators from the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), and the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO), also attended the meeting..

The Panel examined work carried out in the field of forest genetic resources since its previous, Eleventh Session (Rome, September 1999), based on reports and reviews at national, regional and international levels2.

DISCUSSION

The Panel welcomed the recent approval by the 31st Session of the FAO Conference of the International Treaty on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture; it called on Members to actively help encourage countries to ratify the Treaty soonest3.

The Panel noted the deliberations of the 7th Meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), held in November 2001, in which forest biological diversity had been among the main issues on the agenda. It stressed the need to ensure that the work programme of the CBD in forest biological diversity and forest genetic resources built upon action already underway in existing technical agencies with mandates in these fields; it noted that specialized agencies and concerned institutions were in a position to help implement CBD's programme, as applicable, and within the limits of their respective mandates.

The Panel noted the compliance with its earlier recommendations regarding activities and general focus of FAO's forest genetic resources work4. Efforts made over the past years by FAO to use scarce resources efficiently, share information and experience, maintain close collaboration with national and international agencies and actors and thus avoid duplication of efforts, were welcomed.

The Panel recognized FAO's international role and functions in supporting, advising and collaborating with national institutes in in situ and ex situ conservation, and in the enhancement and sustainable use of forest genetic resources.

The Panel welcomed FAO’s inter-Departmental activities in biological diversity, biotechnology and biosafety, and discussed the place and role of new biotechnological tools which could have considerable potential, provided that due attention and adequate resources were allocated to conservation and conventional breeding programmes underpinning their application and safe use. In this regard, the Panel stressed the need to publicize in a balanced and factual manner both the potential positive and negative effects of these new technologies. It noted that at times the knowledge produced at scientific and conceptual levels was more advanced than what the operational level was able to absorb and implement. There was a need to adequately address this gap.

The Panel noted action taken by FAO in collaboration with other national, regional and international agencies in follow-up to the recommendations of the 13th Session of the Committee on Forestry (1997) and the

1 The full Report of the Panel is available on request from Forest Resources Development Service, Forestry Resources Division, Forestry Department, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy and is also available at the following web site: http://www.fao.org/forestry/gene-panel 2 This information has been published as a working paper and are available in English at request from FAO at the same address as above. The full title is; Regional Updates prepared for the Twelfth Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources, Rome, Italy, 21-23 November 2001. Working Paper FGR/34E. This paper will also be made available on the web site for the Gene Panel 3 See Box on the subject in this issue of Forest Genetic Resources 4 Discussions were based on Information Notes which can be found in the full report of the Panel.

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recommendations of the 10th and 11th Sessions of the Panel, related to support to countries in the organization of country-driven and action-oriented workshops on the management of forest genetic resources (including priority setting, conservation, and sustainable resource use).

The Panel reviewed the outcome of the workshops organized in follow-up to the above recommendations: dry-zone sub-Saharan Africa, Sept 1998; the South Pacific, March 1999; Southern and Eastern Africa, June 2000. It noted that additional workshops were planned for 2002/2003 in Central Africa and Central America. Panel Members offered their support in planning, execution and follow-up to the workshops, as required.

The Panel took note of the expressed wish of countries in South/South-East Asia; Northern and Eastern Asia; and South America, with special reference to the "Southern Cone Countries", to receive assistance in the organization of similar workshops in the near future, resources permitting.

To ensure timely implementation of recommended action, the Panel stressed the importance of ensuring presence in these workshops of participants with both technical and policy responsibilities and, when possible, including also representatives of the donor community.

The Panel up-dated the lists of priority tree species in need of attention, by region and by operational activity, regularly prepared at its Sessions, drawing on information and expertise in the countries, regions and sub-regions covered by each Member. It noted that the Panel lists complemented, and built upon, national and local lists of priority species; they also complemented sub-sectoral lists and lists of e.g. endangered forest tree species, elaborated by other (national and international) institutions and organizations.

The Panel drew attention to a limited number of specific species and genera in which it recommended that FAO help strengthen on-going and planned international and national level activities of importance to a range of countries. These genera included mahoganies and neem.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations at Policy Level The Panel stressed the importance of fostering collaboration and forging partnerships with national and

international agencies, institutes and mechanisms in the forest genetic resources field, and to promote cross-sectoral linkages and encourage donor coordination. It reconfirmed its support to the main thrust and focus of programmed activities in the planned FAO work programme for the coming biennium and the Medium Term Plan. It recommended that balanced attention continue to be given to activities in the various geographical and eco-regional zones, and among forest genetic resources activities.

Noting the increasing attention that issues in forest biological diversity were receiving world-wide, the Panel recommended that FAO continue to make full use of already existing action frameworks in the implementation of forest genetic resources activities, such as national forest programmes and programmes underpinning sustainable forest management. It stressed the need to incorporate genetic principles in activities aimed at the conservation of biological diversity, and as an integral component of natural forest management.

In order to allow activities to continue in line with recommendations by concerned Statutory and Governing Bodies of the Organization, which reflected expectations of Member Countries and the international community, the Panel recommended that efforts be made to sustain present levels of resources allocated to FAO's forest genetic resources programme.

Recommendations on Overall Focus The Panel highlighted the role of FAO in raising of awareness of the potentials, and the place and role,

of forest biotechnologies in genetic studies and in selection and breeding programmes, and the role of the Organization in providing ethical direction and guidance in the managed use of new technologies. The Panel recommended that FAO continue to provide timely, up-to-date, technically sound information to countries and

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international organizations on issues related to the use of such technologies, and that it continue to serve as “honest broker of quality science-based information on biotechnologies”5.

The Panel noted the increased need to promote application of conventional and new genetic technologies which had proven useful in industrial forestry also in the management of trees grown outside the forest, in agroforestry systems and land rehabilitation programmes, desertification control and for the capture of atmospheric carbon.

The Panel stressed the need to continue to raise awareness of the social, economic and environmental benefits of conservation and wise use of forest genetic resources, and of the direct and indirect contributions which such action made to national and rural development. It stressed the need to further emphasize the compatibility of genetic conservation and genetic management with the managed use of forest resources to meet present-day as well as future needs.

The Panel welcomed the continued attention given by FAO to the genetic management of species providing a range of wood and non-wood products and environmental services, and the attention paid to the health and vitality of the ecosystems of which they formed part. The Panel noted that action taken in regard to Prunus africana could provide useful guidance on risk assessment and conservation strategies and methodologies.

The Panel recommended that FAO continue to support countries and national institutions in the preparation of regional and eco-regional forest genetic resources status and action plans, based on priorities and needs of individual countries, and endorsed for action under a regional umbrella in related workshops. The final aim was to develop, step by step, a country-driven, participatory, global assessment and action framework for the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources.

The Panel recommended that activities related to the dissemination of information and exchange of germplasm for evaluation and conservation purposes, be continued. Noting new developments in legal aspects related to collection, transfer, exchange and trade in reproductive materials, the Panel reconfirmed its view that such exchange should be based on mutually agreed terms and agreements. FAO was encouraged to further gather and disseminate relevant information on international and regional seed certification systems, access and benefit-sharing, material transfer agreements (MTAs) and biosafety aspects in germplasm exchange, including issues related to potentially invasive species and threats to forest genetic resources posed by pests and diseases.

The Panel recommended that FAO continue to catalyze and support the development of practical, technical guidelines for the management of forest genetic resources. The Panel expressed its support to the further development of methodologies and pilot activities on in situ and ex situ conservation coupled with forest management and sustainable resource use. It welcomed plans for focused attention to a limited number of species-specific networks, including neem and mahogany species, and encouraged further support to institutional networking and twinning.

The Panel recommended that special attention be paid to forest tree species threatened by genetic erosion caused by unsustainable use, and by factors such as fire, drought and other adverse environmental factors, which were often aggravated by insufficient biological and genetic knowledge of the species concerned and the ecosystems in which they occurred. Due attention should be paid to genetic resources in areas with low forest cover countries.

Recommendations Related to Targeted Actions and Areas of Activity The Panel passed a number of specific technical recommendations complementing the

recommendations above, stressing the need for continued and increased attention to information management, definitions and evaluation, including:

5 116th Session of the FAO Council. Document CL 116/Rep. June 1999, para 25.

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• Well-targeted information dissemination, ensuring stratification of information materials according to targeted users; and information management, using traditional and new methods. Special mention was made of the annual bulletin, "Forest Genetic Resources", and the Forest Genetic Resources Homepage, both available in three languages, which were considered particularly useful vehicles for information dissemination and exchange.

• Provision of up-to-date information on the state of the world's forest genetic resources, notably through continued development and regular up-dating of information lodged in the FAO World-Wide Information System on Forest Genetic Resources (REFORGEN)6.

• The harmonization of concepts and terms, with special reference to on-going collaboration with IUFRO in the development of reference glossaries on terms frequently used in the forest genetic resources field.7

• Raising of awareness of the social, economic and environmental benefits of conservation and wise use of forest genetic resources, and of the direct and indirect contributions which such action made to national and rural development.

6 http://www.fao.org/forestry/foris/reforgen/index.jsp7 http://iufro.boku.ac.at/silvavoc/fgr-glossary/

THE INTERNATIONAL TREATY ON PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

The FAO Conference adopted at the end of 2001 the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture by consensus. Its objectives are “the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their use, in harmony withthe Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security" (Articles 5 and 6).

IMPORTANT POINT REGARDING THE TREATY:

1) The Treaty is in harmony with the CBD but the aim is to make arrangements for multilateral access and multilateral benefit-sharing, that is, to go around the need for bilateral negotiations on a case-by-case basis.

2) The scope is all plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. It makes provision for their conservation and sustainable use.

3) A Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-sharing applied to a list of crops established on the criteria of food security and inter-dependence. They cover about 80% of the world’s food calorie intake from plants.

4) Provisions regarding access and benefit-sharing will be contained in a standard Material Transfer Agreement (MTA) and its conditions shall apply to the transfer of the resources to subsequent persons.

5) The focus has been on facilitating access to plant genetic resources, because, as the Treaty recognises, access itself is a major good.

One forestry genus, Prosopis, is included as well as several woody species such as Artocarpus, Citrus,Cocos, and Malus.

The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) which is acting as Interim Committee for the Treaty until it come into force 90 days after at least 40 countries has ratified the Treaty, held its first meeting in Rome, 9-11 October 2002 to discuss among other things the establishment of a Global Conservation Trust and the standard material transfer agreement.

For further information on the International Treaty see the website for the Secretariat of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture: www.fao.org/ag/cgrfa

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FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES CONSERVATION IN SUDAN1

byE.I. Warrag2, E. A. Elsheiksh3 and A. A. Elfeel4

INTRODUCTION

Conservation of forest genetic resources in Sudan at national level is complex due to the size of the country, species diversity, large variation in climatic conditions and institutional awareness of needs and priorities. Few activities are directed for saving gene pools for present and future use. Silvicultural practices, management, laws and policies are targeted for use and conservation of the forestry resources, resulting in “conservation in use” for the forest genetic resources.

The country (about 2.5 m sq km) lies entirely in the subtropical arid zone of Africa. Seven vegetation zones are recognized according to rainfall, from 0 mm in the north to 1500 mm in the south, and there is a wide range of soil types (Harrison and Jackson 1958). It is rich with natural populations of more than 100 tree species. Large variation exists between and within species due to the variation in rainfall and soil types (Hussein 1993, Elfeel 1995, Yahia 1997). Major and sub- genecological zones were delineated by Aalbœk and Kananji (1995) for use by the National Tree Seed centre (NTSC) as seed collection zones.

THE FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES

There have been few planned management interventions in Sudan’s forests but there has been widespread influence of human activity. In limited areas many exotic species were introduced and established from the 1950s, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus microtheca were planted in connection with irrigated agricultural schemes. Five Morus species were introduced in 1995 for silk production. Prosopis species were introduced as suitable for the arid conditions and Prosopis chilensis was considered a priority species in the 1991 by the NTSC. The species has, however, spread to agricultural lands where it is considered a weed, and measures have been taken for eradication.

Forests range from savanna woodland of annual rainfall of about 400 mm to tropical high rainfall forest in the southern mountains with desert and semi-desert in the northern parts of the country and closed high forests in the very southern parts5. The arid northern parts of the country have scattered vegetation; woody species are limited to a few species of Acacia in the seasonally flooded areas. The central part of the country with a rainy season of 3-5 months is dominated by deciduous drought tolerant tree species. The influence of the soil type is marked. E.g. Acacia senegal is found in areas with a rainfall of 400 mm in sandy soils, while it requires 600 mm in heavy clay soils areas. In the lower rainfall savanna the main species currently utilized are Acacia senegal and Acacia nilotica of the riverine forests. Other important species are Anogeissus leiocarpus, Terminalia spp. Combretum spp, Bowswelia spp, and some palms mainly Hyphaene and Borassus spp. The higher rainfall savanna areas contain more valuable tree species, with potential of producing sawn timber.

The important species grouped according to product produced, were listed by Warrag et al. (1998). The woody products are fuelwood, sawn timber and round poles. About 100 species were reported to produce non-woody products (Badi, 1993). These range from honey bees keeping, fibre, food, fodder, medicinal materials, dyes to tannins. Forest trees also provide many service functions, such as the stabilization of sand dunes in the semi-desert region, improvement of soil fertility, provision of habitats for wildlife and the conservation of biodiversity. The most important species listed were:

1 Received June 2002. Original language: English2 Faculty of Forestry, University of Khartoum 3 National Tree Seed Centre 4 Faculty of Forestry and Range Sciences, Sudan University for Science and Technology 5 The forest cover was 61 627 000 ha in 2000 or 17% of the country (FAO, 2001).

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1) Acacia senegal: produces gum Arabic and fuelwood, acts as a fallow crop and stabilizes sand dunes,

2) Acacia nilotica: produces sawn timber and tannins, 3) Acacia seyal: produces fuelwood and gum, 4) Eucalyptus camaldulensis: Fast growing exotic species used for the production of shelter,

fuelwood and poles, grown in blocks irrigated agricultural schemes.

ThreatsThreats to tree species and consequently to forest genetic resources are related to: A) human factors

1. conversion of natural forests to plantations of exotic tree species and 2. lack of management of natural forest and woodlands, regulated and unregulated cutting for

timber and fuelwood,3. extensive clearing for large scale mechanized farming operation, 4. over grazing of livestock, 5. burning 6. civil wars;

B) non-human factors; 1. drought, The drought experienced in Sudan during the eighties affected tree species especially in

the low rainfall savannah areas and the arid zones.2. natural fires, and 3. insects.

Tree vegetation has declined in the past century and has now reached to around 17 percent forest land plus an additional 10 percent as other wooded land in the year 2000 with an annual change of –1.4 percent (= 960 000 ha/year) between 1990 and 2000 (FAO 2000).

The following species are declared endangered by the Ministry of Agriculture: Balanites aegyptiaca; 2) Commiphora africana; 3) Dablergia melanoxylon; 4) Hyphaene thebaica; 5) Salvadora persica; 6) Sclerocarya birrea; and 7) Sterculia setigera.

Legislation regarding forest genetic resourcesLaws for conservation were in-acted since 1901, 1908 and 1917 with reservation of 15 percent of the

country as forest. The 1986 policy raised the goal of forest reserves to 20 percent of the country area. The 1997 policy influenced by national changes and the international agreements calls for: a) assigning 25 percent of the country to natural resources mainly forestry, b) limited felling and use of trees for domestic products to the areas where regeneration is assured, c) replanting according to needs, d) limiting the local people rights and privileges from the reserved forests and to promote private, communal and rural forest. Several directives were issued to ban the cutting of tree species that are endangered or requiring some special attention. In 2001 a ministerial decrees was issued that ban the expansion of mechanized farms and felling of trees outside the reserved forest.

Forest legislation also regulates tree cutting outside forest reserves with the objective to avoid felling to inside the forest reserves. These measures are expected to reduce the pressure on natural stands and consequently help in conserving genetic resources. Native and tribal administrations are using their own methods for tree conservation.

STATUS OF THE CONSERVATION OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES

The laws, policies and activities are directed towards conservation of the forest resources and indirectly resulting in genetic conservation at the ecosystem, species and geographical sources. The forest genetic resources are mostly conserved in national parks, natural stands and plantations.

In-situ conservation Forest reserves

The gazetted forest reserves covered 1 278 000 ha by 1979, distributed as: 167 000 ha in the semi-desert, 547 000 in the low rainfall woodland savannah and 564 000 in the high rainfall woodland savannah. The reserved

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area was increased substantially after 1993 (following the Convention on Biological Diversity) to reach 8 million ha (2.8 percent of the country area) distributed in the different vegetation zones. Due to the control cuttings of trees and replanting using bulk seeds from natural stands, the genetic resources are reasonably conserved.

Protection of endangered tree species Ministerial decrees are in place that ban the removal or cutting of any declared endangered forest tree

species.

National parks National parks contribute significantly to the conservation of genetic resources especially in the savanna

woodlands as felling of trees is prohibited there. Eight national parks “Bioreserves” exclusively for wildlife are distributed in the different vegetation zones with a total area of 8.5 million ha.

ReforestationReforestation and afforestation programs use bulk seed collected from natural stands. The annual

consumption of seed through the organized channels is about 50 tons and expected to increase. The top priority species accounts for most of the demand as Acacia senegal constitute about 30 percent of the present seed use (15 tons), followed by Acacia seyal, Acacia nilotica, Acacia tortilis, Acacia mellifera, Balanities aegyptiaca and other species (mostly exotics) with a use of 12.7, 12.2, 6.0, 2.9, 0.2 and 0.5 tons respectively. The exotic species account for less than 10 percent of the present use.

Seed stands The NTSC has identified and demarcated 79 sources for important species with a total area of about 6oo

ha scattered in the country. However due to lack of funds these sources are not well managed for seed production

Ex-situ conservation Little efforts are directed towards this end due to its high cost. Research in the storage of tree seed are

currently investigated.

Tree improvement Besides exotics, mainly Eucalyptus species, which were first introduced in 1915, little efforts were made in

tree improvement. A few attempts were made to select high gum yielder trees of Acacia senegal in 1967 from the gum belt areas and planting their progenies in a progeny test in western Sudan. In 1984 two provenance trials were established with 15 provenances of Acacia nilotica and one provenance each of A. seyal and Eucalyptusmicrothera and another trial with five provenances of Acacia tortilis plus one provenance each of A. albida, A. seyaland Prosopis chilensis as part of the "International Series of Trials of Arid and Semi-Arid Zone Arboreal Species", a program coordinated by FAO in collaboration with international and national partners, in which seed was collected and species and provenance trials were established in a number of countries in arid and semi-arid areas in Africa, Asia and South America. (anon., 1988; Raebild, A. and Graudal, L. in prep. a and b).

FUTURE EFFORTS

Future efforts should start by planning for the conservation of the priority species and the endangered ones and then implementation of conservational plans. This requires inter-country collaboration especially in view of the uniqueness of the vulnerable dry land zone and that the important and endangered species are shared in the Sahelian and North – Sudanian Africa (FAO 2001). The NTSC requires financial and professional support to advance this work and to be able to provide improved seeds while maintaining the genetic variability of the forest genetic resources.

REFERENCES

Aalbœk, A., and Kananji, B. 1995. Tree seed zones for Sudan. NTSC publication No. 6. Abdel Rahman Gorashi. 2001. State of Forest Genetic Resources in Sudan. Prepared for the sub-regional

workshop FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF on conservation, management, sustainable utilization and enhancement

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of forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa (Ouagadougou, 22-24 September. 1998). FAO Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/20E. Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Abdelnour, H.O., Abdelmagid, T.D. (1997): The Human activities in the Sudan during the 20th century and its effect on the forests of the Sudan.

Anon.. 1988. Final Statement on the FAO/IBPGR/UNEP Project on Genetic Resources of Arid and Semi-Arid Zone Arboreal Species for the Improvement of Rural Living, 1979-1987. Forest Genetic Resources Information,No. 16. pp 2-8.

Badi, K.H. 1993. Study on consumption of forest products: an exhaustive list of forest species bearing non-wood forest products. GCP/SUD/049/NET, Khartoum, Sudan.

Elfeel, A.A.1996: Provenance variation in seed characteristics, germination and early seedlings growth traits of Acacia senegal in Sudan. M.Sc. thesis, University of Khartoum.

FAO 2000. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000. Main report. FAO Forestry paper 140. FAO 2001. State of Forest Genetic Resources in the Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa & Regional Action

Plan for their conservation and Sustainable Use. Forest Genetic Resources Working papers, Working paper No.2.

Glowka, L., Burhenne-Guilmin, F., Synge, H., Mcneelly J.A., Gündling,L. 1994: A Guide to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Environmental Policy and Law Paper No. 30. IUCN Environmental Law centre and Biodiversity programme.

Harrison M.N., and Jackson, J.K. (1958). Ecological classification of the vegetation of the Sudan. Forest Bulletin No.2.

Hussein, K. A., 1994: Genetic variation in growth traits between location, gum production and families of Acaciasenegal (L.) Willd. seedlings from northern Kordofan, Sudan. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.

Ræbild, A. & Graudal, L. (in prep.a): Evaluation of an Acacia nilotica provenance trial at Khor Donia, Sudan. Trial no. 25 in the Arid Zone Series. Danida Forest Seed Centre.

Ræbild, A. & Graudal, L. (in prep.b): Evaluation of an Acacia tortilis provenance trial at Khor Donia, Sudan. Trial no. 26 in the Arid Zone Series. Danida Forest Seed Centre.

Yahia, B. O. 1997. Genetic variation in seed parameters, germination, and early seedling growth traits of Acacia melifera at the provenance and individual levels. M.Sc. thesis, University of Khartoum.

Warrag, E.I, A.G. Elmahi, A. M. Ibrahim, E.A. Elsheiksh 1998: Status of forest genetic resources in the Sudan. October, 1998.

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ON THE DOORSTEP TO NEW LEGISLATIONON FOREST REPRODUCTIVE MATERIAL:

- POLICY FRAMEWORK AND LEGISLATION ON TRADE WITH FOREST REPRODUCTIVE MATERIAL -1

byLennart Ackzell

2

POLICIES AFFECTING EUROPE

When a seedling is planted or a seed is sown in a regeneration effort in European forests, different factors influence the choice of forest reproductive material (FRM) used.

In Europe, two trade schemes or regulations directly or indirectly affect us. For Member States of the European Union (EU) there is a directive on Marketing of Forest Reproductive Material, and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has a trade scheme on Forest Reproductive Material3

open to countries that wish to participate. These two trade schemes were revised in the 1990s and European countries are presently changing their national policies accordingly.

The important over-ruling policy within the EU is the principle of free movement of goods. This means that forest seeds or plants that are legally on the market in one Member State are legal in all EU Member States. That policy, more than requests from the forestry sector, is the reason behind the need for the EU legislation. There is, simply, a need to understand the information accompanying seeds and plants circulating in trade.

LEGISLATION DEVELOPMENTS

Since 1966, the EU or European Economic Community (as it was known at the time) has issued a directive on the marketing of forest seed and plants (66/404/EEC). There have been some minor revisions, but the directive—as created by the six original member countries—has remained basically the same.

The OECD also has a trade scheme for forest reproductive material, dealing mostly with trade between Europe and North America. The scheme was re-negotiated and EU members accepted the new proposal in the mid 1990s. However it has not been finally approved as there is a US opposition to the GMO-labelling requirements. The OECD Scheme, in contrast to the EU directive, is optional and countries participate and use the scheme on a voluntary basis.

To make the process more efficient and understandable for those involved (primarily forest administrations and nursery owners/managers), following the OECD revision the EU undertook to renew its old directive so that there would be only one set of definitions and rules for marketing of forest reproductive material. The result was a new directive (1999/105/EC)4 that was presented about two weeks before the end of 1999. The directive should be implemented in national legislation and in force no later than 31 December 2002. Besides the current EU-members, the 12 candidate countries also implement this legislation. Hence, 27 European countries are directly influenced.

The new Directive reflects both the modern state of plant breeding and the increased public awareness of nature conservation. The Directive also has standards that reflect the current membership of 15 member states as compared with the original six. As such, among other changes, the number of species concerned has increased dramatically.

1 Received September 2002. Original language: English2 National Board of Forestry, Sweden 3 See OECD scheme on the OECD web site at: http://www.oecd.org/pdf/M00024000/M00024005.pdf 4 Can be accessed as a PDF document at: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2000/l_011/l_01120000115en00170040.pdf

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The Directive regulates marketing, and perhaps even more specifically, labeling, and not the forest practices on individual forests. However, for plants that are sold or traded on the market, a market directive understandably also strongly influences seed collection, seed or plant production, and their use in the forest.

USEFUL DEFINITIONS

For a broader audience, the kit of definitions might be very useful to avoid misunderstandings. The definitions are to a very large degree compatible between the OECD trade scheme and the EU-directive. The matrix of Basic material (=where the seeds or parts of plants come from; forest area, specific stand, seed orchard, clone, etc.) and Categories (=the degree of selection; no selection, stand level, individual selection and results of tests of the selection) is useful for countries not directly affected by these schemes.

GENE CONSERVATION

The matter of gene conservation has been observed in the updated versions of the schemes. Hence, there are articles in the EU Directive (4.4 and 6.5) that allow exemptions for gene conservation activities (see web link in footnote 3).

COMPUTER PROGRAMMES FOR EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS OF TRIALS OF GENETIC RESOURCES COLLETIONS,

FROM AN IPGRI PUBLICATION1

A recent publication from IPGRI, include among other items an appendix on computer programmes for design and analysis of germplasm evaluation trials for the following software products: 1) Microsoft Excel; 2) MSTAT; 3) Agrobase; 4) Genstat; 5) S-PLUS; 6) SAS; 7) CycDesigN and; 8) ASREML. It includes some observation about each program and gives some recommendations which also will apply to evaluation of trialsin forestry.

Selecting the appropriate software, from IPGRI Technical Bulletin 2001, No. 4, Appendix 1 p. 49-51:

“The main conclusion from a brief survey of the software is that there is no ideal package for the design and analysis ofgermplasm evaluation trials. However, organizations may have a strategy that include a range of packages. One scenario would beto use Excel for data entry and possible for some graphics. Then some combination of Genstat, Agrobase and SAS could be used for the randomization of the trials and for the analysis.

One recent development is the ease and similarity of use of different statistics packages. This has two important consequences. The first is that little time is need be devoted to instruction in any particular package. The second is that more than one package can be used in a complementary way. It is therefore no longer essential that the same package be used on a trainingcourse that is needed subsequently. The web site http://www.statistics. Com/vendors/index.html has information on, and links to, many statistical analysis software packages, including some of the ones discussed in this publication.”

The complete publication can be found on the IPGRI webpage at: http://www.ipgri.org/system/page.asp?frame=publications/indexpub.htm

There is no commercial computer programme targeting exclusively forestry, but the second edition of “Experimental Design and Analysis for the use in Tree improvement” by E.R. Williams, A.C. Matheson and C.E. Harwood, April 2002, CSIRO Publishing, Australia, relates to the latest available software packages.

1 IPGRI. 2001. The design and analysis of evaluation trials of genetic resources collections. A guide for genebank managers. IPGRI Technical Bulletin No. 4. IPGRI, Rome

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RECENT PUBLICATIONS FROM DANIDA FOREST SEED CENTRE

Guidelines and Technical Notes 62 People's Participation and the Role Of Governments in Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources.

Lotte Isager, Ida Theilade and Lex Thomsen. 2002

Case Studies

1 Tree Planting Zones of Nepal. 2001. Lillesø, J.P.B., L.P. Dhakal, T.B. Shrestha, R.P. Nayaju, R. Shrestha and E.D. Kjaer.

2 Conservation Plan for Genetic Resources of Zambezi Teak (Baikiaea plurijuga) in Zambia. 2001. Theilade, I., P.M. Sekeli, S. Hald and L. Graudal.

3 Addressing smallholders' demand for propagation material of woody species. 2001. Lillesøe, J.P.B., L.P. Dhakal, P.K. Jha, H.L. Aryal and E.D. Kjaer.

Results & Documentation

1 DFSC and FAO 2001. Practical experience with establishment and management of ex situconservation stands of tropical pines. DFSC Results and Documentation No.1. RD1. Compilation and editing: Christian P. Hansen, Ida Thailade, Søren Hald, Danida Forest seed Centre, Humlebaek, Denmark and Forest Resources Development Service, FAO, Rome, 61 pp.

Seedleaflets Seed Leaflets 51-65: Gliricidia sepium, Ilicium verum, Dipterocarpus alatus, Buddleja coriaceae, Tipuana tipu,

Prosopis alba, Schinus molle, Gonystylus bancanus, Agathis loranthifolia, Pinus merkusii, Tectona grandis,Gmelina arborea, Milicia excelsa, Shorea leprosula, Dalbergia sissoo. 2-page leaflets with information about tropical and sub-tropical species. All leaflets are available on the web site, see address below.

About Danida Forest Seed Centre Trees for Development

All publications from 2000 and later are available on the DFSC web site at: www.dfsc.dk or can be requested from: Danida Forest Seed Centre Krogerupvej 21 DK-2050 Humlebaek DenmarkFax: +45 49 16 02 58, Email: [email protected]

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NEW PUBLICATION ON PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES WITH EXSITU CONSERVATION OF TROPICAL PINES1

Danida Forest Seed Centre (DFSC) and FAO together with national partners in the concerned countries have published “Practical experience with establishment and management of ex situ conservation stands of tropical pines. DFSC Results and Documentation No.1. RD1.2”

Ex situ conservation stands of Pinus caribaea, P. oocarpa and P. tecunumanii were established within the framework of an FAO/UNEP project on forest genetic resources, which was operational between 1975 and 1985. Stands in eight countries, Australia, Brazil, Côte d’Ivoire, India, Kenya, Tanzania, Thailand and Zambia, were assessed in the field in 1996-1999 by national institutions in cooperation with FAO and DFSC.

Some findings of general interest for those countries and institutions planning to establish ex situconservation stands are listed below:

• There is a need for well-informed and timely management interventions, which should be planned to be carried out throughout the lifetime of the stand, from establishment to the end of the rotation.

• Based on the above field evaluation, it was recommended that ex situ conservation be closely linked to domestication and sustainable resource use, preferably as part of a stated and active breeding and/or research programme; this will facilitate long-term management and regeneration of the conservation stands.

• The study showed that viable ex situ conservation to a large extent depends on – or should be driven by – interest in utilising the species and provenances in question in forest plantation programmes. A problem that may continue to hamper sustainability of ex situ conservation efforts is the uncertainty of species priorities in planting programmes. This will influence the demand for seed and other reproductive materials from the conservation stands which are meant to finance - fully or in part – for the costs of management, protection and regeneration of the ex situ stands. If the conservation stands do not have a tangible value for present-day activities, management costs will likely be seen as an expense without corresponding benefits to national or local forestry authorities. Consequently, in the absence of external funding, it is likely that these conservation stands will not be adequately managed and that they may be lost.

Efforts have so far focused on pioneer tree species which are relatively easy to propagate and grow in plantations. Establishment and management of ex situ conservation stands of climax species will often require added research on reproductive ecology, seed collection and handling, use of nurse species and mixture of species in general, which may not be available at the present time. This is a challenge which should be addressed in the coming years.

1 Compilation and editing: Christian P. Hansen, Ida Theilade and Søren Hald, Danida Forest Seed Centre, Humlebaek, Denmark; andForest Resources Development Service, FAO, Rome 2 Can be requested free of charge from DFSC, Krogerupvej 21, DK-3050 Humlebaek, Denmark. Email: [email protected]. Also available on DFSC’s website at: http://www.dfsc.dk/index.htm

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REPORT OF MEETINGS AND CONFERENCES HELD

CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES OF THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD)

An expanded work programme on forest biological diversity was discussed by the Conference of Parties of the CBD at their Sixth Session in The Hague, Netherlands, in April 2002 (COP-6). Discussions were based on a document on the subject passed to COP-6 by the 7th Session of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA.), which met in November 2001.

The goals, objectives and activities of the work programme agreed upon in principle by COP-6, included three programme elements:

1. Conservation, sustainable use and benefit sharing (78 activities); 2. Institutional and socioeconomic enabling environment (42 activities); 3. Knowledge, assessment and monitoring (14 activities).

More specifically, the expanded work programme included mention of strategies on in situ and ex situconservation and sustainable resource use; the need to establish protected area networks and to assess the adequacy and efficacy of existing networks and the facilitation of the participation local and indigenous communities in protected area management. It highlighted the need to include forest biological diversity considerations in programmes related to forest fires, climate change and abatement of pollution, and proposed links to the work programme of on invasive alien species.

For the full report on the decisions and work programme on Forest Biological Diversity, see: http://www.biodiv.org/meetings/cop-06.asp

IUFRO SYMPOSIUM ON POPULATION AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF FOREST TREE SPECIES

On the occasion of the 195th anniversary of the establishment of higher forestry education in Slovakia and the 50th anniversary of the College of Forestry and Wood Technology in Zvolen, the Faculty of Forestry, Technical University, Zvolen, Slovakia organized a symposium on Population and Evolutionary Genetics of Forest Tree Species held in collaboration with IUFRO Research Group 2.04 "Genetics" and Arbora Publishers.

The Symposium which were held from 26 to 29 August 2002 in the beautiful settings of Stará Lesná in the High Tatras, Slovakia, were attended by more than 132 participants from 31 countries of five continents.

A number of interesting presentations were given within the following five sessions: 1) Gene diversity and differentiation of natural populations, 2) Gene flow in natural and breeding populations, 3) Introgressive hybridization and phylogeny of forest trees, 4) Gene diversity as the basis for adaptation, 5) Genomics, Gene mapping, QTL's and gene markers as tool of biomonitoring. Ten invited papers, 26 oral voluntary presentations and 46 posters were presented in the symposium.

The presentations will be published in the Proceedings of the meeting. Further information can be found at: http://alpha.tuzvo.sk/~paule/conference/

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RECENT PUBLICATIONS FROM FAO1

BOOKS:

FAO, DFSC, IPGRI. 2001. Forest genetic resources conservation and management. Vol 2: In managed natural forests and protected areas (in situ). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. Rome. (E, S) (The French version will be printed in 2003 and a Chinese version is considered.) Please note that a summary of this publication was published in Forest Genetic Resources No. 29)

FAO. 2002. Report from the Twelfth Session of the Fao Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources (E,S,F) (A summary of this report can be found in this issue of Forest Genetic Resources)

FAO, 2001, Agriculture biotechnology for developing countries, Results of an electronic forum. FAO Research and Technology Paper No. 8, FAO, Rome, 111 pp. Including the electronic forum on biotechnology in forestry. http://www.fao.org/biotech/forum.htm

FAO, 2001. Glossary of biotechnology for food and agriculture. A revised and augmented edition of the Glossary of biotechnology and genetic engineering. FAO Research and Technology Paper No. 9, FAO, Rome, 305 pp.

http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y2775E/Y2775E00.HTM

FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES WORKING PAPERS:

Georges Agbahungba, Nestor Sokpon & Orou Gandé Gaoué. 2001. Situation des ressources génétiques forestières du Bénin.. Atelier sous-régional FAO/IPGRI/CIRAF sur la conservation, la gestion, l’utilisation durable et la mise en valeur des ressources génétiques forestières de la zone sahélienne (Ouagadougou, 22-24 sept. 1998). Note thématique sur les ressources génétiques forestières. Document FGR/12F. Service de la mise en valeur des ressources forestières, Division des ressources forestières. FAO, Rome (non publié).

Essowe Ouro Djeri, Tchéliaga Djagba, Assion Ata Sewa, Sézirewê Ouro-Landjo & Abdoulaye Albada. 2001. Situation des ressources génétiques forestières du Togo.. Atelier sous-régional FAO/IPGRI/CIRAF sur la conservation, la gestion, l’utilisation durable et la mise en valeur des ressources génétiques forestières de la zone sahélienne (Ouagadougou, 22-24 sept. 1998). Note thématique sur les ressources génétiques forestières. Document FGR/13F. Service de la mise en valeur des ressources forestières, Division des ressources forestières. FAO, Rome (non publié).

Djiramba Diawara. 2001. Situation des ressources génétiques forestières de la Guinée.. Atelier sous-régional FAO/IPGRI/CIRAF sur la conservation, la gestion, l’utilisation durable et la mise en valeur des ressources génétiques forestières de la zone sahélienne (Ouagadougou, 22-24 sept. 1998). Note thématique sur les ressources génétiques forestières. Document FGR/14F. Service de la mise en valeur des ressources forestières, Division des ressources forestières. FAO, Rome (non publié).

Jean Marie Fondoun. 2001. Situation des ressources génétiques forestières du Cameroun.. Atelier sous-régional FAO/IPGRI/CIRAF sur la conservation, la gestion, l’utilisation durable et la mise en valeur des ressources génétiques forestières de la zone sahélienne (Ouagadougou, 22-24 sept. 1998). Note thématique sur les ressources génétiques forestières. Document FGR/15F. Service de la mise en valeur des ressources forestières, Division des ressources forestières. FAO, Rome (non publié).

Oni P.I. 2001. State of Forest genetic Resources in the dry north of Nigeria. Sub-Regional Workshop FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF on the conservation, management, sustainable utilization and enhancement of

1 All FAO publications are available at the FAO forest genetic resources homepage, and can also be obtained in hard copy by sending a request to: Forest Genetic Resources, Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division, Forestry Department, FAO, Viale delle Terme de Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to: [email protected]

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forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 22-24 September 1998). Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/16E. Forestry Department, FAO, Rome, (unpublished).

Daniel E.K.A. Siaw. 2001. State of Forest Genetic Resources in Ghana. Prepared for the sub-regional workshop FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF on conservation, management, sustainable utilization and enhancement of forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa (Ouagadougou, 22-24 September. 1998). FAO Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/17E. Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Kigomo N. Bernard. 2001. State of Forest Genetic Resources in Kenya. Prepared for the sub-regional workshop FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF on conservation, management, sustainable utilization and enhancement of forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa (Ouagadougou, 22-24 September. 1998). FAO Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/18E. Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Danso A.A. 2001 State of Forest genetic Resources in The Gambia. Sub-Regional Workshop FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF on the conservation, management, sustainable utilization and enhancement of forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 22-24 September 1998). Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/19E. Forestry Department, FAO, Rome, (unpublished).

Abdel Rahman Gorashi. 2001. State of Forest Genetic Resources in Sudan. Prepared for the sub-regional workshop FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF on conservation, management, sustainable utilization and enhancement of forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa (Ouagadougou, 22-24 September. 1998). FAO Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/20E. Forest Resources Division. FAO, (unpublished).

Bekele Million and Berhanu Leykun. 2001. State of Forest Genetic Resources in Ethiopia. Prepared for the sub-regional workshop FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF on conservation, management, sustainable utilization and enhancement of forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa (Ouagadougou, 22-24 September. 1998). FAO Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/21E. Forest Resources Division. FAO, (unpublished).

Nikema A., Ouedraogo S.J. & Boussim J. 2001. Situation des ressources génétiques forestières du Burkina Faso. Atelier sous-régional FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF sur la conservation, la gestion, l’utilisation durable et la mise en valeur des ressources génétiques forestières de la zone sahélienne (Ouagadougou, 22-24 sept. 1998). Note thématique sur les ressources génétiques forestières. Document FGR/22F. Département des forêts, FAO, Rome, (non publié).

Araya Eman E. 2001 State of Forest genetic Resources in Eritrea. Sub-Regional Workshop FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF on the conservation, management, sustainable utilization and enhancement of forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 22-24 September 1998). Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/23E. Forestry Department, FAO, Rome, (unpublished).

Dentand, F. & Fakatika, A. 2002. Situation des ressources génétiques forestières des îles Wallis et Futuna. Séminaire sous-régional océanien sur les ressources génétiques des forêts et des arbres FAO/SPRIG (AusAID)/PROE/PIFTSP (CPS) (Apia, Samoa, 12-16 avril 1999). Note thématique sur les ressources génétiques forestières. Document FGR/24F. Service de la mise en valeur des ressources forestières, Division des ressources forestières. FAO, Rome (non publié).

Bonnetaud, D. 2002. Situation des ressources génétiques forestières de la Polynésie française. Séminaire sous-régional océanien sur les ressources génétiques des forêts et des arbres FAO/SPRIG (AusAID)/PROE/PIFTSP (CPS) (Apia, Samoa, 12-16 avril 1999). Note thématique sur les ressources

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génétiques forestières. Document FGR/25F. Service de la mise en valeur des ressources forestières, Division des ressources forestières. FAO, Rome (non publié).

Kindo, A.I., Hamisy W.C. & Mtika J.A. 2002. State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in Tanzania. Prepared for the Second Regional Training Workshop on Forest Genetic Resources for Eastern and Southern African Countries, 6-10 December 1999, Nairobi, Kenya, and updated for the SADC Regional Workshop on forest and tree genetic resources, 5-9 June 2000, Arusha, Tanzania. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/26E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Gowela, J.P. and Masamba, C.R. 2002. State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in Malawi. Prepared for the Second Regional Training Workshop on Forest Genetic Resources for Eastern and Southern African Countries 6-10 December 1999, Nairobi, Kenya; and updated for the SADC Regional Workshop on forest and tree genetic resources, 5-9 June 2000, Arusha, Tanzania. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/27E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Ngcobo, Nceba. 2002. State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in South Africa. Prepared for the SADC Regional Workshop on forest and tree genetic resources, 5-9 June 2000, Arusha, Tanzania. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/28E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Lusepani, N.E. and Hangula, R.J.K. 2002. State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in Namibia. Prepared for the Second Regional Training Workshop on Forest Genetic Resources for Eastern and Southern African Countries 6-10 December 1999, Nairobi, Kenya; and updated for the SADC Regional Workshop on forest and tree genetic resources, 5-9 June 2000, Arusha, Tanzania. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/29E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Issufo, Alima A.K. 2002. State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in Mozambique. Prepared for the SADC Regional Workshop on forest and tree genetic resources, 5-9 June 2000, Arusha, Tanzania. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/30E Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Sekeli, P.M. and Phiri, M. 2002. State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in Zambia. Prepared for the Second Regional Training Workshop on Forest Genetic Resources for Eastern and Southern African Countries 6-10 December 1999, Nairobi, Kenya; and updated for the SADC Regional Workshop on forest and tree genetic resources, 5-9 June 2000, Arusha, Tanzania. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/31E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome , Italy (unpublished).

Dlamini, T. S. 2002. State of forest and tree genetic resources in Swaziland. Prepared for the SADC Regional Workshop on forest and tree genetic resources, 5-9 June 2000, Arusha, Tanzania. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/32E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Papineau, C. 2002. State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in New Caledonia. Prepared for the Regional Workshop on Forest and Tree Genetic Resources for Oceania, FAO/SPRIG (AusAID)/PREP/PIFTSP (SPS), Apia, Samoa, 12-16 April 1999. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/33E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Papineau, C. 2002. Situation des ressources génétiques forestières de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. Préparé pour le Séminaire sous-régional océanien sur les ressources génétiques des forêts et des arbres FAO/SPRIG (AusAID)/PREP/PIFTSP (SPS) (Apia, Samoa, 12-16 avril 1999). Note thématique sur les ressources

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génétiques forestières. Document FGR/33F. Service de la mise en valeur des ressources forestières, Division des ressources forestières. FAO, Rome (non publié).

Baskaran, K., D.; Bariteau, M.; El-Kassaby, Y.A.; Huoran, W.; Kagayama, P.; Kigomo, B.N.; Mesén, F.; Midgley, S.; Nikiema, A.; Patiño V, F.; Prado, J.A.,; Sharma, M.K..; Ståhl, P.H. 2002. Regional Updates, prepared for the Twelfth Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources, Rome, Italy, 21-23 November 2001. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/34E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

Nyoka, B.I. and Musokonyi, C. 2002. State of forest and tree genetic resources in Zimbabwe. Prepared for the Second Regional Training Workshop on Forest Genetic Resources for Eastern and Southern African Countries, 6-10 December 1999, Nairobi, Kenya, and updated for the SADC Regional Workshop on Forest and Tree Genetic Resources, 5-9 June 2000, Arusha, Tanzania. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/35E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

FAO, 2002. Forest Genetic Resources, International and Australian perspectives. Paper prepared by Christel Palmberg-Lerche, August 2000. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/36E

(September 2002). Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

FAO, 2002. Criteria and Indicators for Assessing the Sustainability of Forest Management: Conservation of Biological Diversity and Genetic Variation. Document prepared by G. Namkoong, T. Boyle, Y. A. El-Kassaby, C. Palmberg-Lerche, G. Eriksson, H.-R. Gregorius, H. Joly, A. Kremer, O. Savolainen, R. Wickneswari, A. Young, M. Zeh-Nlo and R. Prabhu. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/37E, Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).

FOREST PLANTATION WORKING PAPER:

Libby, W.J. 2002. Forest Plantation Productivity. Report based on the work of W.J.Libby and C.Palmberg-Lerche. Forest Plantation Thematic Papers, Working Paper FP/3, Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome 29 pp. (unpublished).

Useful web-based information:

FAO forestry: http://www.fao.org/forestry/index.jsp FAO forest genetic resources: http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOR/FORM/FOGENRES/homepage/fogene-

e.stmFAO biotechnology: http://www.fao.org/biotech/index.asp?lang=en FAO biodiversity: http://www.fao.org/biodiversity/default.asp?lang=en

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OTHER PUBLICATIONS OF INTEREST

PAPERS AND ARTICLES

Abaimov, A.P., Barzut, V.M., Berkutenko, A.N., Buitink, J., Martinsson, O., Milyutin, L.I., Polezhaev, A., Putenikhin, V.P. and Takata, K. 2002. Seed Collection and Seed Quality of Larix spp. from Russia, Initial Phase on the Russian-Scandinavian Larch Project. Eurasian Journal of Forest Research, 4: 39-49. (E)

Adams, W.T., Aitken, S.N., Joyce, D.G., Howe, G.T. and Vargas-Hernandez, J. 2001. Evaluation efficacy of early testing for stem growth in coastal Douglas-fir. Silvae Genetica, 50 (3-4): 167-175. (E)

AFOCEL 2001. Exemple d’utilisation des marqueurs moléculaires pour gérer la biodiversité au cours de la multiplication clonale. Informations-Forêt, Fiche no. 635(3) 6 p. 2001. (F)

Al-Rabab’ah, M.A. and Williams, C.G. 2002. Population dynamics of Pinus taeda L. based on nuclear microsatellites. Forest Ecology and Management, 163(1-3): 263-271. (E)

Alton, S. and Linington, S. 2001. The UK Flora Programme of the Millennium Seed Bank Project: the outcome of a collaboration between volunteers and professionals. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletters, 128: 1-10. (E)

Antolin, M.F. and Schoette, A.W. 2000. Fragments, extinction and recolonization: The genetics of metapopulations. In Proceedings of the twenty-seventh meeting of the Canadian Tree Improvement Association, p. 37-46. Part 2, Symposium, Genetic Resources Management: Building strategies for the new Millennium, Ontario, August 2000. (E)

Ares, A. 2002. Changes through time in traits of poplar clones in selections trials. New Forests 23:105-119. (E) Avelar Gonçalves, F.M, Peçanha Rezende, G.D.S., Garcia Bertolucci, F.L. and Patto Ramalho, M.A. 2001:

Progresso genético por meio da seleção de clones de eucalipto em plantios comerciais. Revista Árovore, 25 (3): 295-301. (Portuguese)

Babin, D., Andriantsilavo, Aubert, S., Péchard, G., Bourgeois, C., Antona, M., Béchaux, E., Ramamonjisoa, L.R. and Joly, H.I. 2001. Methods of rapid appraisal for in-situ management of genetic resources: a Malagasy set of tools. Genet. Sel. E., 33(suppl. 1):S513-S535. (E)

Bartoli, M. 2001. Réflexions sur la gestion de la diversité génétique du Sapin et sur la place de l’Epicéa dans les Pyrénées. Revue Forestière Française, numéro spécial, 141-148. (F)

Blundell, A.G. and Rodan, B.D. 2002. Monitoring mahogany. ITTO Tropical Forest Update. 12 (1): 15-17 (E) Bodeker,G., Burford, G., Chamberlain, J., Bhat, K.K.S. 2001. The underexploited medicinal potential of

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) and Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. (Leguminosae) in sub-Saharan Africa: a case for a review of priorities. International Forestry Review, 3(4): 285-298. (E)

Booth, T.H., Jovanovic, T. and New, M. 2002. A new world climatic mapping program to assist species selection. Forest Ecology and Management, 163(1-3): 111-117. (E)

Bordács, S., Popescu, F., Slade, D., Csaikl., U.M., Lesur, I., Borovics, A., Kézdy, P., König, O., Gömöry, D., Brewer, S., Burg, K. and Petit, R.J. 2002. Chloroplast DNA variation of white oaks in northern Balkans and in the Carpathian Basin. Forest Ecology and Management, 156 (1-3): 197-209. (E)

Burdon, R.D. 2001. Genetic diversity and disease resistance: some considerations for research, breeding, and deployment. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 31(4): 596-606. (E)

Burgess, T. and Wingfield, M.T. 2001. Exotic pine forestry in the southern Hemisphere: A brief history of establishment and quarantine practices. Southern African Forestry Journal, 192: 79-83. (E)

Burgess, T. and Wingfield, M.J. 2002. Quarantine is important in restricting the spread of exotic seed-borne tree pathogens in the southern hemisphere. International Forestry Review 4(1): 56-65. (E)

Benowicz, A., Hirondelle, S.L. and El-Kassaby, Y.A. 2001. Patterns of genetic variation in mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr.) with respect to height growth and frost hardiness. Forest Ecology and Management, 154 (1-2): 23-33. (E)

Brewer, S., Cheddadi, R., Beaulieu, J.L., and Reille, M. The spread of deciduous Quercus throughout Europe since the last glacial period. Forest Ecology and Management, 156 (1-3): 27-48. (E)

Burley, J. 2001. Genetics in sustainable forestry: the challenges for forest genetics and tree breeding in the new millennium. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 31(4): 561-565. (E)

Cardoso, M. & Lobo, P.A. 2001: Delimitação de Pisos Bioclimáticos e Regiões de Proveniência de Pinheiro Manso em Portugal, Usando Sistemas de Informação Geográfica. Silva Lusitana, 9(1): 93-108. (Portuguese)

Carneiro, M., Lobo, P., Sousa, H., Carrasquinho, I., Correia, I. and Aguiar, A. 2001: Estudos de Base para a Delimitação de Regiões de Proveniência de Pinheiro Bravo. Silva Lusitana, 9(1): 35-46. (Portuguese)

Chaturvedi, O.P. and Pandey, N. 2001. Genetic divergence in Bombax ceiba L. germplasms. Silvae Genetica, 50 (3-4): 99-102. (E)

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Chauhan, P.S., Manhas, R.K. and Negi, J.D.S. 2001. Demographic and diversity analysis of tree species in Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.F.) forests of Doon Vally, Annals of Forestry, 9(2): 188-198. (E)

Chauhan, S.K. and Sehgal, R.N. Genetic divergence among progenies of Himalayan Long Leaf Pine. Indian Journal of Forestry, 24(1): 65-71. (E)

Chirea, P.W., Ngulube, M., Mwabumba, L. and Munthali, C. 2000. Domestication of indigenous fruit trees in Malawi. In Proceedings of the Trees for Arid Lands Workshop, November 2000. IPALAC, International Program for Arid Lands Crops, Beer Sheva, Israel 87-94. (E)

Chopra, D. and Hooda, M.S. 2001. Genetic variability and correlation studies in seed traits of Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora (SW.) DC.) Indian Journal of Forestry, 24(2): 162-165. (E)

Chouial, A., Roula, B. and Chouial, M. 2002. La multiplication du chêne-liège (Quercus suber L.). La Forêt algérienne,No. 4: 23-27. (F)

Collin, É. 2001. Stratégies pour la conservation in situ des ressources génétiques des Ormes forestiers. Revue Forestière Française, numéro spécial, 125-132. (F)

Cottrell, J.E., Munro, R.C., Tabbener, H.E., Gillies, A.C.M., Forrest, G.I., Deans, J.D., and Lowe, A.J. 2002. Distribution of chloroplast DNA variation in British oaks (Quercus robur and Q. petraea): the influence of postglacial colonization and human management. Forest Ecology and Management, 156 (1-3): 181-195. (E)

Csaikl, U.M., Burg, K., Fineschi, S., König, A.O., Mátyás G. and Petit., R.J. 2002. Chloroplast DNA variation of white oaks in the alpine region. Forest Ecology and Management, 156 (1-3): 131-145. (E)

Csaikl, U.M., Glaz, I., Baliuckas, V., Petit, R.J. and Jensen, J.S. 2002. Chloroplast DNA variation of white oak in the Baltic countries and Poland. Forest Ecology and Management, 156 (1-3): 211-222. (E)

Cullen, R., Fairburn, G.A. and Hughey, K.F.D. 2001. Measuring the productivity of threatened-species programs. Ecological Economics, 39: 53-66. (E)

Danthu, P., Soloviev, P., Toure, M.A. and Gaye, A., 2002. Propagation vegetative d’une variété améliorée de jujubier introduite au Sénégal. Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, 272(2): 93-96. (F)

DanuseviĽius, D. and Lindgren, D. 2002. Efficiency of selection based on phenotype, clone and progeny testing in long-term breeding, Silva Genetica, 51(1): 19-26. (E)

Ducousso, A. and Jarret, P. 2001. Diversité génétique des Chênes et gestion forestière. Revue Forestière Française,numéro spécial, 133-140. (F)

Dvorak, W.S., Jordan, A.P., Romero, J.L., Hodge, G.R. and Furman, B.J. 2001. Quantifying the geograpgic range of Pinus patula var. longipedunculata in Southern Mexico using morphologic and RAPD marker data. Southern African Forestry Journal, 192: 19-30. (E)

Dvornyk, V. 2001. Genetic Variability and Differentiation of Geographically Marginal Scots Pine Populations from Ukraine. Silva Genetica, 50(2): 64-69. (E)

Eriksson, G. 2001. Conservation of noble hardwoods in Europe. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 31(4): 577-587. (E)

Ettl, G.J. and Peterson, D.L. 2001. Genetic variation of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.) in the Olympic Mountains, WA, USA. Silvae Genetica, 50(3-4): 145-153. (E)

Fineschi, S., Taurchini, D., Grossoni, P., Petit, R.J. and Vendramin, G.G. Chloroplast DNA variation of white oaks in Italy. Forest Ecology and Management, 159(1-3): 103-114. (E)

Gera, M, Gera, N. and Sharma, S. 2001. Estimation of variability in growth characters of forty clones of Tectona grandis L.F. Indian Forester, 127(6): 639-644. (E)

Gopalan, R. 2001. Rediscovery of Palaquium bourdillonii Brandis (Sapotaceae) – an endemic species of Agastiyamalai (Pothigaimalai) and its environs, Southern Ghats, India. Indian Journal of Forestry, 24(2): 231-232. (E)

Gömöry, D and Paule, L. 2002. Spatial and microgeographical genetic differentiation of black alder (Alderglutinosa Gaertn.) populations. Forestry Ecology and Management, 160(1-3): 3-9. (E)

Gu, W. 2002. Research and conservation of forest genetic resources in China. Chinese Forestry Science and Technology, 1(1): 53-62 (E)

Gwaze, D.P. 2001. Interspecific hybrids in Zimbabwe: Status review and future challenges. Southern African Forestry Journal 192: 85-91. (E)

Gwaze, D.P., Wolliams, J.A, Kanowski, P.J. and Bridgwater, F.E. 2001. Interactions of genotype with site for height and stem straightness in Pinus taeda in Ximbabwe. Silvae Genetica, 50(3-4): 135-139. (E)

Hamann, A. 2001. Utilization and management of red alder genetic resources in British Columbia. The Forestry Chronicle, 77(4): 705-712. (E)

Herbert, M., Mugasha, A.G. and Chamshama, S.A.O. 2002. Evaluation of 19 provenances of Calliandra calothyrsusat Gairo and SUA Farm, Morogoro, Tanzania. Southern African Forestry Journal, 174: 15-25. (E)

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Hodge, G.R., Dvorak, W.S. Urueña, H. and Rosales, L. 2002. Growth, provenance effects and genetic variation of Bombacopsis quinata in field tests in Venezuela and Colombia, Forest Ecology and Management, 158(1-3): 273-289. (E)

Hong, L.T., Rao, V.R., Amaral, W. 2002. Rattan genetic resources conservation and use, IPGRI perspective and strategy. Rattan – Current research, issues and prospects for conservation and sustainable development. Non-Wood Forest Products, 14: 63-68. (E)

Hornero, J. Gallego, F.J., Martínez, I. and Toribio, M. 2001. Testing the conservation of Quercus spp. Microsatellites in the Cork Oak, Q. suber L. Silvae Genetica, 50(3-4): 162-167. (E)

Jaimini, S.N. and Tika, S.B.S. 2001. Studies on multipurpose tree species for agroforstry in dryland agriculture. Indian Journal of Forestry, 24(2): 185-188. (E)

Jayawickrama, K.J.S. 2001. Potential genetic gains for carbon sequestration: a preliminary study on radiata pine plantations in New Zealand. Forest Ecology and Management, 152(1-3): 313-322. (E)

Jayawickrama, K.J.S. 2001. Genetic parameter estimates for radiata pine in New Zealand and New South Wales: A synthesis of results. Silva Genetica, 50(2): 45-53. (E)

Jennings, S.B., Brown, N.D., Boshier, D.H., Whitmore, T.C. and Lopes, J.do C.A. 2001. Ecology provides a pragmatic solution to the maintenance of genetic diversity in sustainable managed tropical rain forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 154(1-2): 1-10. (E)

Jensen, J.S., Gillies, A., Csaikl, U., Munro, R., Madsen, S.F., Roulund, H. and Lowe, A. 2002. Chloroplast DNA variation within the Nordic countries. Forest Ecology and Management 156(1-3): 167-180. (E)

Karnatak, D.C., Khanna, P. And Chandra. A. 2001. A report on the present status of poplar clones in India. Indian Journal of Forestry, 24(2): 171-176. (E)

Karpe, P. 2002. Sus aux biopirates. Bois et Forêts des tropiques. No. 274(4) : 81-84. (F) Khatri, J.H., Kukadia, M.U. and Singh, R.R. 2001. Micropropagation of Teak (Tectona grandis Linn.F.) Indian

Journal of Forestry, 24(3): 368-371. (E)Kleinschmit, J. 2000. Strategic directions in conserving genetic resources. In Proceedings of the twenty-seventh meeting of

the Canadian Tree Improvement Association, p 20-31, Part 2, Symposium, Genetic Resources Management: Building strategies for the new Millennium, Ontario, August 2000. (E)

König, A.O., Ziegenhagen, B., Dam, B.C., Csaikl, U.M., Coart, E., Degen, B., Burg, K., Vries, S.M.G. and Petit, R.J. 2002. Chloroplast DNA variation of oaks in western Central Europe and genetic consequences of human influences. Forest Ecology and Management, 156(1-3): 147-166. (E)

Kremer, A., Kleinschmit, J., Cottrell. J., Cundall, E.P., Deans, J.D., Ducousso, A., König, A.O., Lowe, A.J., Munro, R.C. Petit, R.J, and Stephan, B.R. 2002. Is there a correlation between chloroplastic and nuclear divergence, or what are the roles of history and selection on genetic diversity in European oaks? Forest Ecology and Management, 156(1-3): 75-87. (E)

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CD-ROM

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Documents

FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES No. 30 · Forest Genetic Resources No. 30. FAO, Rome, Italy (2002) OBITUARY GENE NAMKOONG (1934-2002) Professor Gene Namkoong, our mentor and friend, who