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Welcome to the
for Wake County 6-8
English Language Arts Teachers
2
A Few Words about Grammar and the Language Standard of the Common Core State Standards
The Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts from Kindergarten through grade twelve are clear: grammar as a part of the language standard is an integral component of a balanced approach to English Language Arts. This handbook is designed for teachers to ensure that they have a reference guide where they can obtain strong, basic grammatical knowledge. For exercises, warm-ups, and electronic resources, teachers should continue to review the resources on the wiki; this handbook is just the content, not a guide to grammar activities for your students.
While most things change, grammar changes only incrementally over time. However, teachers will see this handbook grow and change some over the school year. Although grammar appears to be absolute, English is a language that is not bound by many hard and fast conventions; therefore, teachers need to remember that students will find some constructions that will challenge you to go far beyond this resource. That is great! However, for providing the basics for the Common Core, this document will handle most of your needs.
You will see this document posted to the 6-8 ELA Wiki in two ways: a one complete PDF file and as individual files for each part of speech as well as other topics. This should enable teachers to print as much or as little as they wish and to review materials in the same manner.
Teachers should also note that this is a general grammar handbook and does cover things over than the parts of speech. The portion that represents topics beyond the parts of speech will continue to expand.
As always in 6-8 English Language Arts, your feedback is welcome. Please send any comments or questions to the Senior Administrator for 6-8 English Language Arts.
August 30, 2012
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Examples: friend, aunt, brother, house, restaurant, button, pants, honesty, creativity
Functions: subject, predicate nominative or noun, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition
Categories of nouns: concrete, abstract, common, proper, compound, plural, possessive, and collective
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
o Concrete nouns name things that one might be able to touch or see such as
grass, floors, or ceiling.
o Abstract nouns name things that are intangible. Examples of abstract nouns are
honesty, philosophy, evil, and freedom.
Common and Proper Nouns
o Most nouns are common nouns and do not require a capital letter unless they
begin a sentence.
o Proper nouns name a particular person, place, thing or idea such as Mrs. Jones,
West Regional Library, Nikes, or Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.
o Proper nouns are capitalized.
Compound Nouns
o Compound nouns are two words that have been joined to form a new word.
Examples are backhoe, fingernail, ice cream, and six-year-old.
Plural Nouns
o Plural nouns show that there is more than one of something such as dogs, walls,
or tables. Generally, the plural of a noun is formed by just adding s.
o Other nouns form the plural by changing the word; these are irregular plurals.
Examples are children, boxes, and alumni.
Possessive Nouns
o Possessive nouns show ownership.
Noun (N)
Definition: A noun is a person, place, thing or idea.
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o Usually they precede the item which is being owned such as Bill’s farm, the
dog’s collar, or Katie’s room. These are regular possessives which are formed
with just an apostrophe and an s.
o Nouns that end in s form possessives with just an apostrophe. Examples of these
include Hendricks’ house (where the family name is Hendricks, with an s) or
Jess’ toys (where Jess’ name ends in s).
o Other nouns have irregular plurals; there are no rules for these. The plural of
child is children; the plural of goose is geese, and the plural of cactus is cacti.
Collective Nouns
o Collective nouns appear to be singular but actually refer to a group.
Examples are staff, class, herd, flock, and murder (of crows).
o Collective nouns require a singular verb when the group acts as a whole.
Examples: The staff are holding a meeting at 3pm. The flock eat at 6am
every day. The class will be meeting after lunch today.
o Collective nouns require a plural verb when the members of the group are acting
individually.
Examples: The jury are still deliberating. The flock eats a variety of foods
at 6am every day.
o It is important to note for students that the grammar check in MS Word does not
understand and/or recognize collective nouns.
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Examples: he, she, me, which, whom, hers, it, mine, they, this, that
Functions: subject, predicate nominative, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, adjective
Types: personal, indefinite, interrogative, relative, demonstrative, reflexive, intensive
Pronouns are used so that speakers do not continually repeat the names of persons, places, things, or ideas over and over.
A pronoun must have an antecedent. An antecedent is the noun that the pronoun
replaces. Without an antecedent, the reader/listener encounters a vague pronoun.
That is, they do not know who or what is being referenced or referred to in writing
or conversation.
Examples
She is beautiful. (There is no antecedent. The reader does not know to
whom the writer is referring.)
Carla, my cousin, is a model. She is beautiful. (The pronoun in the
second sentence, she, has an antecedent in the previous sentence. It
is Carla. With this added information, the reader knows to whom the
writer refers.)
Personal Pronoun Identification
Personal pronouns refer to people and animals.
Pronouns are usually identified by person, number, and gender.
First, pronouns are referred to by their person.
First person refers to you (I, me, mine, us, ours).
The second person refers to a second person, you (think about it as if you are
somewhere and people start joining your group). This is also the person to
whom you are speaking or writing.
Pronoun (PN)
Definition: A pronoun takes the place of a noun.
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The third person is the person, place or thing you are speaking or writing
about (or in the group analogy, the third person is the person about whom the
first two people are talking).
Pronouns are also identified by gender (masculine, feminine, neutral/neuter).
Number is a third way that pronouns are identified. In English grammar, number is
very simple. Either you have one or more than one. The terms used are singular and
plural.
Personal Pronouns
The chart below identifies the common personal pronouns by gender, number, and person.
Person Singular
(one)
Gender Plural
(more than one)
First I, me, my Neutral/Neuter We, our, ours, us
Second You, yours Neutral/Neuter You, yours
Third
He, him, his Masculine He, him, his
She, her, hers Feminine She, her, hers
It, its Neutral/Neuter They, them, their, theirs
Pronoun Case
Pronouns perform different functions in sentences. To identify the type of pronoun used, one must determine the function it performs. The case of the pronoun identifies its function. Case is the fourth identifier for personal pronouns following person, number, and gender.
Subjective Objective Possessive
Purpose Functions as a
subject or predicate
nominative
Functions as a direct
object, indirect
object, or the object
of a preposition
Functions to show
ownership
First Person I, we Me, us My, mine, Our, ours
Second Person you You Your, yours
Third Person She, he, it, they Her, him, it, them His, hers, its, their,
theirs
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Intensive and/or Reflexive Pronouns
The reflexive and/or intensive pronouns are the words myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.
You might want to remind students that things they may hear, such as hisself and theirself, are not correct. These are not words.
Whether the word is being used as a reflexive or intensive pronoun may be difficult to discern because the function of the pronoun in the sentence determines if it is being used reflexively or intensively.
Reflexive pronouns are located usually in the predicate of the sentence and refer back to the subject of the sentence.
Examples
I gave myself plenty of time to get to work. (myself refers to I)
Bob bought himself a shirt. (himself refers to Bob)
They treated themselves to pizza. (themselves refers to they)
Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize the subject of the sentence. Generally, they are located next to the subject. The subject functions as the antecedent for the intensive pronoun.
Examples
I myself am tired due to lack of sleep.
You yourself should know the facts before deciding.
They themselves are the cause of the problem.
Whether a pronoun is being used as intensive or reflexive may be difficult to discern. However, if you remove the intensive pronoun from the sentence, it will still make sense.
Examples
I myself will make sure that the package is delivered on time.
o In this sentence, you can eliminate myself, and the sentence is
still a complete thought.
I bought myself a great birthday present!
o In this sentence, the elimination of myself makes the sentence
incomplete in that it removes the indirect object. Now, the reader
no longer knows for whom the birthday present was purchased.
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Other Types of Pronouns
There are also other kinds of pronouns. These are indefinite, interrogative, demonstrative, and relative. The chart below summarizes each type by purpose and examples.
Indefinite
Pronouns
Interrogative
Pronouns
Demonstrative
Pronouns
Relative
Pronouns
Purpose
Refer to people ,
places or things in
general; no
antecedent is used
Introduce
questions
Tell which one or
which group of
persons, places,
or things is
referred to
Introduce
adjective clauses
which modify
nouns or
pronouns;
always have an
antecedent
List of
Pronouns
all, anybody, anyone,
anything, each,
either, everybody,
everyone,
everything, few,
many, most, much,
neither, nobody,
none, no one,
nothing, one, others,
several, some
somebody, someone,
something
Who, whom,
which, what
That, this, those,
these
Who, whom,
whose, that,
which
Samples I heard someone
knock.
What time are
you leaving?
Those bananas
are rotten.
The swimmer
who finished first
is Greek.
Using the sentences below have students identify the type of pronoun. If it is a personal pronoun, they should also identify the person, number, gender, and case.
1. My dog ate the bone. (my---first, singular, neuter, possessive)
2. Our cats live in the garage. (our---first, plural, neuter, possessive)
3. What is your favorite color? (your---second, singular, neuter, possessive)
4. Darren gave me a sweater. (me---first, singular, neuter, objective)
5. Could you and I run over to the store? (you---second, singular, neuter,
subjective; I---first, singular, neuter, subjective)
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6. Those shoes are hideous! (those---demonstrative)
7. Is that theirs? (theirs---third, plural, neuter, possessive)
8. The teacher gave us the test. (us---first, plural, neuter, objective)
9. The queen and her court stood on the balcony. (her---third, singular,
feminine, possessive)
10. They are quite nice. (they---third, plural, neuter, subjective)
11. Would you give us a moment? (you---second, singular, neuter, subjective;
us---first, plural, neuter, objective)
12. Someone should clean up this mess. (someone---indefinite)
13. To whom are you speaking? (whom---indefinite; you---second, singular,
neuter, subjective)
14. You are an imposter? (you---second, singular, neuter, subjective)
Can students tell how the pronoun is used in the sentence? Identify the italicized pronoun as reflexive or intensive in the following sentences.
I gave myself plenty of time to get to work. (R) I myself am sick of the heat. (I) You should let yourself into the house. (R) You yourself are responsible for this mess! (I) The president himself appeared at the rally. (I) Jim bought himself a shirt. (R) Jill read to herself. (R) The actress herself wrote those lines. (I) The cat itself caught the mouse. (I) You yourselves can win this game. (I) The dog scratched itself. (R) We treated ourselves to pizza. (R) You can make yourselves at home. (R) The children are able to dress themselves. (R)
The troops themselves helped the people escape the burning building. (I)
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Examples: run, be, was singing, ate, slept, laughing, is, had been dancing
Functions: to express an action being done by the subjects or to express the state of being for subjects
Categories of verbs: action, linking, transitive, intransitive
Predicate: The predicate of the sentence is comprised of the entire verb and any parts of the sentence related to the verb.
Verb Phrase
A verb phrase is the main verb plus any auxiliary or helping verbs. Usually these helping verbs are used for tense (time) or mood. Here is a fairly complete list of helping verbs to share.
o Am, are, be, been, is, was, were She was helping me today.
o Have, has, had Have you washed your car?
o Do, does, did She did not sing today.
o Shall, should You shall find the rule difficult to follow.
o Will, would She would go if she were able.
o Can, could My aunt could dance well.
o May, might You may leave the classroom.
o Must It must be the weather.
Helping/Auxiliary Verbs may be combined and then added to the main verb.
o Examples
Should have been (should have + been)
Must have loosened (must have + loosened)
Will be published (will be + published)
A word about negatives… NOT and NEVER appear to be part of the verb phrase.
However, they are adverbs that negate the phrase and generally interrupt it.
o Examples
She has never seen my dog.
Did you not hear the siren?
He will not have arrived by the time the show begins.
Verb (V)
Definition: A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being.
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Action Verbs
Action verbs express the action being done by the subject of the sentence.
Action verbs are usually easy for students to identify because these are verbs where
something is actually occurring such as walking, snoring, or thinking. However, there
are mental actions that you cannot see taking place such as thinking, wondering, or
memorizing. Explain to students that action verbs are limitless and that it would be
impossible to memorize them all.
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs link the predicate part of the sentence to the subject of the sentence. In
sentences with linking verbs, words in the predicate either rename (predicate
nominative or noun) or describe the subject of the sentence (predicate adjective).
Linking verbs are classified into three categories: forms of To Be, the Sense Verbs,
and other.
Here’s a Tip: Pass out index cards and have students create their index card with the
linking verbs. They will use the card over and over.
The Linking Verbs
Category Forms of To Be The Sense Verbs
(must be followed by an adjective)
Others (also usually followed
by an adjective)
Verb List
Be Am Is
Are Was Were
Look Smell Taste Sound
Feel
Grow Seem
Remain Appear Become
Stay
Sentence Examples
Please be nice. I am tired. He is old.
You are my friend. She was pretty. They were nice.
You look hungry. That smells nasty.
The food tastes good. That bells sounds loud.
The fabric feels soft.
She grew older.
You seem sad.
He remained happy.
You appear weary.
The pants became worn.
Don’t stay angry!
Linking verbs join the subject to a description in the predicate. In all of the examples in
the chart above, the adjective that follows the linking verb actually describes the
subject of the sentence. These are called predicate adjectives.
Linking verbs may also connect a noun in the predicate to the subject to rename the
subject of the sentence. This is called a predicate nominative or predicate noun.
o Examples
Bob is my friend. (friend renames Bob)
Karen has been my doctor for many years. (doctor renames Karen)
Peaches and Pepper are my dogs. (dogs rename Peaches and Pepper)
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Verb Tense
While there are 12 tenses of verbs in English, the most used are present, past and
future.
Most main verbs use an auxiliary verb to form the future tense. Others use a totally
different form of the verb; these are referred to as irregular verbs.
Regular verbs form the past tense by adding –d or –ed to the end of the word.
Regular verbs form the present tense by adding –ing.
Here are some examples of regular verbs.
Infinitive Present Past Future
Laugh Laugh, Laughing Laughed Will laugh
Dance Dance, Dancing Danced Will dance
Race Race, Racing Raced Will race
Work Work Working Worked Will work
Stop Stop, Stopping Stopped Will stop
Irregular verbs must change forms to create different tenses. Here are some examples
of irregular verbs. Because each form is different, students learn these by constant
use.
Infinitive Present Past Future
Be Am, is are, being Was, were Will be
Choose choosing Chose Will choose
Drive driving Drove Will drive
Lay Laying Laid Will lay
Lie Lying Lay Will lie
Make Making Made Will make
Run Running Ran Will run
Swim Swimming Swam Will swim
Verb Conjugation
In English, verbs are conjugated. This means that the infinitive form of the verb is manipulated to show the forms of the verb for each case of pronouns. The conjugation must specify the tense. Here are some examples.
Infinitive Form: Laugh Tense: Present
Singular Plural
First Person I laugh We laugh
Second Person You laugh You laugh
Third Person He, she, it laughs They laugh
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Infinitive Form: Walk Tense: Past
Singular Plural
First Person I walked We walked
Second Person You walked You walked
Third Person He, she, it walked They walked
Infinitive Form: Write Tense: Future
Singular Plural
First Person I will write We will write
Second Person You will write You will write
Third Person He, she, it will write They will write
Active and Passive Voice
Active Voice occurs when the subject of the sentence is performing the action of the
verb. It is a more direct form of writing. Active voice is the most powerful form of
writing and should be used unless there is a valid reason for using the passive voice.
o Examples…Active first, then Passive
My dog sleeps through the night. My dog had slept through the night.
That stranger offered me candy! I was offered candy by that stranger.
Passive Voice occurs when the subject of the sentence receives the action of the verb.
The passive voice is a good choice in writing when the doer of the action in the
sentence is unknown or unimportant. Generally, one needs an auxiliary form of be to
create the passive voice. Note the forms of be in the examples below.
o Examples
We were fooled by an expert.
Was the story told by you?
The expensive diamond tiara was stolen from the Queen.
The school had been built in 2010.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive verbs transfer action from the subject to an object in the predicate. For
example, any verb that takes a direct object is a transitive verb.
o Examples
I shot the target. (the action goes from I to the target)
While in Florida, she bought fresh oranges. (the action goes from she to
the oranges)
Intransitive verbs do not transfer action. They do not take a direct object.
Intransitive verbs should not be confused with Linking Verbs as they are not always
followed by a predicate nominative or adjective.
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o Examples
The target was ruined by my shot. (the target is not transferring action
neither is it taking a direct object; by my shot is a prepositional phrase
functioning as an adverb)
I ran to the shower. (ran is not transferring any action; to the shower is a
prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb)
Some transitive verbs can be made intransitive by the addition of an auxiliary verb.
o Examples from the sentences above
The target was shot by me.
Fresh oranges were bought by her while in Florida.
These sentences lack power and directness. There are much more
effective ways to write about this information than the use of
intransitive verbs creating passive voice.
Direct and Indirect Objects
A direct object (DO) follows an action verb and receives the action of the verb. Nouns
or pronouns function as direct objects.
o Examples
She wrote a journal entry about a current event. (entry is the DO; it
receives the action of the verb wrote)
The dog carried the newspaper to the house. (newspaper is the DO; it
receives the action of the verb carried)
I love him! (him is the DO; it receives the action of the verb love)
Clean your room! (room is the DO; it receives the action of the verb clean)
An indirect object (IO) is the person or object to whom or for whom the action of the
verb has been completed. Most often, the IO is a person or living thing.
Rarely do you see a sentence with an IO that does not have a DO.
o Examples
She gave him a note. (note is the DO because it receives the action of the
verb gave; him is the IO because it is to whom or for whom the note was
given)
My aunt knitted me a sweater. (sweater is the DO because it receives the
action of the verb knitted; me is the IO because it is to whom or for whom
the sweater was knitted)
The boss bought my colleague and me lunch. (lunch is the DO because it
receives the action of the verb bought; colleague and me is the compound
IO because it is to whom or for whom the lunch was bought)
I gave the lawnmower some gasoline.
OK, this is an IO that is not a living thing. You needed to see one.
gasoline is the DO because it receives the action of the verb gave;
lawnmower is the IO because it is to whom or for whom the gasoline
was given)
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Predicate Nominatives (or Nouns) and Adjectives
Predicate Nominatives or nouns (PDN) are nouns that follow linking verbs and rename
the subject of the sentence. The term nominative means noun; either term is correct.
o Examples
He is a good guy. (guy renames he)
My aunt was an Olympic-class swimmer. (swimmer renames aunt)
Is your name Ted?
Rearrange questions to statements
Here, name is the subject and is being renamed Ted which is the
predicate noun or nominative
Predicate Adjectives (PA)are adjectives that following linking verbs and describe the
subject of the sentence.
o Examples
That animal was huge! (huge describes the subject animal)
Your room is messy. (messy describes the subject room)
You seem sad today. (sad describes the subject you)
Walking across Niagara Falls on a wire, that man looked afraid. (afraid
describes the subject man)
The prisoner grew sullen and serious as he walked to his execution.
(sullen and serious describe the subject prisoner)
Here are some practice ideas for verbs.
Have students identify predicate nominatives and adjectives in sentences
Have students examine sentences with a mix of direct objects, indirect objects,
predicate nominatives, and predicate adjectives and identify each
Here is a helpful hint: When students work with sentences, be sure that they identify
the parts in this order using these suggested questions.
1. What is the verb? Is there an action or a description?
2. Is it an action verb or a linking verb? What’s the action? What’s the
description?
3. What/Who is the subject? Is the subject doing the action of the verb or being
described?
4. If it is an action verb, what is the action? Who/what is doing the action of the
verb? This answer will yield the subject. Then, students should check to see if
there is a Direct Object. The question becomes subject-verb-what? That
yields the direct object. To find the Indirect Object, the question is the
subject did what action to what for whom?
5. If it is a linking verb, the item being renamed or described is the subject. If it
is renaming, then the word after the verb should be a predicate nominative. If
it is describing, the word after the verb should be a predicate adjective.
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Here are some steps that might help students process through sentences. If you use the same process every time and model the questions for them, they may have more success.
Step 1: Locate the verb in the sentence.
Step 2: Determine if the verb is an action verb or a linking verb. Don’t forget to
use the Linking Verb list.
If it is an ACTION verb… If it is a LINKING Verb…
Step 3. Determine who or what is doing the action? This answer yields the subject.
Step 3. Determine who or what is being described or renamed. This answer yields the subject.
Step 4. Subject does action(verb) to what? The answer yields the direct object.
Step 4. Is the subject being described or renamed?
Step 5. Subject does action to direct object for what/whom? The answer is the indirect object.
Step 5. If it is renamed, that is a predicate nominative. If it is described, then it is a predicate adjective.
Example: Sharon gave me a huge list of supplies.
The verb is gave. It is an action verb.
Who did the giving? Sharon Sharon is the subject of the sentence.
What did Sharon give? list List is the direct object because it is what Sharon gave.
To whom did Sharon give the list? me Me is the indirect object because it is to whom or for whom Sharon gave a list.
Example: Your cousin is a really nice person.
The verb is is. It is a linking verb.
What is? cousin Cousin is the subject of the sentence.
What renames or describes cousin? person Person is a predicate nominative because it is a noun in the predicate that renames the subject of the sentence.
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Examples: green, old, funny, large, awesome, circular, first, twenty, Asian
Functions: modifier; predicate adjective
Categories of adjectives: predicate adjective, proper adjectives, definite, indefinite, numerical, positive, comparative, superlative
Questions that Adjectives answer in sentences
Which? Which one? What kind? How many? Whose?
Proper Adjectives: Proper adjectives are proper nouns used to describe or an adjective
that is derived from a proper noun.
Let’s have a June wedding. (the proper noun June is used to describe the
wedding)
Here is a Grecian urn from around 324 AD. (the proper adjective Grecian
is derived from the proper noun Greek and describes the urn)
Definitive Adjectives Definitive adjectives specify which or how many.
They are broken into the following types.
Definitive Adjectives Examples Sample Sentences
Definite That, those, this,
these, the
That book is really heavy.
These apples will rot soon.
Indefinite
A, An, Any, some,
which, what, many,
much, either
Either door leads to the hallway.
Which book do you need?
Do I have any volunteers?
Numerical
Cardinal numbers
such as one, six, or 50
(cardinal numbers
less than twenty may
be written as
numbers)
I bought six juice boxes yesterday.
Would you give me 92 toothpicks?
Ordinal numbers
such as first, last, or
sixteenth
May I go first?
Your project was the sixteenth to be
submitted.
Adjective (ADJ)
Definition: An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun.
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Articles
The most commonly used adjectives are a, an, and the.
It is important to note that a and an are indefinite articles because they do not point out
specific persons, places, things, or ideas.
The is a definite article because it points out a particular person, place, thing, or idea.
Predicate Adjectives
Predicate adjectives describe the subject of a sentence because they follow a linking verb.
o Examples
His hair is messy. (messy links back to hair)
My last report card was ugly! (ugly links back to card)
Your new car is awesome. (awesome links back to car)
For more information on Predicate Adjectives, see the section on the Verb.
Nouns and Pronouns Used as Adjectives
Some nouns, possessive nouns, and pronouns may also be used as adjectives.
o Examples
She is a history professor. (history is a noun functioning as an adjective
because it tells what kind of professor she is)
Alyson’s house is just around the corner. (Alyson’s is a possessive noun
that describes house)
Her dog just bit me! (her is a possessive pronoun functioning as an
adjective that tells whose dog did the biting)
Comparison of Adjectives: Three Degrees of Comparison
o Adjectives take different forms in order to show a degree of comparison.
o Positive Degree: Used when there is no comparison intended
This is the base form of the adjective; no suffix is needed.
He is a tall man. (this is just a description; there is no comparison)
o Comparative Degree: Used when two things are being compared
Generally, the comparative degree is formed by adding –er to the end of
one or two syllable adjectives. If the two syllable adjective ends in a y, it is
also appropriate to add more + the adjective to create the comparative
form.
He is a taller man than my uncle. (two things are compared; the height of
the first person and the height of the uncle)
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Al is the happier of the two children in my family. (to add the –er, the y is
changed to an i)
That is the more absurd of your two ideas.
o Superlative Degree: Used when a comparison is made among three or more
things
Generally, adjectives of one syllable form the superlative form by adding
-est as the suffix. However, adjectives of two syllables or more may also
form the superlative degree by adding most + the adjective.
o My grandfather is the tallest man in the family. (the comparison here is
between the grandfather and all of the men in the family)
o She is the eldest of the four girls in her family. (this comparison her age to
that of her other three siblings)
o That is the most hideous dress you have tried on today. (this compares a
particular dress to all of the dresses tried on that day)
o The chart below illustrates some examples of comparative and superlative
forms, including some irregular forms.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Bad Worse Worst
Far Farther, further Farthest, furthest
Good Better Best
Late Later, latter Latest, last
Little Less, lesser Least
Many, much More most
Near Nearer Nearest, next
Old Older, elder Oldest, eldest
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Examples: very, quickly, usually, often
Functions: modifier
Questions that Adverbs answer in sentences
How or in what manner? When? Where? How often?
To what extent?
Position of Adverbs
When adverbs modify verbs, they modify the entire verb phrase.
Adverbs do not always appear adjacent to the verbs they modify. However, they are
usually next to the adjectives and other adverbs they modify.
o Examples---In all three examples, quickly tells how he ran.
Quickly, he ran to the door.
He ran quickly to the door.
He ran to the door quickly.
o Examples---Adverbs modifying adjectives
She is very tall. (the adverb very modifies the adjective tall; it tells to what
extent she is tall)
Our dog is usually harmless. (the adverb usually modifies the adjective
harmless; it tells how often the dog is harmless)
o Examples---Adverbs modifying other adverbs
She ran very fast. (the adverb very modifies the adverb fast; it answers the
question to what extent)
He finished the math problem quite easily. (the adverb quite modifies the
adverb easily; it answers the question to what extent)
Not and Never as Adverbs
Not and never function as adverbs which are usually located in a verb phrase.
Not and never modify the entire verb phrase.
When the contraction n’t is used for not on the end of a verb, it still functions as an
adverb, and while located in the verb phrase, it is not part of the verb phrase.
Other examples are isn’t, cannot, can’t, and won’t.
Adverb (ADV)
Definition: An adverb may modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
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Adjective or Adverb? Hard to Tell
It can be difficult to tell if a word is being used as an adjective or an adverb in a
sentence. Using the questions that each different part of speech answers should help
students determine how the word functions in the sentence.
Here is a reminder of the questions.
Adjective Questions Adverb Questions
Which? How or in what manner?
Which one? When?
What kind? Where?
How many? How often?
Whose? To what extent?
o Examples---The adverb or adjective is italicized. Identify the part of speech and
tell what it modifies.
The plane flew at a low altitude. (adjective modifying the noun altitude)
In math class, we drew a straight line between two points. (adjective
modifying the noun line)
Some trains travel fast. (adverb modifying the verb travel)
Are you an early bird? (adjective modifying the noun bird)
The plane flew low. (adverb modifying the adverb low)
The commuter express is a fast train. (adjective modifying the noun train)
Everyone came in early for a change. (adverb modifying the verb came)
The bird flew straight to its nest. (adverb modifying the verb flew)
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Examples: over, under, to, before, behind, according to, within
Functions: alone or at the beginning of a prepositional phrase
A preposition is a word that expresses the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in the sentence. Without prepositions, we could not express where one item was in relationship to another. For example, this would make it difficult to give directions.
Sometimes, the analogy is used that a preposition is anything that an airplane can do
to a cloud. For example, it can fly through, under, beneath, below, over, around, into,
beyond, beside, inside, in front of, near, past, toward, within, next to, on top of, in front
of, or outside the cloud. Of course, this leaves out many other prepositions.
A preposition is a single word; however, there are also compound prepositions such
as according to, as well as, by means of, in addition to, in spite of, on top of, etc.
Prepositional Phrase
Probably the most important function of the preposition is to begin a PREPOSITIONAL
PHRASE (PP). A prepositional phrase is composed of a preposition and the object of
the preposition. It may also contain a modifier for the object of the preposition.
o Components of a Prepositional Phrase
o Preposition (always first)
o Modifier (optional)
o Object of the Preposition (a noun or pronoun; always ends the phrase)
o Examples of Prepositional Phrases (PP)
Prepositional Phrase
Preposition Modifier (optional)
Object of the Preposition
In the morning In The Morning
To me To Me
On the counter On The Counter
Into a long, passageway
Into A long Passageway
For you For You
Outside of my window
Outside of My Window
Preposition (P)
Definition: A preposition expresses the relationship between a noun and a pronoun and another word in a sentence.
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Functions of Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrases may perform many functions in sentences.
o They may function as adjectives to modify nouns or pronouns.
o They may also function as adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives or adverbs.
o They may function as nouns to be subjects or predicate nominatives.
Examples
Under my bed is filthy! (under my bed functions as the subject of the
sentence)
The best time to call is between six and ten. (between six and ten
functions as the predicate nominative to rename time)
Students can use the same questions that they used to determine if a word was an
adjective or adverb to help determine what the prepositional phrase modifies and
whether it is an adjectival prepositional phrase or an adverbial prepositional phrase.
o Examples
The music on my iPod is diverse.
On my iPod is the PP functioning as an adjective modifying music
(which?)
I play my iPod in my car, at home, and on the end of the pier.
In my car, at home, and on the end are PPs functioning as adverbs
that modify the verb play (where?); of the pier is a PP functioning as
an adjective modifying the noun end (which?)
Through the stereo in my car, the classical music sounds best.
through the stereo is a PP functioning as an adverb to modify the
verb sounds (where?); in my car is a PP functioning as an adjective
to modify the noun stereo (which?)
Rock concerts sound better on the end of the pier.
on the end is a PP functioning as an adverb that modifies the verb
sound (where?); of the pier is a PP functioning as an adjective
modifying the noun end (which?)
I close my eyes, and I am at the concert.
At the concert is a PP functioning as an adverb that modifies the
verb am (where?)
At home, we listen to classic rock.
At home is a PP functioning as an adverb that modifies the verb
listen (where?); to classic rock is a PP functioning as an adverb to
modify the verb listen (how or in what manner?)
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A Special Note about the word Like
Primarily, like is either a verb or a preposition. However, it can also function as a noun
or an adjective. Less popular (and functional) uses may also be as an adverb and a
conjunction.
See the examples below.
o Verb: I like shrimp and oysters.
o Preposition: Your house looks like my house.
o Noun: Can you bring your arts supplies and the like?
o Adjective: Do you have a cheaper shirt of like quality?
Practice the skill by having students identify the preposition phrase and tell how it functions in the sentence. Here are a few sentences for practice.
1. Lunar maps give the names of the mountain ranges and craters. (of the mountain
ranges and craters is an adjective modifying names)
2. There are ten great ranges on the moon. (on the moon modifies ranges)
3. These mountains have been named after mountains on the earth. (after mountains
modifies have been named; on the earth modifies mountains)
4. Are you familiar with the terrain of the moon? (with the terrain modifies familiar; of the
terrain modifies moon)
5. A variety of craters covers the moon’s surface. (of craters modifies variety)
6. Map makers named the craters for well-known astronomers. (for well-known
astronomers modifies named)
7. The craters look like extinct volcanoes. (like extinct volcanoes functions as a predicate
adjective describing the subject craters; a simpler and no less correct answer would
be that it tells how the craters look)
8. Some are filled with lava and dust. (with lava and dust modifies are filled)
9. Mountain peaks rise from other craters. (from other craters modifies rise)
10. There are even craters within craters. (within craters modifies craters)
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Examples: and, but, either/or, as long as, because
Three Types of Conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, and subordinating
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions connect words that have the same function in a sentence.
The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, so, yet, for, and or.
Coordinating conjunctions function in three ways.
o To connect nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions
Dogs and cats are my favorite animals. (connects two nouns)
She or I will go to the movie. (connects two pronouns)
We danced and laughed all night. (connects two verbs)
He is tall and skinny. (connects two adjectives)
We ran quickly but quietly down the path. (connects two adverbs)
She jumped on and off the sofa. (connects two prepositions)
o To connect two independent clauses (groups of words that can stand alone as
sentences), a comma must come before the coordinating conjunction.
MP3s are really expensive now, but I think that they will become cheaper
in the fall.
We would like to take a vacation, but my family is saving to buy a new car.
o To connect two or more sentence parts used in the same way.
o Fish live in water and breathe through their gills. (connects two
predicates)
o Jellyfish can be found in salt water in oceans or in brackish water in rivers
or sounds. (connects to prepositional phrases)
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions consist of two or more words that work as a set. They
connect equal words that function the same in a sentence.
The correlative conjunctions are listed below.
o Either…or
o Neither…nor
o Both…and
o Whether…or
o Not only…but (also)
Conjunction (C)
Definition: A word that joins individual words or groups of words together
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Examples of Correlative Conjunctions
Either you may go or your friend may go.
We can buy either the candy or the gum.
I believe that neither skipping school nor cheating is appropriate.
You may decide whether to read a book or write a poem during your
free time in class.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate conjunctions which are clauses
that cannot stand by themselves as complete sentences. The conjunction connects the
subordinate clause to an independent clause (complete sentence on its own).
Usually, subordinating conjunctions express specific relationships as shown in the
chart below.
Relationship Subordinating
Conjunctions
Time
After, as, as long as, as
soon as, before, since, until,
when, whenever, while
Manner As, as if, as though
Cause Because
Condition
Although, as long as, even
if, even though, if, provided
that, though, unless, while
Comparison As, than
Purpose In order that, so that, that
o Examples
The piano was invented around 1700 when Cristofori was commissioned
by the Medici family in Florence, Italy. (when)
Because the piano is a popular instrument, more solo compositions have
been written for it than any other instrument. (because)
The piano can make a wide variety of sounds even though it is only one
instrument. (even though)
Although most pianos have 88 keys, not all keyboards have that many.
(although)
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Examples: Whew! Wow! Ouch! Help! Oh, my goodness!
Function: Almost none, grammatically speaking
Interjections are usually written as a complete sentence on their own.
Most interjections are followed by an exclamation point. However, you can follow an
interjection with a comma if you do not want quite as strong a feeling conveyed.
While interjections are used for emphasis, their emphasis decreases if they are
overused.
Examples
o Oh no! What will I do? o Did you see his new motorcycle? Wow! o Ouch! That hurts. o Yes, I need to see you. o No, I do not want milk with my pizza. o Well, I would like to go but I cannot.
Interjection (I)
Definition: An interjection is an exclamatory word.
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Definition
Verb Mood or Mode tells how the verb is to be regarded or what it is trying
to assert.
Per Grammar.com, mood “actually refers to mode which is the attribute of
a verb suggesting the speaker’s attitude toward the action expressed.”
There are five verb moods in English: indicative, imperative, subjunctive,
interrogative, and conditional.
Indicative Mood
This mood is usually used for a statement of fact or when a question presents the answer.
Statement of Fact: He is a unique individual.
Question presents the answer: He is a unique individual, isn’t he?
Imperative Mood (students may recognize this as an Imperative Statement)
This mood expresses a command or request.
It is usually used in the present tense with the second person (you).
Often, the subject of the command/request is the “understood” you.
Sometimes, it is used with the third person.
Open the door. (the subject is the understood you)
Fix me something to eat. (the subject is the understood you)
You come here now!
Someone give me a hand. (third person subject)
Interrogative Mood (students may recognize this as an Interrogative Statement)
This mood is used to ask a question.
It is important to note that the form of the verb does not change but rather the
auxiliary verb is placed at the beginning of the question.
Will you be there?
Shall I prepare dinner?
Verb Moods
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Conditional Mood
This mood describes a condition that would have to exist in order to make the
independent clause come true.
This may refer to an uncertain event that is conditional upon other things occurring.
These statements may vary widely, ranging from that which is certain to that which is
totally contrary to fact or unlikely.
If you drink poison, you will get sick.
When I tease my dog, he usually bites me.
If you were to be backstage at the concert, you may get to meet the star.
If I had a lot of money, I would invest in gold.
Subjunctive Mood
This mood derives from another time and was used more in classical English
literature than it is today.
Generally, the subjunctive expresses an idea that is doubtful or uncertain.
Some regard subjunctive mood as the mode of futurity; it expresses an idea that may
or may not come to pass.
There are some common expressions that are known as formulaic subjunctives.
Examples
o God bless you
o Be that as it may
o Far be it from me
o If it please the court
o Come what may
o Perish the thought
o God save the Queen
Other subjunctive examples express situations that the author would like to see exist
without any conditions placed on the desire.
Examples
o I wish it were summer.
o Would that you were in my place.
o Had I been in your place I should have laughed.
o The law requires that there be a delay of three days.
o The parents prefer that she be placed in a higher level course.
o It is imperative that I be excused early today.
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Types of Verbals: gerunds, participles, and infinitives
Verbals retain the characteristics of verbs even though they may be functioning as other parts of speech in a sentence.
GERUNDS
Definition: A gerund is a verb form that is used as a noun.
Function: Noun or pronoun
The gerund will end in –ing.
It is identical to a participle in form.
It may take a complement (direct object, indirect object, predicate adjective, predicate
nominative) to complete its phrase.
o Examples
Walking through the park was a fun activity. (walking through the park is a
gerund phrase that functions as the subject of the sentence)
Running is good exercise. (running is a gerund that functions as the
subject of the sentence)
I enjoy making biscuits. (making biscuits is a gerund that functions as a
direct object; also, biscuits is the direct object of the gerund making)
PARTICIPLES
Definition: A participle is a verb form that is used an adjective.
Function: Adjective (modifies nouns or pronouns)
The participle is formed by using either the present participle of a verb (usually ending
in –ing) or the past participle of the verb (usually ending in –ed).
Present participles can be identical in form to gerunds but they function as adjectives.
Participles may appear alone or as part of a participial phrase.
A participial phrase is comprised of the participle and any words that modify it or
complete its meaning.
Because a participle is a verbal, it retains the qualities of a verb and may be followed
by complements such as a direct object, indirect object, predicate adjective, or
predicate nominative.
Verbals
Definition: A verbal is a word formed from a verb that is used as another part of speech.
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The participial phrase immediately precedes or follows the noun or pronoun that it
modifies.
o Examples
The decaying apple was in the trash bin. (decaying is a participle used to
modify the noun apple)
A woman walking her dog gave us directions. (walking her dog is a
participial phrase used to modify the noun woman)
Delayed by traffic, she arrived at work almost two hours late! (delayed by
traffic is a participial phrase that describes the pronoun she)
Barking excitedly at the front door, the dog knew someone was on the
porch. (barking excitedly at the front door is a participial phrase that
modifies the noun dog)
My aunt gave me a sweater knitted by monks. (knitted by monks is a
participial phrase that modifies the noun sweater)
INFINITIVES
An infinitive is the first principle part of the verb. It is the verb in its main form.
Infinitives begin with the word to (to dance, to sing, to run).
An infinitive is a verbal which may function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
An infinitive phrase consists of the infinitive and any modifiers or complements of the
infinitive.
o Examples
To dance is my dream. (the infinitive to dance functions as a noun and is
the subject of the sentence)
I want to learn a new language. (the infinitive phrase to learn a new
language functions as a noun and is the direct object of the sentence)
The order to leave the city was issued by the mayor. (to leave the city is an
infinitive phrase that functions as an adjective modifying the subject city)
It is time to grow up. (to grow up is an infinitive phrase which acts an
adjective modifying the predicate nominative time)
It is dangerous to swim in that pond. (to swim in that pond is an infinitive
phrase functioning as an adverb which modifies the adjective dangerous;
in that pond is a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb to tell
where you swim)
We sealed the document to protect it from the elements. (to protect it from
the elements is an infinitive phrase functioning as adverb which modifies
the verb sealed)
