FORENSIC BALLISTIC

BALLISTICS – is the science of the motion of project i le.

ORIGIN OF BALLISTIC – The word “BALLISTICS” originated from the Greek word “Bal lein” which means “to throw” and from the Roman word “Ball ista” which is machine to hurl a stone.

-From those words the modern term for Forensic Ball ist ics was derived to indicate the science of moving project i le.

BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

a. ) INTERIOR BALLISTICS – traits of the motion of the project i les whi le st i l l in the f irearm, namely the studies of combust ion of the powder, pressure developed and veloci ty.

b. ) EXTERIOR BALLISTICS – trai ts of the motion of the projecti les after leaving the muzzle namely trajectory, velocity, range penetration, etc.

c. ) TERMINAL BALLISTICS – traits of the effects of the project i le on impact on the target.

d. ) FORENSIC BALLISTIC – the science of f irearms identi f ication by means of the ammunit ion f i red through them.

DIVISION OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS:

a. ) FIELD NVESTIGATION – refers to the work of an investigat ion in the f ield. I t concerns mostly with the col lect ion, marking, preservat ion, packing and transmission of f i rearms evidences. I t include the study of class characterist ics of f i rearms and bul lets.

b. ) TECHNICAL EXAMINATION – refers to the examiners who examine bul lets/ or shells, whether f i red from also whether or not cartr idges were loaded and ejected made by the suspected f i rearms submitted. Reports are made by the examiners and test ify in court regarding their reports.

LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – “Firearms” or “Arms” are herein used includes r i f les, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and al l other deadly weapons from which a bullet, bal l , shot, shell or other missi le may discharge off by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air r i f les except such as being of small cal iber and l imited range used as toys. The barrel of any f irearm shal l be considered a complete f irearm for al l purposes hereof (Sec. 877, Revised Administrat ive Code see also Sec. 290 National Internal Revenue Code).

TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – instrument used for the propulsion of a project i le by means of expansive force of gases from burning powder.

AMMUNITION (defined) – under the National Internal Revenue Code the word “Ammunit ion” shal l mean loaded shell for r i f les, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which bul lets, bal l shot, shel l or other missi le may be ammunit ion for air r i f les.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (BULLETS)

1. No two barrels are microscopically ident ical as the surface of their bores al l possesses individual characterist ics markings of their own.

2. When a bullet is f ired from r if led barrel, i t becomes engraved by the r i f l ing and this engraving wi l l vary in i ts minute detai ls with every individual bore. So it happens that the engraving on the bullets f i red from one barrel wi l l be di fferent from another bullet f ired from another barrel.

3. Every barrel leaves its thumb mark or f ingerprint on very single bullet f ired through i t just as every breech face leaves its thumb mark on the base of every f ired cartr idges case.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (SHELLS)

1. The breech face and str iker of every single f irearm leave microscopical individuali t ies of their own.

2. The f i rearm leaves i ts “ f ingerprints” or “ thumb mark” on ever cartr idges case which it f i res.

3. The whole principles of ident if icat ion is based on the fact that since the breech face of every weapon must be individually dist inct, the cartr idges cases which it f i res are imprinted with this individuality. The imprints on al l cartr idges cases f ired from the same weapon are always the same; those on cartr idges cases f ired from dif ferent weapons are di fferent.

TYPES OF PROBLEMS: There are six (6) types of problems in Forensic bal l ist ic, namely:

Type 1- Given bullets, to determine the caliber and type of f i rearm from which i t was f ired.

Type 2- Given a f ired cartr idge case, to determine the caliber and type of f i rearm from which it was f i red.

Type 3- Given a bullet and a suspected f i rearm, to determine whether or not the bul let was f i red from the suspected f i rearm.

Type 4- Given a f ired cartr idge case and a suspected f irearms, to determine whether or not the cartridge case was f i red from the suspected f i rearm.

Type 5- Given two or more bul lets, to determine whether or not they were f ired from only one f irearm.

Type 6- Given two or more cartridges cases, to determine whether or not they were f ired from only one f i rearm.

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – Those which are determine prior to the manufacturer of the f irearm and are within control of man. These serve as basis to ident ify a certain class or group of f i rearm.

a ) Caliber (Bore Diameter) e ) Width of groovesb ) Number of lands f ) Direct ion of twistc ) Number of grooves g ) Pi tch of r i f l ingd ) Width of lands h ) Depth of grooves

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – Those which are determinable only after the manufacture of the f irearm. They are characterist ics whose

existence is beyond the control of man and which have random distr ibut ion. Their existence in a f i rearm is brought about by the tools in their normal operation result ing through wear and tear, abuse, mi l i t i lat ions, corrosion, erosion and other fortui tous causes.

SMALL ARMS – f irearms which propel project i les of less than one inch in diameter.

TYPES OF SMALL ARMS GENERAL:

a ) Smooth-bore – f irearm which do not have r i f l ingEx: shotguns, muskets

b ) Rif led-bore – f irearm which contain r i f l ing marks.Ex: p istols, revolvers, r i f les

SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION – small arms ammunit ion consists of cartr idges used in r i f les, carbines, revolvers, pistols, sub-machineguns and shel l used in shotgun.

EQUIVALENT OF CALIBERS IN INCHES AND MILLIMETERS:

a ) Caliber .22 – About 5.59 mm.b ) Caliber .25 – About 6.35 mm.c ) Cal iber .32 – About 7.65 mm.d ) Caliber .30 – About 7.63 mm. (mouser)e ) Caliber .38 – About 9 mm.f ) Caliber .45 – About 11 mm.g ) Caliber .30 – About 7.56 mm. (Luger)

RIFLING – consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior surface of the bore. The r i f l ing in f irearms may be divided into the fol lowing types:

a ) Small type – four grooves, r ight hand twist, grooves and lands of equal width. (4R G-L)

b ) Smith and Wesson type – f ive grooves, r ight hand twist, grooves and lands of equal width (5R G-L)

c ) Browning type – six grooves, r ight hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (6R G2X)

d ) Colt type – six grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (6L G2X)

e ) Webley type – seven grooves, r ight hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (7R G3X)

f ) Army type – four grooves, r ight hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (4R G3X)

PURPOSE OF RIFLING – is to impact a motion of rotation to a bul let during i ts passage inside the barrel in order to insure gyroscopic in the f l ight, and so that i t wi l l t ravel nose-on towards the target.

PARTS OF CARTRIDGES

a) Bul let c ) Gunpowderb ) Shel l d ) Primer

TYPES OF CARTRIDGES:

a ) Pin-f ire – the pin extends radically through the need of the cartr idges case into the primer.

b ) Rim-f ire – the priming mixture is placed in the cavity formed in the rim of the head of the cartr idges case. The f lame produced is in direct communication with the powder charge. Used in the cal ibers .22, .25 and .45 Derr inger pistols.

c ) Center-f i re – the primer sup is forced into the middle port ion of the head of the cartridges case and the priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the f i r ing pin. The f lame is communicated to the powder charge through the vents leading into the powder charge.

TYPES OF CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGES:

a ) Rimmed type – the rim of the cartridges case is greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridges case. Ex: Cal .38 and Cal .22

b ) Semi r immed type – the r im of the cartridge case is sl ightly greater than the diameter of the body of the cartr idges case. Ex: Cal. Super .38 auto, Pistol , .32 and .25

c ) Rimmed less type – the r im of the cartr idges case is equal to the diameter of the body of the cartridge case. Ex: Cal .45 Auto Pistol .30 carbine .223

PROCEDURE AT THE SCENE OF SHOOTING CASES

When an off icer arr ives upon the scene of a shoot ing case, he is usual ly confronted by a condit ion of utter confusion. Neighbors and onlookers are crowded around the place; relatives are weeping and hysterical . In his career as an off icer he wil l meet with other si tuations which require as much as much poises tact and common sense when he appears upon the scene of homicide.

His f irst duty is to clear the premises of al l persons so that an intel l igent investigat ion is not a matter of f ive or ten minutes, but i t requires that a definite rout ine shall be fol lowed, i f mistakes are to be avoided. Things should be done, which may appear wholly unnecessary at the t ime, but only to become vital ly important later. One can never forces the angels that wil l develop and it is far better to do a hundred things unnecessari ly than to miss doing one that might mean the solut ion of the case. The vict im is dead and wil l stay dead. The off icer may be important by reporters or other to do things which he is not yet ready to do – to give statement to the press or to draw conclusion. In spite of al l persuasions, he should bear in mind that there is one purpose and one purpose only, and that is to carry out an intel l igent invest igation.

Upon receiving a cell to the sense of a shooting case, the off icer should always take along with him a loose-leaf notebook and fountain pen to make notes at the t ime and on the place and not trust to his memory to reconstruct the situat ion at his convenience.

When the off icer is summoned on such an errand, his procedure should fol low a logical pattern. His observation should be put in writ ing at the t ime of his investigat ion to keep for future references and to produce in court i f necessary. These steps are as fol lows:

1. Note accurately in wri t ing the t ime he received the call and by whom it was sent.

2. Note accurately the t ime he arr ive at the scene and the correct address.

These f i rst two i tems seem to be tr ivia l, but i t is amazing how often in court they become of vi tal importance. It is not uncommon that the off icer is unable to f ix the t ime accurately within an hour to the sat isfact ion of a jury.

3. He should ascertain i f the vict im is dead, and i f not non-medical aid or remove the body to a hospital, otherwise the body should not be disturbed.

4. Immediately clear the premises of al l bystanders and under no circumstances al low anyone to touch or remove anything in the vicinity.

5. Use every effort and means to ident ify the deceased.

6. Does the body l ie where the shoot ing took place? Often, before the off icer arr ives the body wi l l be moved by a bystander. Frequently i t wil l be picked up off the f loor and put a bed or taken from one room to another.

7. Take the names and addresses of al l witnesses and take wri tten notes on the statement of as many persons as practicable.

8. Photograph the body from all angels to show i ts relationship to doors, windows, furniture’s and other objects in the room.

9. Measure with a tape the exact distance of the body with relat ion to the previously mentioned f ixtures of the premises.

10. Note in writ ing the exact posit ion where he found the body whether he found it ly ing on the side, back or abdomen that objects i f any, were in the hands; reports what was the condit ions of the clothing and the amount of bleeding.

11. Examine the ceil ing, f loor and furni ture for bul let holes, blood stains, f ired bullets, f i red shell or shotgun wadding.

12. If there is a f i rearm at the scene, he should mote in writ ing the fol lowing observations:

a. Exact ly where found.b. Type of weapon – automatic pistol, revolvers, r i f le, or shot

gun, caliber or gauge designat ion.c. Make and serial numbers and at that t ime he should mark

his in it ials on the butt or frame of the weapon for future identi f ication.

d. Other dist inct features.

13. At the crime scene note down where the empty shel ls, bul lets and/ or f irearms where found and make a diagram to

i l lustrates the same, to show their relat ives distances from the body of the vict ims, Photograph i f possible.

14. Be careful in handling a f irearm found at the scene of the crime for they may have latent f ingerprint on the parts of the f i rearm. Note down the type, kind, make cal iber and serial number. I f there are f ingerprints, submit said f irearm to a f ingerprint technician but be sure that the f irearm should not be disturbed.

15. Mark the empty cartr idges cases inside or near the mouth by scratching the init ia ls to the investigat ion or the init ia ls of the vict ims.

16. Mark the bullets at the give (or nose) by scratching the investigation’s init ials of the vict im but definitely NOT at the ri f l ing marks ( landmarks and groove marks).

17. Mark the empty shotgun shells with indel ible ink at the body.

18. The barrel of the f i rearms must be marked too.

19. After marking the empty shells and bul lets, wrap them separately and individually with soft t issue paper and note down on the wrapper where each was found the t ime and date. The purpose of wrapping them separately is to avoid being scratched.

20. When a lead bullet is found at the scene of the crime the body of the vict im, the presumption is that a Revolver was used.

21. When a jacketed bullets is found at the scene of the cr ime or in the body of the vict im, i t can be measured that a presumed that a Automatic Pistol or Automatic Weapon was used.

22. When an empty shell is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is an Automatic Pistol or Weapon was used.

23. When one empty shel l is found at the scene of the cr ime, the presumption is a Revolver was used.

24. In the bore of a barrel, the depressed portions are the grooves, and the raised are the lands.

25. On a f i red bul let , i t is the reverse. The landmarks are the depressed portions, and the groove marks are the raised port ions.

26. To determine the real direct ion of the r i f l ing twist in a ri f led barrel, peep thru the barrel, place a land or groove in incl ines to the r ight, then it has a r ight twist and i f i t incl ines to the left , then the r i f l ing twist is lef t.

27. To determine the direction of the twist of a bullet, look on the bullets in an elongated posit ion. If the landmarks and groove marks incl ine to the r ight, then it has a right twist and i f i t is incl ines to the left , then the r i f l ing twist is r ight. I f the incl inat ion is lef t then it is a left twist.

28. A f ired bullet wil l acquire the class characterist ics of the bore of the barrel f rom which it was f ired. So therefore if a bore has class characterist ics of .45 cal iber, .6 lands, .6 grooves,

r ight twist, groove wider than the land, each characterist ics wi l l be marked on the bullet i t f i res.

29. It is the r i f l ing of the bore that marked a f ired bul let .

30. So if a fatal wi l l have the same class characterist ics as the bore of the suspected gun, then i t is possible that the bullets could have been f i red from the suspected gun.

31. To determine definitely i f the bullet above was f ired or not from a suspected gun, then the case must be sent to a Forensic Bal l ist ics Experts who wi l l conduct the proper examinations.

32. If two bullets do not have the same class characterist ics, def ini tely and conclusively they were NOT f ired from the same barrels.

33. If a fatal bullets does not have the same class characterist ics as the suspected f i rearm (barrel) , then conclusively the bul lets was not f ired from said barrel .

The fol lowing are suggestions for the investigator to observe in testi fying in courts of justice:

1. Be prepared.2. Be calm and wel l poised.3. Tel l the truth, nothing but the truth.4. Be courteous.5. Be natural and sit straight forward.6. Do not volunteer.7. Keep your temper.8. Listen to the quest ion asked before giving your answer.9. Speak loud enough to be heard.10. Watch your personal appearance and conduct in the

courtroom.11. Answer only what you are asked, no more.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

1. PERCUSSION – Action when the priming mixture of chemical compound hi t or struck by f ir ing in would ignite.

2. JUXTAPOSITION – Two objects is evidence bullet and test bul let are examined and compared under the bul let comparison microscope. Includes also the examinat ion of f ired shel ls.

3. BALLO or BALLEIN – Greek words where Ball ist ics was derived from which means “to throw”.

4. BALLISTA – The early Roman was Machine – a gigant ic bow or Catapult.

5. BALLISTICS – Science of the motion of projecti les.

6. FORUM – A Greek word of forensic which means debatable, argumentation in relat ion to the court of just ice.

7. FORENSIC BALLIASTICS- The study of f irearms ident if ication by means of ammunit ion f i red from them.

8. BALLISTICIAN – Person whose knowledge in identi f ication is accepted by the courts and other invest igation agencies.

9. ABRASSION – (in the world) Scratches cause by using improper cleaning materials, or by f i r ing ammunit ion with bullets to which abrasive material was adhering. Normal enlargement of the bore and wearing away of lands due to the abrasive act ion of the bul lets.

10. BLACK POWDER – A mechanical mixture of charcoal, sulfur and salt paper. Burned with considerable white smoke.

11. CARTRIDGE – is a complete unfired unit of bullets, cartr idge case, gunpowder and primer.

12. AMMUNITION (legal) – SEC. 877 of the RAC – shall mean “loaded shel l” for r i f les, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols which a ball , bullet shot shell or other missi le maybe discharges by means of gunpowder or other explosive. The term includes ammunit ion for a ri f les as mentioned else where in the code.

Ammunit ion (technical) – refers to a group of cartr idge or to a single unit cartr idge, meaning a complete unfired unit consist ing of bullets, cartr idge case, gun powder and primer. The term may also refer to a single round. 13. BALL BULLETS – Bul lets have soft lead course inside a jacket.

14. ROUND – one single complete cartridge.

15. BULLET ENERGY – the powder possessed by a moving bul let , or in other words its abi l i ty to keep going meets an obstacle of immense importance, for obviously, the more powder a bullet has and the harder i t is to stop the, more effect ive it can be as a weapon.

16. BULLET RECOVERY BOX – consist of a wooden box, 12” x 12” x 96”, with the hinged to cover and with one end open. This long box is f i l led with ordinary cotton and separated into section by card board part i t ions.

17. CALIBER – is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured from land to land.

18. DUMDUM BULLET – “Dumdum” is an out molded and general ly misused term. I t was an unoff icial name f irst applied hal low point bul lets maid at the Bri t ish arsenal at Dumdum, India.

19. EROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to the mechanical abrasion or gl iding.

20. CORROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inside of the gun barrel due to rust formation or chemical act ion of the by products of combustion after f ir ing.

21. CANNELURE (bullet) – A knurled r ing or serrated grooved around the body of the bul let which contains wax for lubricat ion in order to minimize fr ict ion during the passage of the bul let inside the bore.

22. CALIPER – an instrument used for making measurement such as bul let diameter and bore diameter.

23. CHILLED SHOT – shotgun pellets made from lead especial ly hardened by the addit ion of a sl ight amount of antimony.

24. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – are those that are determinable even before the manufacture of the f i rearm. It is categorized into caliber or gauge number of lands and grooves, width of land and grooves, twist of r i f l ing, patch of r i f l ing and depth of grooves.

25. RANGE – the straight distance between muzzle and target.

26. POINT BLANK RANGE – popularity used to indicate the distance the bullet wi l l t ravel before i t drops enough to require sight adjustment. A shot f ired so closed to the target that no sight ing is necessary for effect ive aiming.

27. MAXIMUM RANGE – the farthest distance that a project i le can be propelled form a f irearm.

28. GALLERY RANGE – the indoor targets range on properly constructed indoor ranges, f i r ing maybe conducted with center f i re pistols and revolvers at range of 25 years and 50 years. Such instal lat ion are general ly referred to as indoor ranges the term gal lery being applied usual ly only to short range 22 caliber instal lat ion.

29. EXTREME RANGE – the greatest distance the bullet wil l t ravel the cartridge is f i re.

30. EFFECTIVE RANGE – the maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonable be expected types of l ive target.

31. ACCURATE RANGE – the distance with in which he shoots has control of his shots.

32. FOULING - the accumulation of a deposit wit in the bore of a f i rearm caused by sol id by products remaining a cartr idge is f i red.

33. GUM COTTON – a very powerful explosive, l ike nitroglycerine which is a chemical compound and not a mixture. This is formed by the act ion of nitr ic and sulfuric acid on cotton or nay other kind of cellu lose.

34. LANDS – the raised port ion between the grooves in the inter ior surface of the gun barrel.

35. LAPPING – is the smoothening of the inner surface of the barrel.

36. MACHINE REST – a machine used for test ing the accuracy of a f i rearm.

37. KNOCKING POWER – power of the bul let which bel iever of a very paralyzing blow that put the vict im down and may then recover i f the wound infl icted upon is not fatal.

38. STOPPING POWER – power of the bullet which put the vict im out of the action instantly. So it should be understood that stopping power is not necessari ly the same thing as ki l l ing power. However, stopping power depends very largely on the location of the shot.

39. PRIMER – the complete assembly of cup, pr iming composit ion, paper discs and anvi l .

40. CARTOUCHE – French word of cartr idge which means ROOL OF PAPER.

41. CHARTA – Latin word for cartridges which means PAPER.

ORIGIN OF FIREARM

13 t h Century – development of f i rearms fol lowed the invent ion of gunpowder in Western Europe.

Berthold Schwartz – a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an Engl ish monk are both credited with gunpowder invent ion.

-Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, Engl ish monk and Scientist with the invent ion of gunpowder in 1248 and Berthold Schwartz, with applicat ion of gunpowder to the propel l ing of a missi le in the early 1300’s. This powder was that we now call “Black Powder”.

1245 – Gen Batu, The Tartar leader, used art i l lery in Liegnits when he defeated the poles Hungarians, and Russians.

- It is also often stated that the gunpowder was f irst invented by Chinese, were of gunpowder and i ts use as propel lant long before i ts advantages became recognized in Europe.

- I t may also assume the Arabs with their advance knowledge of chemistry at that t ime.

1247 – One of the earl iest recorded uses of f i rearms in war far was that of an attack on Sevil le, Spain.

1346 – Cannons used by King Edward II of England at Crecy.

1335 - Mohammad II of turkey in his famous conquest of Constant inople.

-First f i rearms were ineff icient, large and heavy and were not capable of being carr ied by an individual soldier; hence, the development of cannons preceded that of smal l arm weapons by almost 50 years.

Man never sat isf ies to himself . He is always trying to improve himself and his surrounding. He created some rule crude or primit ive weapons which were subsequently developed into sophist icated f i rearms of modern t imes.

The fol lowing are the stages of development of man’s weapon:

1. Stones2. Cubs Knives Spears and Darts3. Sl ing shots to hurl objects4. Bows and arrows5. Cross – bows6. Guns7. Missi les

1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard M.D, OS Army – Father of Modern Bal l ist ics.

2. Horace Smith – Founded the great f irm Smith and Weapon and pioneered the making of breech – loading regales.

3. Daniel B. Wesson – An associate or partner of smith in revel verb making.

4. John M. Browning – Wizard of modern f i rearms and pandered breech loading single shot r i f le.

5. John T. Thompson – pioneered the making of Thompson sub-Machine.

6. David “Carbine” Wil l iams – maker of f i rst know carbine.

7. Alexander John Forsythe – Father of the percussion system.

8. El isha King Root – Designed machinery of making colt f i rearms.

9. El iphalet Remington – One of the f i rst r i f le makers.

10. John Malon Martin – Founder of mart in Firearms Company.

11. James Wolfe Ripley – St imulated the development of the model 1855 r if f led – musket.

12. Samuel Colt – (1814-1862) – Produced the f irst practical revolver.

13. Henry Derr inger – He gave his name to a whole classes of f i rearms.

14. John C. Garand – Designed the semi-automatic US Rif le, Cal. 30

15. Ol iver F. Wichester – One of the earl iest r i f les and pistol makers.

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1313 ---Gunpowder as a propel lant. Te age of gunpowder began with outs f i rst use as a propel lant for a projective. Such use has been recorded as early as 1313.

1350 ---Small arms, Gunpowder was f i rst used only in cannons. I t was in the middle of the 14 t h century that portable hand, F.A was introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand-held wire or l ighted match.

1498 ---Rif f l ing, The f irst reference to r i f led barrels appeared. Although its important as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some, i t was many years after before r i f l ing was generally used.

1575 ---Cartr idges, Paper cartr idges combining both powder and ball were developed. This great ly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying loose powder.

1807 ---Percussion system, the discovery of Forsythe in 1807 the that certain compounds detonated by a blow would be used to ignite the

charge in a f irearm, for the basis for al l later percussion and cartr idges development.

1835 ---Samuel Colt-patented the f irst pract ical revolvers in which the cyl inder was rotated by cooking the hammer.

1836 ---Pin f i re. Cartr idge. Developed by Le Faucheux in 1836, was probably the f i rst self real ly the f irst r im f ire cartr idge.

1858 ---Center f i re Cartr idge. The Morse Cartr idge of 1858 marked the beginning of the rapid development of the center f ire cartridge.

1884 ---Automatic Machine Gun. Hiran Maxim bui lt the f i rst ful ly Automatic gun, ut i l iz ing the recoil of the piece to load and f ire the next charge.

1885 ---Smokeless Powder. In Frnece, Vei l le, Developed the f irst sat isfactory smokeless powder, a new propel lant which not only lacked the smoke characterist ics of black powder, but also more powerful .

1845 ---Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Florbert develop a “bullet” “breech cap” which was in really the f irst r imterf ire Cartr idge.

I. TWO GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM (ACCORDING TO Gun Barrel Internal Construct ion)

A. Smooth-bore f irearms – f ire arms the have no r i f l ing ( land and grooves) inside their gun barrel.

Ex. Shot guns and muskets

B. Rif led-the bore Firearms – Firearms that have ri f l ing inside their gun barrel.

Ex. Pistols, Revolvers, Rif les

II . MAIN TYPES OF .As. (According to Cal iber of Projecti les Propel led)

A. Arti l lery – Those types of f i rearm that propel projecti les more than one inch in diameter.

Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas

B. Small Arms – Propel Projecti les less than 1 inch in diameter, Can be operated by one man.

Ex. Machines guns Shoulder arm and hand arms

II I . TYPES OF FIREARMS According to Mechanical Construct ion

A. Single Shot F.A – type of f irearms designed to f ire only one shot for every loading.Ex. Pistols, Rif les, Shot guns – single shots

B. Repeating Arms – Fire several shots in one loadingEx. Rif les, Shot guns

C. Bolt Act ion Type – Reloading is done by manipulat ion of the

bolt.Ex. Rif les, Shot guns, Machine guns

D. Automatic Loading Type –After the f irst shot is f ired, automatic loading or feeding of the chamber takes place.Ex. Rif les, Shot guns

E. Sl ide Action Type (Trombone) –Loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of the under forearm of the gun.Ex. Rif les, Shot guns

F. Lever Type (Break Type) –Loading takes place by lever act ion of the Firearm.

Ex. Rif les, Shot guns

IV.TYPES OF FIREARMS according to USE

A. Mil i tary FirearmsEx. 1. Pistols 3. Rif les

2. Revolvers 4. Machine Guns

B. Pocket and Home Defense F.AEx. 1. Pistols 3. Rif les

2. Revolvers

IV. UNUSUAL OR MISCELLENEOUS TYPE

--Those types of f ire arm that is unique in mechanism and construction

1. Palt ik Pistols2. Palt ik Revolvers3. Palt ikRif les4. Palt ik Shot Guns

THE THREE MAIN PARTS

REVOLVERS – Cal .38 PISTOL –Cal .45

1. Barrel assembly 1. Barrel Assembly2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Sl ide Assembly3. Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver

RIFLE – Cal .30 SHOT GUN – Gauge 12

1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly2. Magazine Assembly 2. Magazine Assembly3. Stock Group 3. Stock Group

DETAILED PARTS

REVOLVER .38 AUTOMATIC PISTOL .45

1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly a. Breech end a. Breech end b. Muzzle end b. Muzzle end c. Bore c. Bore d. Rif l ing ( lands and grooves) d. Rif l ing ( land grooves)

e. Chamber f . Inter locking ribs

g. Barrel lug h. Barrel l ink i . Barrel l ink pin j . Barrel lead ( lead)

2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Sl ide Assembly a. Chambers a. Front sight b. Extractor b. Top strap c. Extractor rod c. Eject ion port d. Racket d. Rear sight e. Cylinder groove e. Breech block f . Yoke f . Breech Face g. Cylinder locking Notches g. Extractor

h. Fir ing pin i . Fir ing pin top j . Serrations k. Trade mark l . Model m. Inter locking lugs

3. Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver a. Top strap a. Ejector b. Rear sight b. Hammer c. Breech Face c. Spur d. Hammer d. Grip safety e. Spur e. Thumb safety f . Thumb latch f . Disconnector g. Side plate g. Back strap h. Back h. Butt i . Fir ing pin i . Lanyard loop j . Butt j . Front strap k. Front strap k. Magazine wel l l . Trigger guard l . Right side stock m. Trigger m. Left side stock n. Cylinder lock n. Trigger o. Right side stock o. Trigger guard p. Left side stock p. Model q. Trade mark (monogram) q. Plunger r. Serial number r. Serial number

The automatic Pistol-Caliber .45 besides having the main parts and detai led it has also the so called auxil iary parts (accessories) which must al l be removed before disassembly of the weapon can be accomplished.

1. Recoil Plug 4. Recoil Spring2. Barrel Bushing 5. Recoil Spring3. Sl ide stop pin

ADVANTAGE OF REVOLVER

1. It is an old standard weapon, every one is used to i t , and almost every one knows something about to handle it .

2. The revolver is safer for inexperienced people to handle and carry then an automatic pistol .

3. The mechanism of a revolver al lows the tr igger pul l to be better then that of the average automatic weapon.

4. A misfi re does not put revolvers out of act ion.

5. It wil l handle satisfactori ly old or new or part ly deteriorated ammunit ion which gives a reduced veloci ty that would jam an average automatic pistols.

DISADVANTAGES OF A REVOLVER

1. It is more bulky to carry than that of an automatic pistol .

2. Its grip on handle is generally not as good as that of pistol .

3. It is hard to clean after f i r ing.

4. It is slower to load.

5. It is harder to replace worn out or broken parts, i t is factory job.

6. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy due to improper up of cyl inder.

ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL

1. It as a better gr ip f i ts the hand points natural ly.

2. It is more compact for the same f ire power.

3. It is easier to load than a revolver.

4. In case of worn or corroded barrel a new one can be put in at l i t t le expense without sending the gun to the factory.

5. It gives a greater number of shots than revolvers.

6. It is easier to clean than revolvers.

7. It gives greater f ire power and greater ease of f ir ing.

8. There is no gas leakage in i ts operat ion.

DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL

1. Ammunit ion must be prefect. Old and deteriorated ammunit ion wi l l cause a jam.

2. A misfi re stops the funct ioning of the gun.

3. When the gun is kept loaded for a long period of t ime, the magazine spring is under tension and may deteriorate and cause trouble.

4. The automatic pistol can not use blank or reduced loads.

5. It has a poor tr igger pull than the revolver.

6. The magazines require a jacketed bullet which is not as good for practical use as that of lead bullet.

7. The automatic pistol is more dangerous to handle and f i re especial ly for inexperienced people due to the fact that after one shot i t is always cooked and loaded.

8. It is not adapted to reloading. I t throws away empty shel l at each shot.

9. Its mechanical action ejects empty shell towards the face at each shot.

10. Its throws out empty shel ls on the ground to remain as evidence.

11. It can not be f i red from the pocket without jamming.

EVERY POLICE OFFICER should frequently check his revolvers for:

1. Obstruct ion in the barrel .

2. Bulging or swol len barrel.

3. Fir ing pin protrusion through recoi l plate when trigger is in rearward posit ion.

4. On older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoi l p late in relat ion to the f ir ing pin hole (to insure blow in center of the primer).

5. Evidence of “spit t ing lead” around breech of barrel for complaints of fel low shooters in the f ir ing l ine.

6. Tightness of al l side plate screws.

7. Tightness of ejector i f the weapon is a Smith and Wesson revolvers.

8. Cleanl iness and projective f i lm of oi l to prevent rust.

NOMENCLATURE AND FUNCTION

BARREL – init iates the path of the bullet .

FRAME – Houses the internal parts.

YOKE – Connecting pivot between the frame and cyl inder.

EXTRACTOR – Pulls the empty shel ls from the cyl inder simultaneously.EXTRACTOR ROAD – Act ivates the extractor and is a locking device.

CENTER PIN – Serves as a looking device for the cyl inder.

CENTER PIN SRPING – Holes the center pin in a locked posit ion.

SIDE PLATES – Provides access to the internal parts.

SIDE PLATE SCREW – Hold the side plate and yoke in place.

HAMMER BLOCK – Safety device that prevents hammer blow to pr imer.

DOUBLE ACTION SEAR – Buil t into the weapon to al low double act ion f i re.

HAMMER – Str ikes the blow that in it iates or ignites primer.

BOLT – Disengage center pr im to al low opening of cyl inder and blocks hammer.

THUMBLATCH – Actuates bolt to release the cyl inder.

HAND (pawl) – Rotates the cyl inder when the hammer is cocked.

CYLINDER STOP – Stops and holds the cyl inder al ignment for f ir ing.

TRIGGER – Actuates the parts necessary to f i re the weapon.

TRIGGER GUARD – Guards the tr igger from unnecessary act ion to avoid accidental f ir ing.

REBOUND SLIDE – Returns tr igger, actuates hammer block and locks hammer.

TRIGGER SPRING – Provides energy for return movement or rebound sl ide.

TRIGGER LEVEL – Contacts rebound sl ide to return tr igger forward.

MAIN SPRING – Provides energy to the hammer to activate f i r ing mechanism.

STRAIN SCREW – Controls tension of the mainspring.

TRIGGER STOP – Prevents excessive rearward movement after hammer the release.

RACKET – Helps in the withdrawal of the Cartr idges or shel ls from the chambers of the cyl inder.

CYLINDER NOTCH – I t helps hold the cyl inder in place and aligned ready for f i r ing.

NOMENCLATURE OF CARTRIDGE

1. Bul let – A projecti le propel led from a f irearm by means of explosive force of gases coming from burning powder.

2. Cartridge Case – A tubular metal l ic container for the gunpowder sometimes cal led shel l.

3. Gun Powder – Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer f lash is converted to gas under high pressure and propels the bul let or shot charge through the barrel and on the target.

4. Primer – The metal cap containing the highly sensit ive priming mixture of chemical compound which when hit or struck by the f i r ing pin would ignite, such act ion is cal led “PERCUSSION”.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE

A. According to the type of f irearms asked

1. Revolver cartr idges Used in revolver2. Pistol cartr idges Used automatic pistol3. Rif les cartr idges Used in r i f les4. Shot Cartr idges Used in shot gun

B. According to location of pr imer

1. Pin f ire cartr idges no longer used (absolute)

2. Rim f ire – the primer is located at the r im or the base port ion

-- Use in cal .22, pistol, revolvers and r i f les

3. Canter f i re – Priming powder is located at the center -- Economical can be repealed

a. Rimmed type – Used in revolvers cal .38 and .35b. Semi-Rimmed – Used in super .38c. Rimless – Used in 45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun,

submachine gun

A. TYPICAL RIMMED FIRE CARTRIDGES

A – CaseB – Priming mixtureC – Propellant powder/ gun powderD – BulletE – Sensit ive Area

B. According to Cal iber

1. cal .22 – used in revolvers, pistols and r i f les2. cal .25 – used in pistols and r i f les3. cal .30 – used in carbine and other r i f les4. cal .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers5. cal .380 – used in pistols6. cal .38 – used in revolvers7. cal .357 – used in .357 revolvers (magnum)8. cal .44 – used in magnum revolvers9. cal .44 – used in automatic pistols10. cal .50 – used in cal .50 machine gun (not use in

crimes)

Cal .30 bul let is replaceable by the bul let of cal .44Shot gun Shel l

Single unit of ammo. for shot gun I t is usually larger used in smooth bores capable withstanding for less pressure. Paper Tube Metal base Base rod Battery cap Priming cap Anvi l Priming Powder Propel lant Over powder wad Fi l ler wad Shot Closing wad

45-70 CartridgeContains 70 grains of gunpowder

Cartridge Li fe – a well made cartr idges have a l i fe of 10 years some have only 5 -6 years.45 years or more – depend upon the surrounding of the cartridge and cl imate, damp, warn, condit ion.

Bul let / slugs

Is a metal l ic or non-metal l ic cyl indrical project i le propel led from a f irearm by means of expansive gases coming from burning gun powder.

Slugs – laymen’s term – use in court during proceedings

Projecti les propelled from a shot gun are termed shots or pel lets.

Iced Bullet – Super cooled water made as a projecti le of sol idi f ied bul lets have a l i fe of 3 minutes maximum

History – Bullet derive from a French word Boulette which means small bal l

In Government parlance a cartridges containing bul let is called Bal l-Bul let

Bal l – Comes from terminology of bullet -- The core of the slugs is an al loy of lead, ant imony and sometimes t in.

Armor piercing bullet a core of tungsten chrome steel with cont inues to penetrate armor cars after the jackets and the f i l ler have been str iped away by contract with the resistance surface.

CLASSIFICATION

A. According to mechanical construct ion1. Lead Bullet – Those which are made of lead al loys of this mental –lead, t in, antonym—which is sl ight ly harder than pure lead.

2. Jacketed Bul lets – Those which core of lead covered by jacket of harder metal -- The primary function of the “jacket” in a bullet is to prevent adherent of metal ( lead) to the inside of the gun barrel.

B. According to shape

Flat Base Boat Tailed Square Base Hol low Base

C. According to type/ common bul let type

Sol id Lead Sol id Hol low point Sol id Paper Metal Case pointPatched

Soft Metal case Hol low pointMetal point ri f ledslug

Metal point Rif led Gaypely Quadraximun SlugBul let Bul let

KEY HOLE SHOT – The tumbling of a bul let in i ts f l ight and hi tt ing the target sideways as a results of spinning on i ts axis. (due to destroyed barrel or loose barrel)

In general ly .0002 sec. explosion of a bul let by means of a tremendous explosion of burning gases.

RESISTANCE of a .38 is 15,000 to 45,000 m/poundCONTACT WOUND – 4,8 inches – distance of the f ire with gunpowder without the burning of the t issue means f irer is more than 24 inches

Copper nickel ----- 60% ----- 40%

Gliding metal ------ 90%

----- 10%8-4 inches 1-3 inches

Gun powder Gun Powder

Tattooing Priming powder Ta powder

PURPOSE OF BULLETS

.38 Bul let --- disabil i ty purpose – used by police off icers to get confession.45 Bullet --- knocking subdue purposeM16 --- Fatal ef fectGarand and Carbine --- penetration, long range shoot ing.45 Bullet --- Knowing Subdue Purposes

Rif led Bullets (5 Principal Parts)

1. Bal l Bul lets2. Armored Piercing 3. Tracer Bullet4. Incendiary5. Explosive (fragmentat ion)

B. Al l Bullets --- have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel only.

Armored Piercing --- have hardened steel cores and are a f i red against vehicle and other armored target is general.

Tracer Bul lets --- contains a compound at the base usually similar barium nitrates which is set on f ire when the bullet is projected.

--- The f lash of the smoke from the burning permits the l ight of the bullet to be seen

In Cendiary --- contains a mixture of such phosphorous and other materials that can be set on f i re by impact.

---They are used against target tat wil l readily burn such as air crafts or gasol ine depot.

Explosive (Fragmentary) --- contains a high changed explosive, because of their small size it is di ff icul t to make a fuse that wil l work rel iably in small size ammunit ion.For the reason the use of high explosive bul lets is usual ly l imited to 20 mm. and above.

Pointed Bul let --- is more effective bal l ist ical ly than the round bal l of the same weight

Soft Point or Mushroom Bul let --- wil l expand on striking an object and there for produce much more serious check, and have corresponding greater stopping power.

Hol low Point Bul let --- a bul let with a cavity in the nose design to increase the expansion when i t hits the forget.

Metal Cased Bul let --- colonial ly use to indicate ei ther a metal patched or ful l patched bullet.

Metal patched --- any metal patched bulletBul let having soft steal jacket often clog or plated with gi lding

metal to prevent rust ing and reduce fr ict ional resistance in the bore.

CARTRIDGES CASES/ SHELL

-- Is a tabular metal l ic or non-metal l ic container which old together the bul let , gunpowder and primer.-- The cartr idge case is the port ion of the cartr idges that is automatically ejected from the automatic f i rearm during f ir ing and this remains at the scene of the cr ime. This is a f i rearm evidence than can help trace part icular f irearms use.

FUNCTION:

1. It serves as a means whereby the bullet, gunpowder and primer are assembled into a unit .

2. It serves as a waster proof contained for gunpowder.3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewal ls

of the cartr idges cases are forced against the wal ls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as the “gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel .

PARTS

1. RIM – Serve the purpose of l imit ing the forward travel of the cartr idges into their chambers and this also l imit the clearance. If any between the heads and the support ing surface of the bolt or breech block.

2. PRIMER POCKET – Performs t ipple function:a. Holding primer securely in control posit ionb. Providing or means to prevent the escape of jobs to the

rear of the cartr idges.c. Providing a solid support from primer anvi l without which

the latter could not be f ired.

3. VENTS OR FLASH HOLE – Is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket thought which the primer “f lash” impart ignit ion to the primer charges.The “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.

4. THE HEAD – THE BODY – const itute the “cork” that plugs the breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas.

5. NECK – That part of the cartridges case that is occupied by the bul let .

6. CANNELURES – are the separate grooves that are sometimes found “rol led” into the neck and bodies of the cases at the location of the bul lets bases to prevent the bullet f rom being pushed back or loosened.

7. CRIMP – Is that part of the mouth of the cases tat is turned in upon the bullet.

a. i f a id in holding the bullet in placeb. if after resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the

neck which effects the burning of the powder.

8. BASE – The portion of case which contains:a. The primer which contains the priming mixture

b. The shel l head which contains the head stamp caliber and the year of manufacture.

9. SHOULDER – That port ion which support the neck.

10. EXTRACTION GROOVE – The circular grooves near the base of the case of shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case after each f ir ing.

mouthneckshouldershel l cannelurebody gun powderventextract ing groovesrimprimershel l head

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASE SHAPE (3 GEN. SHAPES)

A. --- straight--- al l r im f ire shell and most center f i re revolver cartr idges that are new manufactured have straight cases.

B. --- Tampered--- is very rare but present ly being used in the so called “magnum jet” cartr idges cal .22

C. --- Bott le neck--- most modern center f ire ri f le cartr idges case are of bott le neck types. Since this case form provided the greatest powder capacity commensurate with over al l case length.

STANDARD CARTRIDGES HEAD FORMS ARE:

A. RIMMED – designed to use in revolvers, the diameter of the base of the cartridges is very much bigger than the diameter of the body of the cartridges.

-- straight type cartr idges-- found in cal .30 (carbine) .32, .38 and .35

B. SEMI-RIMMED – designed to be used in automatic weapons l ike pistols and sub-inact ive gums such as super .38 uz1, 9mm.

-- normally found at the cr ime scene because they are automatically ejected for easy f i r ing of the f i rearm.

C. RIMLESS – case within the diameter of the body of the cartr idges is the same as the diameter of the cartridges case.

-- Use in automatic pistols such as cal .45 thompson Sub-machine gun and cal .45 grease gun.-- Automatically ejected l ike semi-r immed type.

PRIMERS

-- Is that port ions of the cartr idge which consist of the brass gi lding metal-cup containing a highly sensit ive mixture of chemical compound, which when struck by the f ir ing pin would detonate or ignite. Such act ion is cal led Percussion.

-- Use for igni t ing the gunpowder, a blow from the f i r ing pin on the primer cup compresses the priming mixture and this causes the composit ion to detonate on explodes. This detonat ing on explosion produces “f lame” which passes through the “event” on “f lash hole” in the cartridges case and this igni tes the gunpowder.

ORIGIN-- 1807 – Alexander John Forsyth-- First one to conceive the idea of using detonat ing compounds

for ignit ing powder charges in smal l arms by percussion.-- A scotch Presbytorian minister chemist and hunter.-- A wel l known authority on f i rearms-- First successful pr iming mixture was one composed of

Potassium chlorate, charcoal and sulfur in powder form.

PARTS: In a typical center f i re cartr idges have four parts

1. PRIMER CUP – container of the priming mixture made up of brass, gl iding metal or copper.

2. PRIMING MIXTURE – highly sensit ive chemical mixture contained in the primer cups.

3. ANVIL – that port ion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from the f ir ing pin. To provide the resistance necessary to f ire the priming mixture.

4. DISC – piece of small paper on disc of the pin, foi l which is pressed over the priming mixture.

Two fold purposes

a. to help hold the priming mixture in placeb. to exclude moisture

1. pr imer cup 2. pr iming mixture 3. anvi l 4. disc

PRIMING COMPOUNDS:Classes

1. Corrosive primers – e.g Potassium chlorate – i f ignited produce potassium chloride, draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rust ing and corrosion in gun barrel. Advances in chemistry produce new composit ion which potassium chlorate has been eliminated.

2. Non-corrosive – every manufacture has his own formula mixture of the mercuric pr imers of 25 years ago.

Ingredients:

- Potassium chlorate (init iator and fuel 45%)- Antimony Sulf ide (elements and fuel 23%)- Fulminate way came the standard mixture by Frankford

Arsenal known as FH-24 had the fol lowing composit ion:

- sul fur - 21.97%- Potassium chlorate - 47.20%- Antimony Sulf ide - 30.33%

- German have their own composit ion barium nitrate in the place of Potassium chlorate together with some Picr ic Acid to strengthen mixture.

- This formula: Fulmirate of mercury - 39%Barrium nitrate - 41%Antimony Sulf ide - 9% Picric Acid - 5%Ground glass - 6%

- Swiss Army has been using non-corrosive primer since about 1911. This was base on the formula of a Swiss inventor named ZIEGLER: Swiss formula.

Fulmirate of mercury -40%Barrium nitrate -25%Antimony sulf ide -25%Barrium carbonate - 8%Ground glass - 4%

GUN POWDER

Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer f lash is converted to gas under high pressure and this propels the bullet or shot changes through the barrel and on the target.

Class or Composit ion:

1. BLACK Powder – although i f features loss important st i l l manufactured by the Europeans. In recent t ime has completely superseded by smokeless powder.

Ingredients:Potassium nitrate -75%Sulfur -10%Charcoal -15%

Produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is lef t in the barrel.Burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited.Block Powder – rel ies for i ts explosive propert ies on 3 quanti t ies which are typical of al l explosives

FIRST – when ignited i t wil l burn by it self without aid from the outside air.SECOND – in burning, i t g ives off a large amount of gas.THIRD – a considerable amount of heat is evolved.

2. SMOKELESS POWDER – terms smokeless powder is misnomer for the are neither powder nor they are smokeless. The let ters terms term being appl ied to them only because they do not give off huge cloud of white smoke l ike the black powder.

Two main Classes of smokeless powder

1. SINGLE – BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE -- contains only the pure nitroglycerine gelator iged with nitrocellulose

2. DOUBLE – BASE PROPELLANT -- composed of ni trocel lulose and nitroglycerine as their major ingredients according by one more ingredients such as:

a. Central ize

b. Vaseline Phthalate estersc. Inorganic salt

Purpose of minor ingredients

a: Insure stabi l i tyb. Reduce f lash or f lame temperature (or both) Double – base Propellant are gray green color and the grains are similar in size and shape to the single – base propellants.Almost al l smokeless powder grains have perfectly def ini te shape such as

a. small squares d. stripsb. disc e. pel letsc. f lakes f. perforated cyl indrical grains

The powder is made in di fferent shapes to obtain certain types of burning.

SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENTS GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1. Bullet Comparison MicroscopeA piece of opt ical equipment frequently employed by f irearms

identi f ication expert is the bullet comparison microscope, with camera attachment.

2. Stereoscopic MicroscopeNo camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for

court tampered serial number.

3. ShadowgraphA series of microscopic lenses of di fferent magnif icat ion use to determine class characterist ics of f i red bullets and shel ls. Also for or ientation purposes.It can take phomigrograph of the observations and comparisons made in the circulat ion ground glass.

4. CD-6 Comparison ProjectorVery much simi lar with the bul let comparison microscopeNo eyestrain because the magnif ied image appears on the large screen. What can be seen in the screen can be photographed by any kind of camera.

5. Bul let Recovery BoxLong box (12” x 12” x 96”) f i l led with ordinary cotton and separated into sections by and board part i t ions.

6. Hel ixometerUsed in measuring “pitch of r i f l ing”. Distance traveled by the bul let in one complete rotat ion.

7. MicrometerSimilar in use as cal iper

8. Cal iperUse for making measurements such as bul let diameter barrel length.

9. Analytical or torsion balanceUse to determine weights of bullets and pel lets for possible determinat ion of type, cal iber and make from which f ired.

10. On scopeSmall instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun barrel in determining the irregulari t ies inside the bore of the gun barrel . I t has a t iny lamp the terminal port ion and is inserted inside the bore for internal examinat ions.

11. Taper GaugeUse primari ly for determining bore diameter.

12. Electr ical Gun MakerUsed in the laboratory for making f i red bul lets f i red shel ls and f i rearms submitted for examinat ion.

TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION

PHYSICAL: Evidence bullets, cartr idges cases and suspected f irearms once submitted by the request ing party wi l l be physical ly examined to determine its markings or init ia ls wi l l be physical ly examined to determine its markings or init ia ls made by the invest igators for identi f ication purposes.

TEST FIRING: The f i rearms is test f i red from a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test bul lets and test cartr idges cases for comparison with evidence bul lets and cartridge cases, but before f ir ing the cartr idge wi l l be marked at the side of the case on the nose port ion of the bul let with let ter T (test) fol lowed (eg T-77-1 to T-77-3) in their order of f i r ing to dist inguish the number 1 test from 2 and 3. After the recovery of the test bul lets and test cartr idges cases, they wi l l be compared with the evidenced bullet and evidence cartridges cases, under the bullet comparison microscope to determine whether or not they have the congruency of str iat ions or the same individual characterist ics.

Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two f ired bullets or f ired shel ls are examine in a JUXTAPOSITION - That is, the two object-evidence and the test bul let are examined and compared:

1. at the same time2. at the same place or level3. at the same direct ion4. at the same magnif icat ion5. at the same image

For conclusiveness of f indings, there shall be at least 3 test bullets that should be comparedFirst 1 for Comparison/ prel iminarySecond 1 for conf irmationThird 1 for conclusion

PERIPHERYThese are the sides of the bullet are in contact with the inner

surface of the barrel.

STRIATIONSA individual characterist ics of the cartridges found at the base

port ion and of the side of the bullet come in contact with the inner surface of the barrel.

TEST BULLETSAre those recovered from bullet recovery box for a comparison

with the evidenced bullets under the bullet comparison microscope.

A fi red or evidenced bullets or cartr idges cases are those recovered from the cr ime scene.

Interconnected or intermarr iages 8 or more str iat ions can be accepted by the court .

3 Points of basic posit ive identi f icat ion the markings must be:

1. Prominent2. Signif icant; and are3. Consistent

Means of –test f ir ing, other than the recovery box.

1. Water tank 5. Darak2. Saw dust with oi l 6. Banana trunk3. Sand 7. Rubber tr ips4. Waste threads

PRINCIPLES IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

Two things mark by one and same tool wi l l bear the same markings, l ikewise two or more things mark by di fferent tools wil l have the same markings.

DEFINITIONS

PISTOL – a hand f irearm usual ly applied to simple sot and automatic loading.

REVOLVER – a hand f irearm in which a rotat ing cyl inder successively -- places cartr idges into posit ion for f ir ing.

SHOTGUN – a smooth-bore weapon designed to shoot a number of lead pellets in one charge.

RIFLE – a type of weapon designed to be f ired from the shoulder.

CARTRIDGE – term used to describe a complete unf ired unit consisting of the bullets, primer cartr idges case and powder charge.

BULLET – is a project i le propelled from a charge.

AUTOMATIC – a weapon is automatic when i ts mechanism is so arranged that i t wil l f i re cont inuously while the tr igger is depressed.

DOUBLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure upon the tr igger both cocks and release the hammer.

SINGLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure upon the tr igger release the hammer that must be manually cocked.

CALIBER – term used to indicate the bore diameter which is measured between two opposite lands.

GAUGE or GAGE – as applied to shotguns, i t indicates that the bore diameter is equal to the diameter of a lead ball whose weight in pounds is equal to the reciprocal gauge index. Ex. bore diameter of a lead ball weighing 1/12 of a pound.

BORE – the cyl indrical passage of the barrel through which the project i le travels.

PITCH OF RIFLING – the distance that the r i f l ing advances to make one complete turn.

EXPERT – as used in, court includes al l witnesses whose opinions are admitted on grounds of special ized knowledge, training and experience.

BREECHBLOCK – the steel block which closes the rear of the bore against the force of charge or that part in the breech mechanism that locks the action against the f i r ing of the cartridges; the face of this block is known as the breech face.

CHAMBER – that part of the weapon in which the cartridge is placed into posit ion for f ir ing.

EJECTOR – that mechanism in a f irearm which causes the empty shel l or ammunit ion to be thrown out from the gun.

EXTRACTOR – that mechanism in a f irearm by which the empty shell or ammunit ion is withdrawn from the chamber.

GROOVES – the depressed channels cut in the inter ior of a r i f led gun barrel.

LANDS – that raised port ion between the grooves inside a r i f led gun barrel.

VELOCITY – is the forward speed at which the bullet t ravels measured in feet per second.

PRESSURE – the outward thrust of the burning powder gases against the breechblock, chamber and bore normal ly measured one inch from the breech and recorded in pounds per square inch. Ex. 14,000 to 15,000 pounds per square inch for caliber .45 automatic pistol .

RANGE – the straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target.

PENETRATION – the depth to which a project i le sinks in the tar get.Ex. 6 inches at 15 yards in white pinewood.

TRAJECTORY – in the actual pattern or curved path of the bullets in f l ight.

FIRING PIN – that part of that f irearm which str ikes the primer causing the f ir ing of the cartridge.

HAMMER – that part of the f irearm control led by the tr igger which causes the f ir ing pin to strike the primer str iking the gun.

CORROSION – the chemical eating away of the bore of an arm due to rusting or the action of salts deposited from they cap or powder.

EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the bore of an arm due to sl iding fr ict ion when the bullet passes through it .

BERDAN PRIMER – a primer with two f lash holes or vents.

BOXER PRIMER – a primer with only one f lash hole or vents.

RIM – the projection edge of the base or head of a certain cartr idge.

OGIVE – is the technical name of the cyl indrical head cr it ic of the bul lets.

BREECH end – the rear end of the bore of an arm where the cartr idges is inserted.

PANGASINAN COLLEGES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OFCRIMINOLOGY

Urdaneta City

NOTES IN PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

BRIEF HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTING

In tracing the origin of the f ingerprint science we must draw a dist inction between the realization that the t ips of the f inger bear diversi f ied r idged and the applicat ion of the knowledge to the problem of personal identi f ication.

Unquestionable, men’s consciousness of the patterned ridges on his f ingers and palms predates the Christ ian era by many centuries and has been evidenced in varying degrees by successive civi l izat ions. On the face of a cl i f f in Nova Scotia , for instance, has been found prehistor ic India “picture writ ing” of a hand with r idge patterns crudely marked. Scholars refer to the impression of f ingerprints on clay tablets recording transaction in Ancient Babylon and to clay seals of Ancient Chinese origin bearing thumb prints. Apostles Paul concludes one of his epist les with the words. “The Salvation a Paul with mine own hand which is the token in very epist le; so I wri te.” Some have inferred from these words that Paul used his f inger impression as a dist inct ive signature . Chinese documents ident if ied with the eight century (A.D) T’ and Dynasty refers to f ingerprints being increased upon business contracts, and the Chinese Monarchs termed fingerprint as Hua Chi

I t is conjectural to what extent these earl ier instance of f ingerprints were intended for actual ident if ication of the persons impressing the prints. Certainly in some cases the object was simple to add more or less supersti t ious solemnity to business contracts trough the personal contact of the contracting part ies f ingerprints with the writ ten record.

Their evidence, however that fact of the individuality of f ingerprints though not put to pract ical use drowned recurrently through the ages. In fourteenth century in Persia , various off icial government papers were reportedly impressed ei ther f ingerprints, and the observat ion was made by a government off icial who was also a physician that no f ingerprints of two persons were exactly al ike.

In 1684, Dr. Nehemiah Grew , a fel low of the Royal College of Physicians, in the course of a lecture commented upon the r idge patterns appearing on the f ingers. But i f any of these early adventures in f ingerprints observat ion had any direct inf luence on the men who are the fathers of the modern science of f ingerprints ident if icat ion, the known record does not ref lect i t .

A scient if ic approach to f ingerprint was essent ial before it could be put practical use on any extensive scale. The outl ine which fol lows begin with what are bel ieved to be the f irst scient if ic observat ions which may reasonably be supposed to have contributed to the incept ion of modern f ingerprint ident if icat ion. These observat ions were in:

1686 – by Marcello Malpighi , Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bologna, Malpigi, making use of a newly discovered, microscope, noted and discussed in his treat ies “certain elevated r idges” describing “diverse f igures” on the palm surfaces.

He perceived them to be “drawn into 1686 and spiral” at the end of the f ingers.

Apparently the signif icance of his observat ion escaped him, however, for he purposed them to further. More than a century elapsed, and i t was not unti l , 1823 that John Evangelist Purkinje , Professor of Anatomy at the Universi ty of Breslau, published a thesis in which he commented upon the diversity of r idged patterns “especial ly on the last phalange of each f inger and evolved a vague di fferent iat ion of these patterns into nine variet ies. Purkinje’s paper was intended only as a scholarly treat ies and had no practical applicat ion to the problem of personal identi f ication, but thir ty years later, in 1858 Sir Will iam Herschel, the Brit ish Chief Administrat ive off icer for the Hooghly distr ict , Bengal, India, began the f irst known off icia l used of f ingerprints on large scale. He required nat ives to aff ix their f ingerprints as well as their signature to contracts.

Apparently he had no idea originally that the marks were individual but adopted the pract ice with the thought that this very personal type of contract with off icial papers would be impressed to the native mind and would discourage, dishonesty and default .

A famil iari ty with f inger impressions grew; however, their individual must have become evidence to him, for in 1877 Herschel introduced the use of f ingerprints in general departments at Hall and also submitted report asking permission to extend the practice as a means of ident if icat ion of prisoners as well as part ies to civi l contracts. The permission was not forthcoming but Herschel, within his own province, appl ied the system extensively. He did not, however, evolve a method of classif icat ion suitable for general use.

At about this same t ime, Dr. Henry Faulds , of Tsukij i Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, began his observat ion of f ingerprints. The English scienti f ic journal, “Nature” in 1880 published an art icle by Dr. Faulds, discussing his studies and making suggestions as to the future possibi l i t ies of the f ingerprints sciences. His ideas are remarkable for their ant icipat ion of present day practice. He recommended the use of a thin f i lm of printer’s ink as transfer medium just as i t general ly used today. He discussed quite ful ly the potential i t ies of identi f icat ion of criminals by their f ingerprints lef t at the scene of cr imes, just as in the modem science of latent f ingerprint identi f icat ion. As a matter of facts, Faulds, himself, demonstrated the pract ical applicat ion of his theory establishing through greasy f ingerprint marks the identi ty of a person who had been drinking some spir i ts from the laboratory supply---certainly one of the earl iest latent f ingerprint identi f icat ion of modem times.

1882 – is the year in which appears the f irst authenticated record of off icials use of f ingerprints in the United States. Mr. Gi lbert Thompson of the United States Geological Survey, while in change of a f ield in New Mexico, used his own f ingerprint on commissary orders to prevent their forgery.

An interest ing sidelight, which had possible effect on the introduct ion of f ingerprint identi f icat ion into the United States, occurred in 1883 with the publicat ion of Mark Twian Li fe in the Mississippi. An episode in this book relates to the ident if icat ion of a murdered by his thumb print. Mark Twian further developed his theme ten years later in 1893 with the publicat ion of “Pudd’n head Wilson”, novel plotted around a dramatic f ingerprint identi f icat ion demonstrated during a court t r ial and including a striking exposit ion of the infal l ib i l i ty of f ingerprint identi f ication, the more remarkable because of the dates its publ icat ion.

I t was also in the 1880’s that Sir Francis Galton, a noted Brit ish Anthropologist and a cousin of scientist, Charles Darwin, began observat ions which led to the publicat ion, 1892, of is book, “Finger Prints”. Galton’s studies established the individuality and permanence of f ingerprints and he made another important contr ibution by devising the f irst scienti f ic method of classifying f ingerprint patterns.

1891 – marked the f i rst instal lat ion of f ingerprint f i les as an off icial means of cr iminal ident if icat ion . Juan Vucetich , an Argent inean pol ice off icial, based his system on the patterns typed by Bert i l lon system of ident if icat ion by body measurements, which it gradually replaced. The Vucetich system is the basis of those systems presently used in most Spanish speaking countr ies and a number of the countr ies as well Vucetich also claimed the f i rst of f icial cr iminal identi f ication by means of f ingerprints lef t at the scene of a crime.

1892 – At La Plata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas, who murdered her two sons and cut her own throat, through not fatal ly, blamed the attacks on a neighbor. Bloody f ingerprint on a door post were identi f ied by Vucet ich as those of the woman herself and led to her confession.

1901 – marked the off icial introduction of f ingerprint for cr iminal identi f ication in England and Wales , the system employed was also developed from Galton’s observation and was devised by Sir Edward Richard Henry , the inspector General of police in Bengal. Henry simpli f ied f ingerprint classi f ication and made it applicable to police identi f ication, and later on Sir Edward Richard Henry was credited as the father of f ingerprint science.

1902 is the year in which the f i rst known systematic use of f ingerprints in the United States was begun with the establishment of the pract ice of f ingerprints by the New York Civi l Commission to Prevent applicants from having better qualif ied persons takes their tests for them. Dr. Henry P. De Forest, an American pioneer in the f ingerprint science, instal led the system in December 1902.

1903 is claimed by the New York State prison system as the date of the f i rst pract ical , systematic use of f ingerprints in the United State for the ident if icat ion of criminals.

As early as March of this year, f ingerprints of pr isoners were taken and classif ied and on June 5, the f ingerprint system was off icial ly adopted.

1904 found acceptance of the f ingerprints system accelerated when the United States Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas, and the St. Louise Missouri Police Department both establ ished f ingerprint bureaus. The St. Louise bureau was inaugurated with the assistance of a Sergeant of London’s Scot land Yard who was on duty at the St. Louise Exposit ion guarding a Brit ish exhibit . The Leavenworth bureau become the f irst to offer faci l i t ies on more than a local basis when it gradual ly expanded the scope of i ts operat ion to include a free f ingerprint exchange service among a growing l ist of contribut ion peace off icers.

During the f i rst quarter of the 20 t h Century more and more local police identi f ication bureaus established f ingerprint systems and many sent copies of their f ingerprint records to the National Bureau of Criminal Identi f icat ion established by the International Ident if icat ion, Association of chief of Police. The obvious need and demand by police off icials led to an Act of Congress establishing on July.

1924 the ident if ication Division of the FBI. The f ingerprint records of both the National Bureau of Criminal Identi f ication and of Leavenworth Penitentiary, total ing 810, 188 were consolidated to form the nuclear of the FBI f i les. The nat ional repository of cr iminal investigat ion date quickly proved i ts worth to law enforcement off icials faced with problems of cr iminals moving rapidly from city to city and state to state. Addit ional services were added in the FBI identi f ication Division as the need became apparent, on March 1, 1932. The International Exchange of f ingerprints date was init iated with a number of other nat ions, on February 15, 1932.

1933 – A Latent f ingerprint Sect ion for making technical examination of latent pr ints or of inked prints on an individual basis, was insti tuted. On November 10 of the same year the Civi l Identi f icat ion Sect ion was established. A steadi ly increasing rate of receipts brought the number of f ingerprints cards in FBI f i les to 10 mil l ion. In 1939, but i t was the exigencies of world II tat brought about the phenomena period of the identi f ication Divisions growth.

Drawing the years just before and during the war, the number of civi l f ingerprints, including of al iens, mi l i tary personnel and civi l ian employees in defense industr ies, far outstr ipped the number of arrest pr ints. Both types together added to the swell ing total unti l January 31.

1946 – the 100 mil l ionth f ingerprint card use was received in the Identi f icat ion Division of the FBI, the world’s largest repository of f ingerprint records. Although new methods of personal ident if ication are constant ly being suggested even today, i t is hard to conceive of a system being devised, which can improve upon the combination of faci l i ty, practical ly, and infal l ib i l i ty, which is characterist ic of the f ingerprint system. As of January 1,1959. The total had grown to over 152,000,000 records as of May 11,1959.

3 BRANCHES OF DACTYLOSCOPY

1. Chiroscopy – I t is an al l ied science of dactyloscopy which deals with the scient if ic examination of the palm of the hand

2. Podoscopy- A branch of science of dactyloscopy which focused on the scient if ic examinat ion of the sole of the foot.

3. Poroscopy- All ied branch of dactyloscopy which deals with the study of the sweat pores found in the fr ict ion skin.

Three (3) fundamentals facts that have made Fingerprint a superlative method of the individualization of person. (Doctrines of f ingerprint identification)

1. Perennial i ty- An individual f ingerprint r idges are formed during the fetal l i fe 100-120 days (3-4 mos) inside the womb of the mother and remain unchanged for the remainder of person l i fet ime.(Gods given)

2. Infal l iabi l i ty-I t has been shown empir ical ly (based on experienced and observat ion) with theoretical support, that f ingerprint are unique (one of i ts kind) no two person possess the same r idge characterist ics.

3. Immutabil i ty – i t has been proven that the f ingerprint of a person are unchangeable, you cannot change the f ingerprint of Any individual.

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF DACTYLOSCOPY

1. It is the only infal l iable system of identi f ication2. it is the most convincing proofs to mans individual ity3. it enable to unmask the real identi ty of the law breaker

Fingerprint as a science - i t is an ident if ication of a person through the used of r idges appearing in the f inger of the palm of the hand and sole of the foot

Fingerprint as an impression - I t is the reproduct ion of some surface of the pattern formed by the ridges on the f i rst joint of the f inger.

Two (2) types of fingerprint impression

1. Rolled impression- Rolling the fingers2. Plane impression- No need to roll the finger you just dent the finger

including the thumb.

RULES GOVERNING THE CHOICE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE POSSIBLE DELTAS.

1. The delta may not be located at a bi furcat ion, which does open toward the core.

2. When there is a choice between a bi furcat ion and another type of delta, the bi furcat ion is selected/ chooses.

3. When there are two or more possible deltas, which conform to the definit ion the one nearest the core, is chosen.

4. The delta may not be located in the middle of a r idge running between the type l ine toward the core, but at the nearer end only.

RULES IN THE SELECTION OF CORE OF A LOOP:

1. The core in placed or within the innermost suff icient re-curves.2. When the innermost suff icient re-curve does not contain any

ending ridge or rod, the core is placed on the shoulder of a loop further from the delta.

3. When the innermost suff icient re-curve contains odd number of rod, the core is placed upon the t ip of the outer rod.

4. When the innermost suff icient re-curve contains even number of rod, the core is placed upon the end of one of the two center rods further from the delta.

INTERPRETATION OF FINGERPRINTS:

Three basic types of pattern are as fol lows:

Percentage of appearance

1. Arch 5%2. Loops 60%3. Whorls 35%

The three basic types of pattern are further subdivided into the fol lowing:

1. Plain arch 5. Plain Whorl2. Tented arch 6. Central pocket loop3. Radial loop 7. Lateral pocket loop4. Ulnar loop 8. Double loop/twin loop

9. Accidental Pattern

RIDGE COUNTING:

The number of r idges interviewing the delta and the core is known as the r idge count. Every ridge that crossed or touched by the imaginary l ine between the core and the delta, neither the delta/ core is counted red l ine upon the r idicule of the f ingerprint glass is used to insure absolute accuracy. In the event there is bifurcation of a ridge exact ly at the point where the imaginary l ine would be drawn, two ridges are counted. Fragments and dots are counted as r idges if they appear to be thin and heavy as the r idges in the immediate pattern. Variations inking and pressure must of course be considered.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

1. PLAIN ARCH

A type of f ingerprint pattern where the majori ty of the ridges came from one side then f low to the other side with the sl ight r ise at the center. I t has no delta and core.

2. THE TENTED ARCH

In the tented arch, most of the ridges enters in one side of the impression then f low or tend out upon the other side with a r ise at the center giving 90 degrees more or less and with a present of up thrust. I t has no delta and core.

Three types of tented arches:

1. The type in which r idges at the center form a def inite angel: i .e. 90 or less

2. The type in which one or more r idges at the center form an up thrust is an ending r idge of any length r ising at a suff icient degree from the horizontal plain, 450 degree or more.

3. The type approaching the loop type possessing two of the basic or essential characterist ics of the loop, but lacking the third.

The arches and some of the loop are often confused. I t should be remembered that the mere converging of two ridges does not form a re-curve, without which there can be no loop. In the other hand, there are many patterns which at f i rst sight resemble tented arches but which on abuse inspection are found to be loop, as when one looping ridge wi l l be found in an almost vert ical posit ion within the pattern are ent irely free from and passing in front of the delta.

ULNAR LOOP

A Type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses a delta, core, and one or more ridge forming a sufficient recurve within the pattern area. The slope or downward flow of the innermost sufficient recurve is towards the little finger or to the ulna bone of the hand of origin.

RADIAL LOOP

A type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses one delta and one core, and one or more ridges within the pattern area, formed a sufficient recurve. The flow of the innermost ridges is towards the thumb or to the radius bone of the hand of origin.

THE PLAIN WORL

The plain has two deltas and one core and at least one ridge making a complete circuit , which may be spiral, oval, circular or any variant of a circle. And when an imaginary l ine drawn between the two deltas i t must touch or cross at least one of the re-curving ridges within forming a complete circuit within the pattern area. A re-curving, however, which an appendage connected with i t in the l ine of f low cannot be construed as a circui t. An appendage connected to the points is considered to spin the re-curve on that side.

CENTRAL POCKET LOOP

The central pocket loop type of whorl has two deltas and least one r idge making a complete circuit , which may be spiral , oval, circular, or any variant of a circle. An imaginary l ine drawn between the two deltas must not touch or cross any of the recurving r idges within the inner pattern area. A recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage connected within the l ine of f low and on the delta side,

cannot be constructed as a circuit . An appendage connected at that point is considered to spoi l the re-curve on that side.

On l ieu of re-curve in front of the delta is the inner pattern area; an obstruct ion at the r ight angle to the l ine of f low wil l suff ice.

It is necessary that the inner l ine of f low be f ixed art i f ic ial ly. The inner l ine of f low is determined by drawing a l ine between the inner delta and center of the innermost re-curve or looping r idge.

DOUBLE LOOP

The double loop consists of two separate loop formation with two separate and dist inct sets of shoulders and two deltas.

The world “separate” as used here, does not mean unconnected. The two loop may be connected by an appending ridge provided aid. I t does not turn about at the r ight angle between the shoulders of the loop formation. The appendage rule for the loop applies also to the double loop.

The fact that there must be two separate loop formation el iminates from considerat ion as a double loop the “S” type core, the inter locking type core, and the formations with one loop inside another.

It is essent ial that both sides of a loop be equal length, nor that the two loops be of the same size. Neither is i t materials from which side the loop enters.

LATERAL POCKET LOOP

A type of fingerprint pattern in which the core ridges of the two loops makes their access or exit on the same side of the fingerprint impression.

ACCIDENTAL WHORL

The accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combinat ion of two di fferent types of pattern with the except ion of plain arch, with two or more deltas; or a pattern, which possesses some of the requirements for two or more dif ferent types; or a pattern, which conforms to none of the def ini t ions. It may be a combinat ion of loop and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and whorl, loop and central

pocket loop, double loop and central pocket loop or other combinat ion. The plain arch is excluded,

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (Henry system with FBI modification and extension)

Sir, Edward Richard Henry – Simpli f ied the use of f inger pr int and made it applicable into pol ice works

Mr. A.J Renoe- Superintendent of the U.S dept of justice f ingerprint bureau (1920), the Bureau was located in the Penitentiary Leavenworth, Kansas. He devised what was known as the A.J Renoe Extensions and modif icat ion.

Wil l iam Burns- Head of U.S secret service (1924) he made division and accumulat ion of f ingerprint record cards into suff iciently smal l groups.

J. Edgar Hoover- Devised further extension, which in turn have been revised from time to t ime unt i l present. He made an adequate f i le containing many mil l ion of f ingerprint.

Note: The entire plan or further revision is based on the Henry System of classif icat ion.

Division of Classification – the classi f ication formula is divided into six possible divisions underthe extension system:

a) Primary classif icat ionb) Secondary classif icat ion

b.1 Capital letter groupsb.2 smal l let ter groups

c) Sub-secondary classif icat iond) Major classif icatione) Key classi f icat ionf) Final classi f ication

Classif icat ion- The method of attaining a formula in a set of f ingerprint placed in the f ingerprint record cards

Classif icat ion Formula - The numerical descript ion in a set of f ingerprints which is composed of let ters and f igures writ ten above and below the classif icat ion l ine.

Classif icat ion l ine- Refers to a long l ine which is usually placed on the right upper corner of the f ingerprint card or chart where classi f ication formula is wri tten.

The posit ions in the classif icat ion l ine for these divisions when complete appl ied are as i l lustrated.

K.C M.C P.C S.C S.S.C F.C

18 L 29 rW2u MO I 5

I 5 Xt OIO

a. The Primary classification – the primary classif icat ion is the numerical value of the whorls in a set pr int. The arbi trary value assigned to the f ingers for this purpose is as fol lows:

Why do we have a pre-established fract ion of 1/1?

a. T o give the numbered value group a place in the f i leb. Zero over zero might be mistaken as outer over outer in

f i l ing

Blocking- Is the process of writ ing below each f inger pr int pattern the corresponding symbol of i ts name.

Patterns as to numerical value

a. Pattern with numerical value – all whorlb. Pattern without numerical value- arches and loops

Four stages to obtain primary classification

1. Pairing- 10 fingers are divided in 5 pairs

Finger # 1 and # 2 --------------- 16Finger # 3 and # 4 --------------- 8Finger #5 and # 6 --------------- 4Finger #7 and #8----------------- 2Finger #9 and #10 -------------- 1

2. Assigning numerical value

3. Knowing the numerator and denominator- The f irst pattern of every pairs are the denominator (odd f ingers; 1,3,5,7,9) while the second pattern of every pair is the numerator (even f ingers 2,4,6,8,10)

4. Summing the numerical value or values assigned to whorl plus the pre-established fraction of 1/1

The sum of numerical value of whorls i f any, in f ingers 1,3,5,7 and 9 with one added is the denominator of the primary classif icat ion. The sum of the numerical value of the whorls, i t any in, 2, 4, 8 and 10, with one added, is the numerator of the primary classi f ied where no whorl appears in a set of impressions, the primary, therefore, would be 1/1/. I t is noted that 10/24 possible primaries may be obtained 1/1 to 32/32, which is the primary when whorls appear in every f inger.

b. Secondary Classification - The secondary classi f ication is based on the types of patterns appearing on the index f ingers. Each f inger is represented by capital and small lettered symbols

Secondary classif icat ion by capital let tered group- This is done by exhibit ing the capital ; let ter symbol of the individual type of patterns from the two index f inger after the primary classi f icat ion.

Right index f inger – Numerator

Left index f inger – Denominator

A symbol of the fol lowing symbol may come out

A – Plain archT – Tented archR – Radial loopU – Ulnar loopW – Plain whorlC – central pocket loopD – Double loopX – Accidental PatternSecondary classif icat ion by small lettered groups- the secondary classi f icat ion by smal l let tered refers to the 3 types of f ingerprint patterns that can be exhibited by smal l let tered groups.

- I t can be applied to al l f ingers with a said patterns except the two index f ingers

Radial loop – rPlain arch - aTented arch- t

c. Sub-secondary classification - i t is based upon the ridge count or r idge tracing in the index, middle and r ing f ingers

Ridge counting refers to loops pattern whi le ridge tracing refer to whorl patterns .

Ridge count – refers to the total number of r idges intervening between the delta and the core (delta and core are not included in the count ing)

Tables for symbols of loops as a result of r idge count

1. A ridge count of 1-9 inclusive of the two index f inger is deducted into symbol capital let ter I for inner, while 10 or more O for outer.

2. A ridge count of 1-10 inclusive of inclusive of two index f ingers is deducted into symbol capital letter I for inner whi le 11 or more O for outer.

3. A r idge count of 1-13 inclusive of two r ing f ingers is deducted into capital symbol I for inner and O for outer.

Ridge tracing- I t is the method of tracking or trai l ing the ridge commencing from the left delta, with the number of r idges intervening between the right delta are accounted for and compared the table for corresponding symbol, capital let ter I-M-O.

@ Tables for symbols of whorl as a result of r idge tracing

1. When the r idge being traced (from the lef t to the r ight delta) goes inside or in front of the r ight delta, and there are 3 or more intervening r idges, the tracing is known as inner and represented by capital let ter symbol I.

2. When the r idge being traced goes either or inside to the r ight delta and there are 2 or less ridges intervening the tracing is known as meeting and represented by the capital let ter symbol M.

3. When the r idge being traced goes outside to the right delta and there are 3 or more intervening ridges the tracing is known as outer and represented by the capital let ter symbol O.

Note: Arches are represented by a minus sign (-)

d.The Major classification - are created by count ing and by tracing ridges of the left and right thumb respectively. These divisions are to be used for the purpose of subdividing large collections of pr ints.

In a large col lect ion of prints where both thumbs are loop they are divided into nine major divisions by counting the r idges of the thumb. The r idge counts of the left thumb are represented in the denominator by the symbol S, M, and L, which are arr ived at as fol lows:

Major division of loops

1. Ridge counts 1 to 11; inclusive are S (small) , 12 to 16 inclusive, by M (med), and 17 or over, L ( large).

2.The ridge counts of the r ight thumb are represented in the numerator by the same symbols, M and L. The count in this instance for the small, medium and large is the same as just explained for the denominator when an S or M appears as denominator.

3.When there are 17 r idges or more making a “Large” (L) in denominator the combinat ions changes in the numerator thus, the combinations changes in the numerator, thus: 1 to 17 inclusive S, 18 to 22 inclusive M, and 23 or more L.

Left Thumb Denominator Right Thumb Numerator

1 to 11 inclusive S (small) 1 to 11 inclusive S (small)12 to 16 inclusive M (medium)17 or more r idges L ( large)

12-16 Inclusive M (medium) 1-11 inclusive S (smal l)12-16 Inclusive M (medium)17 or more r idges L ( large)

17 or more r idges L ( large) 1-17 inclusive S (smal l)18 to 22 inclusive M (medium)23 or more r idges L ( large)

The fol lowing symbols are used to i l lustrate the sequences of the nine combinations in this division.

S M L S M L S M L ------------- ------------- -------------

S S S M M M L L L

Major division of whorls

In a large col lect ion of prints when both thumbs are whorls they are divided into nine major divisions by the result of r idges tracing inner (1), Meet (M) and Outer (O) of both thumbs. The lef t thumb represents the denominator and the r ight thumbs the numerator.

The fol lowing symbols are used to i l lustrate the sequences of the nine combinations in this division.

I M O T M D I M O ------------- ------------- ------------

I I I M M M O O O

e. Key Classification - is the ridge count of the f irst loop is a set of pr ints beginning with the right thumb, but not including either of the l i t t le f ingers.

- I f there is no such loop, the key is the result of the r idge count of the f irst whorl being treated as an ulnar loop.

- When arches appear in al l f ingers, the symbol of the key classi f icat ion is just a minus sign (-)

- The result of the r idge count of the key classif icat ion be exhibited or placed at the extreme left of the classif icat ion formula in l ine with the numerator

f. Final classification - this is the r idge count of the loop in the l i t t le f inger of the r ight hand, placed in the numerator l ine

- I f there is no loop in the r ight l i t t le f inger, then the r idge count of the one appearing in the lef t l i t t le f inger/s used, in which case it is placed in the denominator l ine.

- I f no loop appear in ei ther l i t t le f inger, the result of the ridge count the whorl is being treated for the f inal classi f icat ion

- When arches appear in both l i t t le f inger the absence of a loop or whorl or either in the r ight and lef t l i t t le f inger the last loop is being used as a f inal classi f ication, except the loop that is being used in the key classi f ication.

- Arches are represented by a minus sign (-) in the classi f icat ion l ine.

Classification of scarred patterns (amputated, missing at birth fingers)

a. Always indicate the amputated or missing at b birth f ingers to the f ingerprint record cards.

b. I f one is absent carry the symbol or count ing by the counterpart , or opposite f ingers, which is present.

C. I f two amputated f ingers are opposite each other, both are given classi f icat ion of whorls with M for meeting.

d. i f al l f ingers were missing or amputated the classi f icat ion wi l l be;

N= M 32 W MMM D= M 32 W MMM

e. If both hands are amputated or missing at bir th the classi f ication wi l l be.

Suspect fingerprint sample and data base making

Method/ essent ial of the f ingerprint sampling

Points of he f ingerprint sampling are as fol lows;

1. Washing the hands before f ingerprint sampling2. Relax3. Posit ion

4. Area to be covered on the f ingerprint col lect ion5. Rol l ing direct ion of the rol l ing method6. Spreading of ink7. Thickness of the ink8. Speed in rol l ing the f ingers9. Check up after f ingerprint recording

Search, preservation and collection of f ingerprint evidence

Fingerprints are very fragile and may be destroyed by contaminat ion or improper handling

The methods of searching, preservation and collect ion usual ly affects both the qual ity and quanti ty of latent f ingerprints.

The primary concerns are prevent ing the addit ion of f ingerprints to the evidence and preventing the destruct ion of ones that are already present.

So the f irst step to be undertaken in a case involving that evidence is to exclude those unauthorized person and to protect the scene.

SEARCHING- The search should begin with the area surrounding the actual scene. The next logical places to search area points of possible exit and entry.

PRESERVATION- when a latent print is located, the f irst thing to do is to photograph the actual cr ime scene. A data card should be prepared and it should contain the case number, date, location, name of off icer who discovered the print and the name of the photographer. Next is to sketch the objects on which the latent pr ints was found and indicate the exact location of the print .

LATENT IMPRESSIONS

Each ridge of the f inger, palms and soles bears a row of sweat ports, which in the average person constant ly exude perspirat ion. Also the r idge of the f ingers and palms are in intermit tent contact with other parts of the body, such as the hair and face, and with various objects, which may leave a f i lm of grease or moisture on the r idges. In touching an object, the f i lm of moisture and/ or grease may be transferred to the objects, thus leaving an outl ine of the r idge of the f ingers or palm there on. This pr int is called a latent impression the word “latent” meaning hidden, that is, the print many t imes is not readily visible.

Latent impressions, regardless of the area of the ridges present, are of the greatest importance to the cr iminal invest igator as identi f ication of them may solve the crime and result in successful prosecut ion of the subject. Consequently, every effort should be made to preserve and identi fy them.Visible pr ints in mediums such as blood, grease, dir t, or dust are equal ly important to the investigator but str ict ly speaking, are not latent impressions.

A search of the cr ime scene should be conducted in a logical manner. Points of entry and exi t should be examined, along wit surface or objects disturbed or l ikely touched during the commission of the crime. The examiner should wear a pair of l ight cloth gloves and

handle an object only in so far as is necessary and then only by edges or surface, which are not receptive to latent impressions. A record of the exact location of a print on an objects and of the objects i tsel f should be made, since these facts may be of the utmost importance in any tr ia l result ing from the investigat ion. NO one should handle and objects other than the examiner him self.

Portable art icles removed should be labeled or marked so that they may readily ident ify thereafter.

The beam of a f lashlight played over the surface of an objects wi l l f requently show the locat ion of latent impression, al though this is not an infal l ible test their presence.

Evidence should be examined as soon as possible after i ts discovery. Fol lowing the locat ion of any latent pr ints scene of a cr ime, the prints of al l persons whose presence at the place under inspect ion has been for legit imate purposes must be excluded from further attent ion. I t is advisable, therefore, during the init ia l stages of an investigation where latent prints are found, to secure the inked prints of al l members of the household, the employees, and any pol ice or other off icial who have touched the objects on which the latent impressions were found. Inked prints taken for this purpose are referred to as el iminat ion prints.

Due to the fragment nature of most latent pr ints i t is not possible to derive a classi f ication which makes a f i le search practicable, a latent impression may be ident if ied, however by comparison with the prints of a part icular suspects.

Inked f ingerprints taken for comparison with the latent impressions should be i l legibly and as complete as possible including the areas not essential to classif icat ion, since ident if icat ion are often made with these areas. Inked palm prints taken should l ikewise be complete and clear and should include impressions of the f inger joints. Persons not experienced in latent comparisons should not attempt to evaluate latent fragment, since the area necessary for identi f ication may be extremely compared to tat of an average inked f ingerprint.

Art icles are which are to be transported by mail or express should be so packed that the surface bearing latent impressions are not in contact with other surfaces. This may be accomplished by mounting the art icles on a piece of a f iberboard or plywood. The board should then be secured in a box so that the objects wil l not touch or be taken against the side in transit. The package should be plainly marked “Evidence”, to prevent inadvertent handl ing on opining. Cotton or cloth surface never be placed in direct contact with any surface bearing latent pr ints.

Any number of paper or cardboard specimens may be placed in a single protect ive wrapper, since contact with other surface does not harm latent on such objects. Lif ts, negatives and photographs are readily enclosed with let ters.

An explanatory letter should accompany all evidence. If i t is necessary to pack the evidence separately, a copy of the let ter should be placed in every package so tat the recipient wi l l know immediately the import of the contents. Al l i tems of evidence should be marked and describe exact ly in the accompanying letter so that wil l not be confused with packing material of a similar nature, and to provide a check on what the package should contain.

In addit ion, the letter should include for the record purposes brief outl ine of the cr ime, i .e. , date and place of occurrence, and names of vict ims and subjects. I f suspects are named for comparison, suff icient descript ive data should be set out to permit locat ion of their f ingerprint records. This information, in preferential order, comprises individual’s complete name, al iases FBI number, date or prior arrest or f ingerprint ing, f ingerprint identi f ication, date and place of bir th, and physical descript ion.

Evidence is preferable forwarded by registered mail of rai lway express, as these means provide records of dispatch and receipt.El iminat ion or suspect f ingerprints are best enclosed with evidence itself , with notat ion as to the type of pr ints forwarded.

POWDERING ANF LIFTING LATENT IMPRESSION

The sole purpose in “developing a latent impression is to make i t visible so that i t may be preserved and compared various powders and chemicals are used for this purpose. When a latent pr ints is plainly visible, i t should be photographed before any effort is made to develop it .

No attempt should be made to brush or apply powder to prints in just, obviously greasy or bloody prints, as this wi l l a lmost surely destroy them. Objects, which have been wet or immersed in water, may st i l l bear ident if iable latent impressions. Before any examination is attempted however, the objects must be dried.

Powder brushed l ightly over a latent-bearing surface wil l cl ing to grease or moisture in the r idges of a latent pr ints, making i t visible against the background. Obviously, a powder should be used which wi l l contrast with the color of the surface. Photographic contrasts should also be considered.

A gray powder and black powder are adequate for latent pr int works. Many f ingerprint powders of various colors and composit ions are available from fingerprint supply houses but none are superior to the gray and black.

A very small amount of powder is placed on the brush for appl icat ion to the surface. Once the contour of a print is visible, the brush strokes should conform to the direction of the r idges. Al l excess powder should be brushed from between the r idges. Too much powder and too l i t t le brushing are the chief faults of beginners.

Gray powder is used on dark-colored surfaces. I t is also used on mirrors and metal surface which have been publ ished to mirror l ike f inish, sense these surfaces wi l l photograph with the f ingerprint camera. Black powder should be applied to white or l ight-colored surfaces.

Aluminum powder affords the same contrast as the gray. Gold and red bronze powders, al though of a gl i t ter ing appearance, wil l photograph dark and should consequently be used on l ight-colored surfaces. Dragons’ blood powder is a photographical ly neutral powder and may be dusted on ei ther a l ight or dark surface.

On clear transparent glass, ei ther gray or black powder may be used, i t being necessary only to use a contrasting black or white background when photographing.

Prints should be l i f ted after photographing both rubber and transparent tapes are avai lable for this purpose. Rubber l i f t ing tape id procurable in black or white 4” x 9” sheets with the adhesive surface protects with a celluloid cover. A black powder pr int should obviously be l i f ted on white tape and gray powder pr int on black tape.

Gold bronze and red bronze powders should be l i f ted on white tape, aluminum on block. Dragon’s blood is l i f ted on ei ther black or white.

After cutt ing a piece of tape suff icient ly large to cover the ent ire latent pr int , the celluloid covering is removed and the adhesive side suppl ied to the latent. The tape should be pressed evenly and f irmly to the surface, taking care not to sif t is posit ion. I t is then peeled gently from the surface and the piece of cel luloid placed over the print to protect i t . The operator should handle the l i f t in such a manner that he wi l l leave no prints to his own on the adhesive surface. A small paper identi f ication tag bearing the init ials of the operator, date an objects from l i f ted should be placed under one corner of the celluloid, or th is information may be writ ten on the black of the l i f t i tself i f i t can belong in a permanent legible manner.

If an excessive amount of powder adheres to the latent pr int , more legible print may sometimes be obtained by l i f t ing a second t ime (on a new piece of tape, of course).

It should be noted that a pr int l i f ted on rubber tape is in a reverse posit ion. Consequently, in preparing a photograph of a pr int of such a l i f t , i t wil l be necessary to print the negat ive from the reverse side in order for the print to appear in i ts correct posit ion for comparison. Preparation of such photographs should not be attempted be persons of inadequate knowledge an experience.

Transparent tape with a durable adhesive surface is available in 1” to 2” widths for f ingerprint work. The common variety of t ransparent tape is not sui table due to the deterioration (drying) of the adhesive surface. The print on a piece of transparent tape is in correct posit ion. Transparent l i f ts should be aff ixed to a smooth gain less, opaque background of a black or white color contrast ing with the powder used.

Every effort should be made to avoid air bubbles under such l i f ts. In no instance should a transparent l i f t ever be folded on i tsel f or struck. To another piece of such tape as a backing. Since it is general ly not possible to determine the correct posit ion of such a print.

Groups of latent impressions, such as those of adjacent f ingers and palms which appear to have been made simultaneously, shroud be l i f ted as units, that is, on single piece of tape, as this may faci l i tate the task of making comparisons.

PREPARATION OF FINGERTPRINTS CHARTS FOR COURT TESTIMONY

In test ifying to f ingerprint identi f icat ion, the expert often prepares charts to visually aid the court and jury in understanding the nature of his test imony. Many t imes it is undoubtedly dif f icult the layman to perceive, from a vocal explanat ion alone, the ful l import of an expert’s test imony, due to i ts technical nature; consequently, some graphic representat ion of the facts presented is amply just i f ied and rewarded. The preparation of the charts is ult imately the sole responsibi l i ty of the expert using them. As a matter of interest to law enforcement personnel engaged in f ingerprint work, a br ief explanat ion

of such charts fol lows, along with suggest ions and remarks based on long experience in these matters.

To do the work convenient ly, i t wil l be necessary to have avai lable, in addit ion to the ordinary photographic developing and print ing materials, a project ion enlarger which wi l l enlarge preferably to at least ten diameters. In the project ion method of enlargement, the image is pr inted directly from the original negat ive, and the preparat ion of an enlarged negative is unnecessary.

Aside from the photographic equipment, the needed materials are:

A rol l of scotch photographic tape 1 inch wide to outl ine the areas of the f ingerprints on the negat ive to be used; some st if f cardboard approximately 1/32 inch thick on which to mount the prepared charts a tube of rubber cement and a bott le of translucent ink, other than black or white.

A l ight-box on which to view the negative whole blocking, and a let tering set to draw the l ines and numbers uniformly on the charts, whi le not absolutely essential, are helpful conveniences. A l ight-box is basically a frosted pane of glass wit a l ight beneath it to produce soft , even, none glar ing i l lumination. If no l ight-box is avai lable, a clear window may be uti l ized in “blocking” the negat ives.

If the experts f ind i t necessary to have an outside source prepare is photographs, he should retain personal custody of the evidence during the operation.

The original latent pr int and inked print with which it is ident ical can be photographed 25 t imes the actual size. This procedure el iminates guesswork in enlarging both the same degree. Whatever areas of the two prints are deemed requisi te to i l lustrate the method of identi f ication are then out l ined (blocked) on negative with the masking tape, so the only those areas wi l l show in the subsequent enlargements. General ly, i f the legible area of the latent pr int is small, i t is well to show the complete print . I f the area is large, however, as in a palm print, an area which wi l l not make the cart too bulky or unwieldy may be selected.

On blocking, the negat ive is aff ixed to the window pane or l ight-box by means of str ips of photographic tape across the corners, wit the side to be blocked up. The prevent constant shi ft ing of the negat ive whi le i t is being prepared. The latent pr int should be blocked f i rst . Corners of the blocked areas should be square. Cares should be exercised to have as nearly as possible the same r idge formation shown and the r idge formation in the same upright or horizontal posit ions. This may be faci l i tated by f ixing a negat ive, bearing ruled squares between the negat ive being blocked and the glass to which i t is attached.

If the latent pr int was developed or photographed as a l ight print on a dark background, a reverse-color negat ive should be prepared and blocked in order that both prints may appear as black r idges on l ight. This is done by placing the original negat ive adjacent to a new sheet of f i lm and exposing i t . The resultant negative contains the same image as the original except tat the color of the image has been reversed.

If the negative is a photograph of an upper l i f t , the print appears reverse posit ion; tat is, as a mirror image, and the negat ive wil l

accordingly have to be blocked from the dull or emulsion side in order for i t to appear in a posit ion comparable to that of the inked prints.

Fai lure to present the prints in quest ion in the same color and posit ion may confuse the observer and nul l i fy the purpose for which the chart is made.

The degree of enlargement is not important in i tsel f, so long as the r idges of the latent pr int are readi ly dist inguishable by the eye. Ten diameters have been found adequate, although any enlargement from 5 to 30 wil l serve. It should be remembered however, that smal l enlargements are dif f icult to see a few feet away and tat background. A white border of at least 1/1/2 inches or a width equal to one-third the enlarged area should be lef t f rom cart ing purposes.

Any chart prepared must be technically correct; tat is, the corresponding r idge characterist ics in the two prints must be simi lar ly numbered and indicated.

Several ways of pointing out the similar r idge formations have been observed but the one which appears soundest is also simplest and consists or merely marking the characterist ics with l ines and numbers.

Al l the r idge characterist ics in the prints need not be charted. Twelve have the ridge characterist ics are ample to i l lustrate for identi f ication, but i t is neither claimed nor implied that this number is required.

Al l f ingerprint ident if icat ions are made by observing that two impressions have the ridge characterist ics of similar shapes which occupy the same relat ive posit ions in the patterns.

Method involving superimposit ion of the prints are not recommended because such a procedure is possible only in a very few instances, due to the distort ion of r idges in most prints through pressure and twisting. Such a procedure is not necessari ly a test of identi fy.

Likewise, present ing charts with the shapes of the characterist ics drawn in the margin is not recommended. Individual r idge characterist ics may vary sl ightly in actual shape or physical posit ion due to twisting, pressure, incomplete inking condit ion of latent pr int when developed, powder adhering to background, etc. Identi f icat ions are based on a number of characterist ics viewed in a unit relationship and not on the microscopic-appearance of single characterist ic.

Since the enlarged-photograph appear in black and white, an ink other than black or white should be used to l ine the chart . Such an ink should be preferably translucent so that i t wil l be possible to see the ridges which it reverses. A translucent carmine drawing ink serves wel l. In placing the l ines the chart should be arranged so that they do not cross or touch.

The chart wi l l present a clearer, hearer and more pleasing appearance if i t is numbered clockwise and the numbers are evenly spaced. I t is necessary however, to place the numbers evenly around the photograph.

Ordinari ly, the numbers are placed on three sides and the type of print ( latent or ink) noted at the bottom. In any case, the manner of numbering should be subservient to an explanat ion of the

characterist ics in an orderly sequence; and, i f the si tuation warrants i t , al l of the points may be i l lustrated on a single side of the photograph.

A single l ine should be drawn from each characterist ic to a numbered point on the march. Care should be taken to draw the l ine exact ly to the characterist ics point, not short of i t , beyond i t or obscuring i t . Erasures should be avoided. I f the ink runs or blots, i t is sometimes possible to remove it with a cloth in denatured alcohol, without damaging the photograph.

If the enlargement is great, that is 25 or 30 diameters, i t might be wel l to draw a small circle around each characterist ic and then draw the l ine from a circle to the number, since the r idge wi l l be much thicker than the i l lustrating l ine. Al l l ine and numbers should be checked for absolute accuracy. The expert should also study the enlargements for apparent discrepancies in the prints, which he might be called upon to explain.

The chartered enlargements are readily mounted on sti f f cardboard with rubber cement, which maybe purchased in smal l tubes. After cementing the photograph to the cardboard, i t should be placed under a heavy f lat object which wi l l cover the ent ire surface to prevent warping and wrinkl ing. After drying, tr im the two enlargements to the same square size with heavy scissor, a pen knife or scalped, and fasten them together, book fashion. Of course, i f charts are large, 0 to 36 inches square, mounting is unnecessary and they wil l have to be supported in the courtroom with thumbtacks or metal r ings.

Some courts do not permit numbering or l ining of the photographs and the enlargements alone in these cases wi l l have to suff ice. If there is some quest ion about admissibi l i ty of the charted enlargements, i t is well to prepare an extra-uncharted set.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Bifurcat ion – is the dividing of r idge into two or more branches.

2. Enclosure, Eye or eyelet – is the spli t t ing of a r idge into two but meet at a certain point to continue as a single ridge.

3. Divergence – is the spreading apart of two r idges which have been paral lel or nearly parallel.

4. Ending ridge – is a r idge that terminates.

5. Dot ridge – is a r idge that resemble a period.

6. Type l ines – two innermost r idges which start paral lel or nearly paral lel diverge, and surround the pattern area.

7. Pattern Area – is that part of a loop and whorl in which appears the cores, deltas and ridges.

8. Delta – is that point on a r idge or in front of the near the centers of the divergence of the type l ines. I t may be a bifurcat ion, an abrupt ending ridge, a dot, a short r idge, a meeting of two ridges or a point on the f i rst recurr ing r idge located nearest the center and in front of the divergence of the type l ines.

9. Core – is the approximate center of the patterns area.

10 Ridges- Li tt le l ines found at the f inger/palm of the hand and sole of the foot.

11. Focal point- i t is within the pattern area of a loop and whorl , which are enclosed and cal led delta and core.

12. Frict ion skin- the epidermal hairless skin found on the lower port ion of the hands and feet covered with minute ridges and without pigment or color ing matter.

13. Furrows- The canal or depression in between r idges.