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2 Platypus Magazine
The past four years have seen very
significant initiatives for the Forensic
Services group including major
investments in new equipment, $5 million
for a new laboratory facility at our Weston
site, and new or refurbished facilities in
other AFP locations, all funded in the main
as part of the Federal Government’s AFP
Reform Program.
Forensic has also benefited with support from
the National Illicit Drugs Strategy (NIDS) and has
established a drug intelligence team and a National
Heroin Signature Program (NHSP). The recently
launched $50 million federally funded CrimTrac
initiative included a new National Automated
Fingerprint Identification System (NAFIS) and the
launch of the National Criminal Investigation
DNA Database (NCIDD). Many of these
in it iat ives are the subject of more detai led
coverage in this feature on the forensic sciences.
However, the renewal of infrastructure and the
introduction of new systems, important as they are,
are not the complete picture. At the risk of stating
a modern day cliché, ‘we cannot afford to stand
still’. Hence, we have been giving considerable
thought to how to best position Forensic Services
to serve the AFP and more generally Australian
law enforcement interests.
Last year I had the good fortune to be a member
of a working party that prepared a paper on
science and law enforcement for the Pr ime
Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation
Council (PMSEIC). In her presentation to
AFP Forensic Services:
Prepared for the 21st Century!By Dr James Robertson, Director Forensic Services
Forensic Services provides a range of scientific support to the AFP's international and
national operations areas and to ACT Policing. These services include biology, chemistry,
crime scene, document examination, firearms and ballistics, fingerprints, forensic imaging
and physical evidence support. While the major facil i ty is in the Canberra suburb of
Weston, forensic services officers are present in major AFP establishments throughout
Australia.
F O R E N S I C S
Dr James Robertson,Director Forensic Services
No. 72—September 2001 3
F O R E N S I C S
The new Forensic Services office and laboratory complex at Weston wascompleted in January 2000 and provides the AFP with a state-of-the-artforensic facility.
PMSEIC, Minister Vanstone commented on the
need for law enforcement and the science
community to engage with each other to ensure
the potential oppor tunities from emerging
technologies were realised for law enforcement.
The report recognised the need for ‘technology
trawling’ to identify these emerging opportunities.
It also stressed the need to ensure that results were
available in real time to assist investigations and
the importance of the key themes of intelligence
and the need to verify personal identification in a
world where increasingly business is done at a
distance and, effectively, anonymously. Add to the
above the increasing international role the AFP is
being asked to play and our requirement to be
able to respond quickly to crisis situations.
Forensic Services have taken a proactive
position to attempt to address some of these
emerging demands and expectations. Senior staff
have undertaken some key overseas study visits to
‘trawl’ new and emerging science and technology.
In this feature Chris Lennard and Julian Slater
will cover their experiences in areas as diverse as
biochips and mobile forensic laboratories. We are
in the process of introducing digital technology to
complement and, ultimately, largely replace
conventional silver halide photographs. Hilary
Fletcher will describe the new NAFIS system,
once again based on digital technology and
offering the exciting future capability to accept
digitally captured latent fingerprints from scenes
in close to real time. Julie Sutton will describe the
latest developments in DNA including the
NCIDD, biochip technology, and the ‘future’
possibilities for the field use of DNA technology.
Forensic Services have just taken delivery of a
number of field portable instruments and will be
trialing a ‘mobile laboratory’ at CHOGM in
October . We have studied the approach of
agencies in the United States such as the Bureau
of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms in fast response
forensic support for overseas incidents and are
working on an appropriately scaled AFP strategy.
As the new CEO of CSIRO, Geoff Garrett has
stated: “...strategy is not about rolling forward
from the present, it’s rolling back from the future
….. we don’t need a crystal ball, we need a wide-
angle lens, because the future is all around us and
it’s happening now.” (Australasian Science, May
2001, pp 14-15). Our approach in Forensic
Services has been to get out into the broader
world and see what is happening now.
Garrett also goes on to comment on the need to
‘partner or perish’. We need to work harder to
develop partnerships with other agencies, with
research institutes, with academia, with anyone
and everyone who can help us ensure that we do
realise the opportunities for law enforcement in
the 21st century. I believe we have made an
excellent start building on our steady progress
through the 1990s.
Finally, I want to comment on what we have
been doing with the people side of our preparation
for the 21st century. Throughout the 1990s we
worked hard to present the best opportunities to
existing staff and we recruited at all levels. We
were especially fortunate in the late 1990s to have
a period of significant recruitment. About half of
our staff has less than five years experience. We
now have a team of experienced leaders and
young, enthusiastic, motivated and very talented
younger staff. Part of the partnership we need to
emphasise in the AFP is the internal partnership
within functional streams such as ours and
between functional streams. This starts at the
individual level by recognising and respecting our
different and complementary skills, knowing each
others roles, and working towards a clearly
understood and shared game plan. I have asked
Suzanne Stanley, who heads up the School of
Forensic Investigation in Learning and
Development, to round off this feature on the
forensic sciences by outlining some of the ways in
which we are working to grow our people
professionally and to build these professional
partnerships.
Being prepared for the 21st century is about
trying to be in control of our future. The best way
to be in control is through knowledge. I hope this
series of articles provide useful information about
the work being done in Forensic Services to
ensure we can best support the AFP and our
partners and clients.
4 Platypus Magazine
F O R E N S I C S
There are many reasons for this, including the
inherent conservative nature of forensic science
(due in par t to cour t and accreditat ion
requirements), and the general lack of resources
that limit the research and development required
to validate and implement new procedures.
Forensic Services have made a concerted effort,
particularly over the past 12 months, to survey the
advances being made in the wider scientific
community. Part of this exercise has involved
attendance at a number of overseas symposia,
including the annual Pittsburgh Conference and
Exhibition, held this year at the New Orleans
Convention Center. This meeting, in particular,
showcases current research across a range of
scien t ific discipl ines as well as giving
manufacturers the opportunity to display their
latest equipment.
So where is technology heading with respect to
analytical instrumentation? What types of new
laboratory equipment can we expect within the
next five years? A trend towards miniaturization
of equipment predominates the hor izon as
consumers look towards increased portability.
Technologies such as microchips (including 'lab-
on-a-ch ip' systems), nanotechnology, and
microsensor arrays are permitting the manufacture
of smaller instruments that offer more sensitive
and faster analyses, using smaller sample
volumes, with lower reagen t consumption
(leading, in turn, to lower per sample costs).
Miniatur isat ion has been l isted along with
automation , standardisation , and buil t-in
intelligence as one of the four key drivers for
growth in today's laboratory instrument industry.
Laboratory space is a high-cost commodity, so
consumers are increasingly demanding space-
saving options when purchasing new equipment.
In response to this demand, manufacturers are
focusing on mobi l i ty (on -si te, field-based
instrumentation), miniaturisation, multipurpose
products, and new technology (such as better,
smaller, and cheaper microprocessors). Methods
and products are evolving at a rapid rate and,
while it is difficult to predict what equipment will
be on the market within five years, instruments
will continue to shrink in size as lab-on-a-chip
technologies become commonplace.
So what is ' lab-on-a-chip'? It is l i teral ly
reproducing the functionality of a complete
laboratory system down to the size of a microchip
no more than several square centimetres in size.
While this technology is still in its infancy, there
are already working prototypes in a number of
research laboratories around the world. DNA
analysis is one area where this technology is being
applied, with at least two manufacturers
producing commercial systems where DNA
separations can be conducted on a microchip. The
instruments required to run the microchips are
still bulky and laboratory-based, due largely to the
size of current power supplies and DNA detection
systems. A number of research groups are
developing miniaturised power supplies (working
prototypes are about the size of a cigarette packet)
and are incorporating sensitive electrochemical
detectors directly on to the microchips. Prototype
systems for DNA analysis can therefore be
constructed that are no bigger than a shoebox,
controlled from a laptop computer. It may take
several years, however, before such systems are
commercialised. In addition, while the separation
of DNA on a chip is already possible, more
research is required before the whole DNA
profiling process (including the amplification
step) can be incorporated on to one microchip.
Another area of significant research activity is
in the field of gas chromatography. Gas
chromatography (GC) has traditionally been a
laboratory-based technique for the analysis of
Instrument miniaturisation and
portability
Traditionally, the forensic science field has been slow at
implementing technological advances achieved in the
wider scientific community, and generally only well-
established techniques or instruments are adapted for
forensic applications.
DNA analysis on a disposable chip of this type is likely to becomecommonplace over the next 5 to 10 years. Field portable instruments based onthis technology will take DNA profiling to the crime scene.
No. 72—September 2001 5
F O R E N S I C S
mixtures including hydrocarbons (such as petrol
residues in fire debris), explosive residues, and
il l ici t drugs. Conventional instruments are
relatively large, requiring a supply of specialty
gases (such as helium and hydrogen) in order to
operate. Significant research is being undertaken
to produce miniaturised GC systems for field-
based applications such as the on-site analysis of
chemical warfare agents. Shoebox-size prototype
systems are already available, with one group in
particular developing a vacuum-outlet GC with
atmospheric-pressure air as a carrier gas. The
ultimate goal of the project is to produce a wrist-
watch size, microfabricated, high-performance
GC. One by-product of the min iatur isat ion
process is much faster analysis t imes. For
example, while a full hydrocarbon analysis may
take 40 minutes on a laboratory instrument, some
portable systems can produce results in as little as
10 seconds!
The push towards miniaturisation has been
driven to a large extent by significant research
funding, particularly in North America, directed
towards the field-based analysis of chemical
warfare and bioterrorism agents. On-site analysis
enables real-time processing of samples, allows
decisions to be made at the scene, and permits
hot-spot sampling (source tracking). This is
cer tain ly true for the detection of chemical
warfare agents, but is equally valid in the context
of general crime scene analysis. Forensic science
can certainly benefit from the research being
undertaken to develop high-performance portable
equipment.
The latest research developments will take
several years before being fully commercialised.
However, a range of portable instruments, that
have application in the forensic context, are
already avai lable on the market . Forensic
Services, with endorsement from the AFP's
Science and Technology Steering Committee, are
committed to the on-going purchase and
validation of such equipment. It is our view that
the future of forensic analyses is towards more
field-based applicat ions using por table
instrumentation. This will allow certain analyses
to be performed at the scene, providing a more
proactive service in support of investigations.
While such analyses are unlikely to replace a full
examination back in the laboratory, it will provide
early information for the investigator and permit a
better screening of samples so that only the more
relevant items are transported to the laboratory.
All forensic laboratories suffer from a backlog of
samples for analysis, leading to long turn-around
times and a more reactive rather than proactive
approach. More field-based testing, with a better
selection of samples for full laboratory analysis,
will go a long way towards addressing th is
problem.
Forensic Services has already commenced the
evaluation of a number of portable instruments.
From funding that became available this year, the
Criminalistics Team (Laboratory Services) has
purchased a transit van that will transport a range
of equipment including an infrared spectrometer,
two portable gas chromatographs (with different
detect ion capabil i t ies), and an instrument
specifically for explosive residue detection.
Laboratory personnel wil l evaluate these
instruments on an on-going basis. Techniques and
equipment that have been fully validated will then
be passed on to our Field Services members for
casework implementation. Part of the evaluation
process will include the deployment of the fully-
equipped van to Brisbane over the period of the
Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
(CHOGM) in October this year.
The US National Institute of Justice recently
published a report on the future of forensic DNA
testing. One of the conclusions in the report is as
follows:
“ With in 10 years we expect por table,
miniaturized instrumentation that will provide
analysis at the crime scene with computer-linked
remote analysis. This should permit rapid
identification and, in particular, quick elimination
of innocent suspects.” (NIJ, November 2000)
We believe that this view is conservative and
that some form of on-site forensic DNA profiling
is likely to be available within five years.
• Chris Lennard Coordinator Laboratory Services
A field-portable gas chromatograph recently purchased by the CriminalisticsTeam will be evaluated for the on-site analysis of hydrocarbon residues in firedebris samples.
6 Platypus Magazine
F O R E N S I C S
In addition to these operations, major incidents
such as the Olympics, CHOGM, and unusually
large i l l ici t drug seizures often require
supplementary forensic resources to be deployed
to regional offices for short periods.
This increase in demand has resulted in Forensic
Services looking at options for developing a more
structured mobile laboratory capabil i ty
incorporat ing recent developments in field
por table analyt ical and evidence screen ing
technology.
In May 2001, I travelled to the United States, in
par t to study the mobile forensic laboratory
capabilities of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and
Firearms (ATF). Given that these agencies have
had long-established mobile forensic laboratory
capabilities, this was an opportunity to examine
their equipment and their approach to deployment,
and to discuss the problems that have been
encountered and areas of improvement. The FBI
and ATF have different approaches to the
provision of a mobile forensic capability, due to
differing needs and quite dissimilar underpinning
philosophies.
The ATF capability has been focused on a
domestic response, in particular following the
Oklahoma City bombing. To that end, the ATF has
developed a comprehensive mobile laboratory
vehicle capable of delivering a virtually self-
contained forensic capability to an incident.
Instruments are not permanently stored in the
vehicle, but are used or maintained in the
laboratory, ensuring that they are functioning
properly ready to be deployed. The vehicle can be
driven to a scene or, if necessary, flown in by
military transport and utilised on-site by ATF
forensic scientists. Three of these vehicles have
been built and are stationed at ATF laboratories
across the United States.
The FBI, by comparison, responds to major
incidents through a network of Evidence Response
Teams consist ing of federal agen ts who, in
addition to their normal duties, have been trained
in crime scene investigation techniques. These
teams are supported in the field with mobile
command centre vehicles and evidence collection
equipment transpor ted in purpose-designed
enclosed trailers. The main focus of this response
capability from a forensic perspective is in the
ability to record and collect evidence. It does not
place a strong emphasis on deploying analytical or
screening instruments into the field, however, the
flexibility of this approach means that such a
deployment would be readily achieved if the need
were identified.
The FBI capability provides a response capacity
both domestically and internationally. Examples
of recent international deployments include the
investigations of mass killings in Bosnia, the
bombing of the USS Cole in Yemen, and the US
embassy bombings in Africa. The majority of
equipment deployed for extended investigations is
assembled from stockpiles of pre-packaged
equipment, loaded on purpose-built palettes, and
transported by military aircraft. In the case of the
response to the bombings of the US embassies in
Africa, several hundred staff were deployed with
supporting equipment including accommodation,
meals, vehicles, technical equipment, etc. The
benefit of this approach is the high degree of
flexibility to scale a response to the size of an
incident, with the infrastructure and military
support available to facilitate the deployments.
In evaluating these and other models of mobileforensic capabilities, it is essential that we have aclear view of what it is we are seeking to achieve.Forensic Services are addressing the following
three objectives:
1. enhance the capacity and efficiency ofForensic Services in investigating scenes ofcrime in the ACT;
Developing a mobile forensic
laboratory capability
The US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms have three purpose-builtmobile forensic laboratories ready for domestic response.
There has been a significant increase in demand in
recent years for forensic teams to respond to incidents in
remote locations within Australia and for deployment
internationally with recent examples including Operation
Logrunner in Fiji and people-smuggling investigations in
the Cocos Islands.
No. 72—September 2001 7
F O R E N S I C S
2. enhance the capacity and efficiency of
Forensic Services in providing supplementary
resources to regional forensic teams for short-
term deployments in the case of major inci-
dents or events; and,
3. establish a structured response capability for
deployment of a self-contained forensic facil-
ity to remote areas, both nationally and inter-
nationally.
Each object ive r a ises i t s own issues, for
example in the ACT the Field Services Team is
responding to incidents in close proximity to the
main forensic laboratory. It is neither efficient nor
desirable to at tempt to conduct complex
examinations or analyses in the field when these
examinations could be more safely carried out in
the laboratory. Where a benefi t would be
provided is in the use of instruments to screen
samples and therefore allow the forensic team to
more effectively identify exhibits requiring full
examination in the laboratory, eliminating less
relevant items at the scene. Forensic Services has
recently acquired a number of instruments for
evaluation in this capacity, in particular as screens
for explosives, accelerant in fire debris, and illicit
drugs.
In terms of enhancing our capacity to deploy
additional resources for short periods, we are
looking at the range of equipment that needs to be
maintained in reserve. This includes consumables,
analytical instruments, and other equipment, and
the means for effectively packaging and deploying
such equipment. To date, deployment of such
resources has been by commercial air travel or by
land. We need to remain sufficiently flexible with
our approach to maintain this capability while also
considering the logistics required for larger scale
deployments and the poten tial for mil i tary
assistance.
The th ird object ive presen ts the greatest
challenge, but also the greatest opportunity. In
establ ish ing a capabi l i ty to deploy a self-
contained forensic facility into the field in remote
locations nationally or internationally, there are
significant areas for improvement on our current
approach . The abi l i ty to secure scenes for
extended periods while preliminary analyses are
carried out, and the flexibility to then return to a
scene for follow-up examinations, are not options
in this instance. The ability to deploy more
sophisticated analytical equipment into the field
for screening and analytical purposes can greatly
assist in the appropriate targeting of physical
evidence at a scene. Difficulties associated with
using wet chemistry techniques in the field can
also be overcome. As an example, dur ing
Operation Logrunner difficult ies were
encountered in transporting flammable solvents
and drug standards required for the presumptive
tests we currently use for illicit drugs. The use of
a portable FTIR instrument will provide the same
capability more quickly, without the need for
solvents or drug standards.
Recent equipment acquisitions within Forensic
Services provide the basis for establishing a
mobile capability to meet the needs of all three
objectives. Additional work is being undertaken
that includes the extensive evaluation of new
instruments with consideration of the logistics of
deployment for remote operat ions. These
initiatives recognise that the opportunities to
apply forensic science in the field are increasingly
dr iven by the avai labi l i ty of field-por table
instruments. The AFP is, and intends to remain, at
the forefront of this move.
• Julian Slater, Coordinator Field Services
The internal fit-out of the ATF vehicles includes an analytical laboratory areaand a fingerprint examination darkroom.
When drug seizures take place, scientific officers areused to authenticate the nature of the drug, record netweights, conduct presumptive testing, and collect sub-samples for further laboratory analysis.
In 1999, the Federal Government
committed $50 million over three years to
establish CrimTrac which was officially
launched on June 20, 2001. This enabled
law enforcement agencies throughout
Austra lia to capita lise on the rapid
advances taking place in forensic science,
in formation technology, and
communication.
CrimTrac is a new national crime investigation
system that includes the following components:
• a new and enhanced National Automated
Fingerprint Identification System;
• a National Criminal Investigation DNA
Database; and,
• a National Child Sex Offender Register.
Fingerprints have been one of the most powerful
investigative tools available to police services for
almost a century. Traditionally, fingerpr int
searches were performed manually. The fingerprint
technician, in possession of an inked fingerprint
form or a latent fingerprint developed at a crime
scene, would have to search through a paper-based
fingerprint collection in the hope of making a
‘match’ or identification. This was an extremely
time consuming exercise. Times have changed
dramatically since those days. In 1986, Australia
led the world with the introduction of the first
National Automated Fingerprint Identification
System (NAFIS). This system, although now
superseded by the new CrimTrac NAFIS, made a
dramatic difference to the process and searching
time required to make fingerprint identifications.
Gone were the days of laborious manual searching.
The CrimTrac NAFIS has been developed using
modern imaging and computing technologies. The
system records ‘grey scale’ rather than binary
fingerprint images, and has powerful matching
capabilities that produce more efficient results
from an increasing number of fingerprint searches.
The new NAFIS has the capacity to hold about 2.5
million fingerprint records, 4.8 million palm
prints, and in excess of 180,000 prints from
unsolved crimes. In the past, palm prints located at
crime scenes were generally never identified due
to the inherent difficulties involved and the lack of
a palm print collection. The CrimTrac NAFIS is
the first system to have the capacity to search palm
prints and unidentified ridge patterns using 360-
degree rotations. Already, the new system has
permitted a number of palm print identifications
that would not have been possible with the
previous technology. A significant increase in the
overall number of database-initiated fingerprint
identifications has been observed.
The CrimTrac database will accept fingerprints
taken by a range of methods. Latent impressions
developed at scenes of crime, and inked finger and
palm impressions, can be scanned directly into the
system for immediate searching. A feature of the
system is the acceptance of a search via ‘live scan’
technology. The live scan inkless process uses
electronic and laser technology to scan fingers and
palms from a flat glass surface to produce quality
reference fingerprints. This process enables an
immediate search against the national database.
8 Platypus Magazine
F O R E N S I C S
The CrimTrac National
Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (NAFIS)
Forensic Services has representatives in all the major AFPlocations to support operational activities. In this photo,Catherine Farrugia of our Brisbane office is conducting alatent fingerprint examination on documents that relate to amajor taxation fraud investigation.
Fingerprint expert Marianthi Makarios inputs 10-printfingerprint forms into the new CrimTrac NationalAutomated Fingerprint Identification System.
No. 72—September 2001 9
F O R E N S I C S
‘Live scan’ is a long awaited improvement on the
messy and time-consuming ink and roller method
of taking fingerprints.
The AFP is in the process of evaluating ‘live
scan’ units. The systems are simple to use, there is
no clean up required, and quality reference prints
are obtained in a timely manner. Once ‘live scan’
units are finally installed, finger and palm prints
will be scanned and directly fed in to the
fingerprint system to check for matches. The time
taken to obtain results of fingerprint identifications
will be dramatically reduced.
Of course, a modern fingerprint database is of
litt le use if latent fingermarks deposited by
offenders on differen t sur faces cannot be
successfully developed and recorded. This is
where our ongoing research into more sensitive
detection techniques (such as Vacuum Metal
Deposition on polymer banknotes), and digital
recording and enhancement processes, is critical.
Forensic Services will continue to optimise such
procedures to complement the technological
advances provided by the CrimTrac system. In the
near future, the direct capture of fingerprint
images at the cr ime scene, and immediate
transmission of these images back to the
laboratory, will enable NAFIS searches to be
conducted while the crime scene examination is
still underway. This will permit a more proactive
approach, with the results of forensic examinations
being available much earlier in the investigative
process.
One advantage of DNA profiling today is the
increased sensitivity of analysis. Technology now
permits the analysis of minute quantities of DNA
compared to the relatively large amounts required
when DNA profiling first became available. As
DNA is present in every nucleated cell of the body,
an individual’s DNA type is consistent throughout
their body. Hence the DNA left at a scene from
blood, semen or saliva may be linked back to an
individual. The analysis of ‘trace’ DNA is also
possible, where DNA from skin cells has been
deposited by the simple handling of a surface or
object by an individual.
The National Criminal Investigation DNA
Database (NCIDD), facilitated by the CrimTrac
agency, will serve to collate and match DNA
profiles submitted to the database by Australian
forensic laboratories. This database will permit the
inter-jurisdictional comparison of DNA profiles to
identify criminals who cross state and territory
boarders to commit cr imes. All Australian
laboratories that contribute to the database use a
common set of DNA profiling techniques. In
Australia, the standard technique uses ‘Profiler
Plus' , which looks at the DNA type of an
individual at 10 separate locations. This generates
a profile that consists of a string of numbers at
each of the 10 locations. This string of numbers
can be used to search against existing profiles held
in the database according to legislative matching
rules. When a match between a suspect and a
crime scene, or a match between two different
DNA profiling: present
capabilities and future
developments
“ DNA profiling is the single most
important advance in police investigation
techniques since the development of
fingerprint classification systems in the late
nineteenth century. CrimTrac’s new
National Criminal Investigation DNA
Database will offer Australia’s police
services the enhanced ability to solve more
crimes more quickly.” — (www.crimtrac.gov.au)
Forensic biologist Liz Brooks conducts routine maintenance on the newAB-3100 DNA analysis instrument recently installed in the main forensiclaboratory at Weston.
10 Platypus Magazine
F O R E N S I C S
crime scenes occurs, a message is sent to the
forensic biologist who then checks and confirms
the match. The match information is then
forwarded to the relevant AFP coordination centre
that then informs the relevant police officers.
Over the past six months, the AFP has had a
number of instances where crime scenes have
been linked or where a suspect has been linked to
a crime scene as a result of this DNA technology.
However, all of this technology would amount to
nothing if it were not for the effort of our highly
trained crime scene staff who collect the evidence
and our thorough criminalistics team who often
conduct the primary search of evidence from
exhibits received in complex cases. Forensic
science is very much a team effort.
Advances in DNA technology to date have
focused on the achievement of a greater
discriminating power so that individuals who
perpetrate crimes may be identified with greater
confidence. The DNA technology of the future is
likely to focus on greater automation and speed of
analysis. One example of this technology is
‘DNA-on-a-chip'. Although some way before they
can be applied in the forensic arena, prototypes
have been developed that are capable of analysing
several regions of DNA within a few minutes.
With further development, ‘DNA-on-a-chip’
could be used in hand-held units for field-based
DNA analysis. Although this technology is not
expected to become a reality for several years,
field testing will allow technicians to perform
DNA tests at scenes of crime to quickly identify
or eliminate suspects. By the time this portable
technology becomes available, further genetic
tests are likely to have been developed that will
give an indication of the physical characteristics
of an individual. Such techniques will further
increase the range and depth of testing currently
undertaken by Forensic Services.
The AFP also intends on introducing the testingof a second type of DNA, mitochondrial DNA(mt-DNA). Mitochondrial DNA is found in arange of different samples, including dead hairshafts and fingernails, and its analysis will be auseful additional tool to the armoury available tothe forensic biologist. Forensic Services is alsocommitted to ongoing research to develop notonly new technologies but to also focus on theinterpretation of biological evidence. Recentresearch has taken place in areas as diverse as theinterpretation of human hair evidence based ontransfer and persistence studies, the detection ofDNA on fired cartridge cases and pipe bombfragments, and the evaluation of a more sensitivemethod for the quantification of DNA extractsprior to analysis.
Forensic signal processing areas are faced
with the analysis of conventional audio and
video recordings, including the traditional
analogue media such as Compact Cassette,
Micro-Cassette dictation recorders and Video
Cassette Recorders (VCR), in addition to more
recent digital formats that include Compact
Disk (CD), Digital Audio Tape (DAT), Mini-
Disc, Mini-DV, and data captured directly on
to computer.
Often, once a particular technology has been created, it
is adopted and adapted to meet other specific
requirements. A typical example is time lapse VCR usedby the security industry, where snapshots of images, or
multiple images, are captured to tape at regular intervals.This allows the same tape to cover a much larger time
span than conventional continuous recording, or
simultaneously capture images from a number of
cameras. The problem with this approach is that quality
is often compromised to achieve this convenience, alongwith the inherent technical limitations. Often these
limitations are not known by the investigating police
members and, combined with fictitious science portrayedon television shows and movies, cause expectations to be
raised for results that cannot be achieved.
We have seen an increase in the variety of recordingformats introduced and also improvements in the ability
Forensic signal processing
and analysis
The new audio enhancement laboratories located at ForensicServices Weston provide the AFP with state-of-the-art capabilitiesin this field. The facility is operated by Graeme Kinraid(background) and Kathleen Smith (foreground).
No. 72—September 2001 11
F O R E N S I C S
Casework Example
The increased sensitivity of the DNA profilingprocess has lead to casework successes that would
not have been previously possible. An example of
this relates to a pair of white overalls that weresubmitted to Forensic Services in 1996 as part of an
investigation into an armed hold-up that occurred inthe Canberra industrial suburb of Fyshwick. The
overalls had been worn by the offender. Trace
evidence collected from the overalls at the time wasinsufficient to provide a possible link to the suspect.
In 1998, with the availability of a new DNA profilingsystem, cloth samples were taken from the overalls
from around the cuffs and the collar area (wherecontact with the skin was likely). The DNA profiles
obtained from these samples matched the profile
obtained from a reference blood samples taken fromthe suspect (with a frequency of occurrence of one in
460 billion in the general ACT population).
Recent casework successes have included several
instances where 10 to 15 burglaries have been linkedthrough DNA evidence and finally attributed to a
suspect through a matching DNA profile. DNAprofiles have also been obtained from some unusual
samples, including an apple core, a smudged
fingerprint, dentures, a half-eaten sausage role, and afalse fingernail from a burglary scene (that gave a
male DNA profile!).
• Julie Sutton,Team Leader Biology
o enhance and analyse recordings using computerechnology. In the future, we will see the on-going
replacement of existing analogue recordings with moredigital recording formats. The compact cassette and theVHS VCR will become a distant memory just as the CDreplaced the vinyl record in the mid 1980s. Theseformats will not necessarily include tangible items suchas tapes! Recordings will be made on memory cards, or
hard disk type systems and computer networks, withoutmoving parts. With increased access to computerechnology and improved worldwide communicationhrough the Internet, the opportunity exists for anyone
with the ‘know how’ to create their own audio or videoformat. The challenge for the future is the increasing
pace of the technology advancements and its acceptanceand use by the public.
In establishing the new AFP Signal Processing
Laboratory (SPL), Forensic Services have been veryaware of the potential advances in technology. While we
have ensured that equipment is purchased for today’srequirements, with continued support for common
formats into the next decade, we have also invested in
emerging computer hardware and software basedechnology for the future. The SPL accommodation has
been developed to ensure that it is capable of adapting tohe changes ahead.
• Graeme Kinraid, Team Leader Forensic Imaging
Digital enhancement of
fingerprint images
Digital imaging has become a viable
option for the recording of fingerprint
evidence due to technological advances
permitting high-resolution image
acquisition.
Digital images can be operated on mathematical-
ly in order to improve the image for examination
and comparison purposes. For example, fingerprint
images can often be improved by the removal of
interference. This may be in the form of repeated
patterns in the background of a document, machin-
ing marks on the blade of a knife, cast shadows
from uneven lighting, or anything else that inter-
feres with the fingerprint detail. By removing the
interference, the fingerprint ridges become clearer
and easier to examine. Interference may be
removed through methods of image capture, com-
bining images taken under different lighting condi-
tions, frequency domain filtering, or spatial filter-
ing. In some cases, an identifiable result will be
obtained from what previously appeared unusable.
Forensic Services have developed a digital imag-
ing system that enables the recording of high-reso-
lution digital images of fingerprints on exhibits.
The system incorporates a Zeiss microscopy cam-
era, a computer interface, and scientific image
enhancement software. The use of digital imaging,
as well as providing significant enhancement possi-
bilities, permits the direct input of enhanced finger-
prints into the CrimTrac National Automated
Fingerprint Identification System (NAFIS). The
reduced processing time will mean that results from
identifications will be available to the investigator
within a much shorter time frame.
• Bruce Comber, Fingerprint Team
Fingerprints previously hidden by background patterns, can now be enhanced.
12 Platypus Magazine
F O R E N S I C S
In seeking to implement digital imaging
technology within Forensic Services, an holistic,
integrated approach has been taken. The roll-out
of this new technology for operational purposes
will take place from the first quarter of 2002.
The digital imaging project seeks to provide
enhanced capabilities in the following areas:
• Image capture - through the use of Nikon D1H
and Nikon Coolpix cameras for field and labora-
tory applications respectively. These cameras
closely emulate the capabilities of the conven-
tional cameras currently in use in the field and
laboratory. The Nikon D1H will become the
mainstay within Field Services as a professional
single lens reflex (SLR) camera. Images cap-
tured through these cameras are saved to flash
card (a form of removable memory card) and
subsequently the images can be downloaded into
a case management system such as the AFP’s
PROMIS database or archived on to a server or
CD.
• Processing and printing - through the use of a
digital photographic mini-lab, photographs can
be printed from conventional film and from a
range of electronic media. The mini-lab can also
output images to electronic media including CD.
It is anticipated that our staff in regional offices
will be able to download image files directly to
the Forensic Imaging Team in Canberra where
the images will be printed and returned, signifi-
cantly reducing turnaround times. This facility
will also be available to our clients (ACT
Policing, Investigations, Surveillance, etc.), pro-
viding a means for the images captured on exist-
ing digital cameras to be printed to archival
quality media.
This project will also develop new capabilities
including:
• Digital image enhancement technology for fin-
gerprint examinations.
• Virtual crime scene recording, providing inter-
active viewing of a 3D photographic representa-
tion of a crime scene. This technology provides
the capability to record a scene photographical-
ly in “nodes” of 360-degree photographs that are
used to create a composite 3D panoramic photo-
graph. The interactive nature of this technology
allows a person to explore the scene by moving
from node to node and zooming in on areas of
interest.
• Real-time transmission of images from crime
scenes for examination, identification and infor-
mation purposes. By integrating the digital
imaging technology with digital mobile or satel-
lite phone technology (using appropriate
encryption), it will be possible to transmit
images from the scene to the laboratory or to
investigators.
• Providing image display media for courtroom
presentations as a supplement to, and potential-
ly as a replacement for, printed photographs.
As wi th the implemen tat ion of most new
technologies, digital imaging has a number of
issues that need to be effectively addressed if the
technology is to deliver the desired outcomes. It
is not just a case of acquiring this technology and
implementing it in the field. Effective protocols
and procedures have to be established to ensure
the integrity of images and acceptance by courts.
This new technology has obvious operational
benefi ts and the AFP is in the process of
developing protocols and procedures to ensure
that a l l r elevan t issues are appropr iately
addressed.
• By Julian Slater, Coordinator Field Services
Digital imaging within forensic services
The application of digital imaging technology in law
enforcement internationally has increased dramatically in
recent times and earlier this year, Forensic Services
received funding to implement this technology in both the
laboratory and the field.
The new digital mini-lab installed at Weston can process images both fromconventional film and from a range of electronic media.
No. 72—September 2001 13
F O R E N S I C S
In 1997, the Federal Government’s
‘Tough on Drugs’ program was announced,
incorporating the National Illicit Drug
Strategy (NIDS)and as a result funding was
provided to the AFP to establish a Joint
Drug Intelligence Team (JDIT).
A strategic par tnersh ip formed between
Forensic Services and the Australian Forensic
Drug Laboratory (AFDL), a unit of the Australian
Government Analytical Laboratories (AGAL) and
part of this initiative involved the development of
the National Heroin Signature Program (NHSP).
Chemical drug profiling undertaken by the
AFDL involves the analysis of seized drugs for
the presence or absence of major and minor
constituents in order to establish a characteristic
‘signature’. Combined with this information is the
data obtained by Forensic Services on the
physical characteristics of the drug material and
related packaging. There are four elements to the
signature program:
Signature 1
Chemical analysis of major components by High
Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) –
indicates broad geographical origin.
Signature 2
Chemical analysis by Gas Chromatography/
Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) – determines a
production area through the identification of
minor/trace constituents.
Signature 3
Trace element analysis by Inductively Coupled
Plasma/Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) – comple-
mentary information to Signature 2.
Signature 4
Recording of physical aspects of drug seizures,
including origin, port of entry, means of entry,
concealment method, wrapping, packaging,
drug form, markings, logos, shape, colour,
odour, tool marks, and weight.
Information and images are entered into the
Signature 4 database, and l inkage searches
conducted with signatures 1 to 3. In excess of 280
signatures have been analysed, confirming
existing strategic intelligence. The program has
identified a number of sub-types of heroin in the
one geographic location, and the presence of
South American heroin in Australia. The results
have been used in more than 50 operational
matters including tactical comparison evidence
presented in court. Future work will involve the
profiling of other illicit drug types (such as
amphetamines).
The goal of the JDIT is to establish a proactive
approach to linking scientific data and operational
in tel l igence, with a view to providing a
col laborat ive in tel l igence database for
interrogation by law enforcement agencies at a
tactical and strategic level. In addition to the
NHSP, the JDIT is coordinating a National Heroin
Street Survey across all police jurisdictions in
Australia. These samples are being profiled by the
AFDL to determine the batch membership of
heroin at the street level.
Students at the University of Technology,
Sydney (UTS), in collaboration with Forensic
Services, are actively engaged in researching the
chemical and physical properties of illicit drug
packaging materials. The outcome of this research
is to explore links between wrapping materials on
a case-to-case basis and to determine the origin of
these materials. Such data may serve to link
seizures where the actual drug material being
transported is different.
• Ian Evans, Coordinator Forensic Drug Servicesand Bruce Nelson, Team Leader JDIT.
The Joint Drug Intelligence Team (JDIT)
AFDL drug chemists loading samples for chemical profiling on a gaschromatograph.
14 Platypus Magazine
F O R E N S I C S
However, for complex, multidisciplinary forensic
investigations, laboratory and field investigators
work as a team, contr ibuting to an holistic
interpretation of the scene and associated physical
evidence. The effective processing of a crime scene
is essential to a forensic investigation, and given the
increasing scientific complexity of physical
evidence analysis, it is important that laboratory and
field based forensic investigators are seen as equal
partners, with similar levels of underpinning
scientific knowledge and skills. This is becoming
increasingly necessary since increased
miniaturisation and portability of equipment means
that some chemical and biological analyses will be
conducted at the crime scene within the foreseeable
future.
AFP Forensic Services are responding to this shift
in the nature of forensic investigations. Since 1999,
all forensic recruits have completed a science degree
and therefore have similar underpinning scientific
knowledge and skills. Their training has a dual
focus – on one hand to ensure that all forensic
investigators understand and have basic skills in all
areas of forensic services, and on the other hand, to
develop appropriate specialist skills within each
area.
All Trainee Scientific Officers (TSOs) undertake
training in the principles of forensic investigation so
that they are familiar with the practices involved in
crime scene examination, fingerprint identification,
ballistics analyses, forensic chemistry and forensic
biology. As a consequence of this general training,
all forensic members are aware of the capabilities
and limitations of each discipline and are able to
contribute effectively to team-based investigations.
All members also receive training in specialist
photographic techniques, rules of evidence, and
court processes.
Specialist discipline training is provided from a
combination of experts within Forensic Services and
from other police jurisdictions, tertiary institutions,
and private industry. Because the Australian forensic
community is small, specialist training is often
facilitated through the National Institute of Forensic
Science, with instructors teaching groups from
throughout Australia and thus building partnerships
among jurisdictions.
Within the Field Services, members specialise in
aspects of crime scene investigation, including the
investigation of fires and explosions, drug
importations, fingerprint identification, firearms
examination, or the comparison of physical
evidence including shoeprints and toolmarks.
Members of Laboratory Services specialise in areas
such as general biological testing, DNA profiling,
hair and fibre analysis, arson and explosion
residues, paint, plastics, glass, or other trace
evidence materials.
However, specialist skills and knowledge are not
sufficient for effective forensic investigations.
Forensic members must also be able to work
effectively in and lead teams, manage projects and
communicate their findings to police colleagues and
courts of law. Experienced forensic scientists from
all disciplines develop skills in the management of
forensic investigations. This involves not only
management of the crime scene or the particular
laboratory analysis, but also the promotion of an
integrated, multidisciplinary approach in order to
ensure the appropriate use of technology,
prioritisation, and sequencing of analyses.
So far, I have focused on the need for effective
partnerships and ongoing professional development
within Forensic Services. Strong, informed
Training and development in forensic services – building
professionals and partnerships
In the past, forensic field investigators have sometimes
been considered as providing technical support to
laboratory scientists rather than as equal partners in
forensic investigation.
Forensic Services members (Sophie Dixon, Keith Taylor,Vanessa Goodall) participating in a workshop skills courseheld at the Canberra Institute of Technology. Such skillsare often required with the deconstruction/reconstruction ofdrug consignments.
No. 72—September 2001 15
F O R E N S I C S
partnerships with other members of investigating
teams are equally important to the successful
outcome of complex investigations. Given the
increasing significance that courts give to scientific
evidence, first officers responding and investigators
need to be aware of the capabilities and limitations
of forensic science in order to effectively assess and
preserve incident scenes. Forensic awareness
training is provided to new agents, with refresher
sessions at patrol training days. New developments
in technology will be reported on an Intraweb page
to be developed this year and will support seminars
to be given by our senior laboratory scientists
around Australia. Forensic Services members will
also benefit from seminars that raise their awareness
of new technology and techniques that are used in
other aspects of the investigation.
For several years now, Forensic Services have
been involved in providing needs analyses and
training programs in the Asia-Pacific region
through the Law Enforcement Cooperation
Program (LECP) and the Law Enforcement
Assistance Program (LEAP). In 1998, Forensic
Services developed a Crime Scene Investigation
training program that has now been delivered to
seven countries in the South Pacific. In addition,
we have undertaken training needs analyses and
contributed to capacity building projects in Sri
Lanka, Burma and Indonesia. Forensic Services are
currently preparing two new programs for delivery
in Indonesia over the next 12 months.
• Suzanne Stanley, Manager, School of ForensicInvestigation
Since their initial release in 1988, polymer
(plastic) banknotes have proven to be a
difficult surface for latent fingerprint
development with the standard fingerprint
development techniques then available being
ineffective at developing prints that were
more than a week old on the polymer notes.
Forensic Services and the University of
Technology, Sydney (UTS) have been working
together to develop a procedure that will overcome
these difficulties.
Preliminary work suggested that Vacuum Metal
Deposition (VMD) may provide a solution. VMD
is a very sensitive technique for fingerpr int
development, but was not previously available in
an operational capacity within the AFP. Hence
equipment design and purchase, along with a
significant period of research and development,
were required. Forensic Services now have the only
operational VMD unit for fingerprint development
in Australia and, in partnership with UTS, have
been able to contribute to worldwide knowledge
and understanding of this technique through
relevant research.
A sequence of techniques for treating banknotes,
incorporating the VMD process, has now been
developed. The procedure uti l ises VMD in
combination with other techniques (optical
examination, superglue fuming, and luminescent
staining) that were already in use within Forensic
Services. The optimised procedure has proven
successful at developing latent prints on banknotes
where the standard techniques alone failed. The
procedure has been successfully applied to one-
year-old pr ints on new, unused banknotes.
Unfortunately, the possibility of successful print
development decreases with notes kept in
circulation for longer periods due to damage that
occurs to the banknote surface. To improve the
possibility of good quality print development, notes
must be forwarded to Forensic Services as soon as
possible as any prints on the notes are quickly
degraded due to the semi-porous nature of the
banknote surface.
The success of this research project illustrates the
significant benefits of par tnerships between
industry and academia, where practical difficulties
encountered operationally can be solved through
appropriate academic research.
• Naomi Jones, University of Technology, Sydney
Fingerprints on
banknotes
UTS student Naomi Jones operating the Vacuum Metal Deposition (VMD) unit.This technique has proven successful for the development of aged fingerprintson polymer banknotes whereas other techniques have failed.
Inset: A six-month-old fingerprint on a polymer banknote developed bysuperglue fuming followed by vacuum metal deposition and treatment with afluorescent stain.
16 Platypus Magazine
F O R E N S I C S
Analysis of packaging used in illicit drug
shipments is an example of how forensic
science can take a role in the current trend
towards ‘intelligence-lead’ policing.
For many years, forensic laboratories around the
world have used chemical and physical profiling of
confiscated drugs to investigate possible links
between individual drug seizures. Cooperative
research between the University of Technology,
Sydney (UTS) and AFP Forensic Services is
seeking to expand the understanding generated by
such intelligence, by also examining the materials
used to package the illicit drugs.
The specific focus of the research is on
packaging tapes, and ways in which they can be
exploited for useful information. The interpretation
of the analytical results is important, as analysts
need to know how significant a particular similarity
between two shipments actually is. The work will
enable investigators to characterise a seizure more
thoroughly, so that a seized package will not be
limited to a description of “wrapped with
packaging tape”, but will instead encompass a
more thorough description of the tape, including
physical features, colour and chemical content.
This is achieved through a variety of
chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques.
The increased discrimination that results permits
seizures to be compared more effectively to
determine whether the same adhesive tapes were
used in the wrapping of two different drug
packages, and if so, for stronger links to be drawn
between two or more cases. Although similar to
drug profiling, analysis of the packaging materials
has additional potential in comparing shipments of
different drugs, which is useful in the detection of
importation networks that traffic more than one
prohibited substance.
Future directions in this area lie in finding new
ways to exploit the information available in
adhesive tapes, and creating protocols by which
other wrapping materials can also be methodically
analysed to extract drug intelligence information.
Developing, integrating and maintaining a
computer database, that allows storage and
exploration of the resulting data, is also of high
priority, particularly once a large number of
seizures have been analysed.
• Juuso Huttunen, University of Technology, Sydney
Move-in day at the AFP’s Forensic Services Centre at Weston, ACT.
Canberra-based Forensic Services Team members moved into the new purpose-built facility in January 2000. The official opening took placeon August 14, 2000. Surrounding Dr Robertson (centre front) are some of the scientists and technicians who make up the team.
Bruce Nelson, member of the Joint Drug Intelligence Team, examines the logoon a drug wrap from Operation Linnet.
Drug intelligence from
packaging materials