For History Prior to the Acts of Union of 1707

7/29/2019 For History Prior to the Acts of Union of 1707

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For history prior to the Acts of Union of 1707 (Great Britain) and 1800 (Ireland), seeHistory of

England,History of Scotland,History of Wales, andHistory of Ireland.

A published version of the Articles of Union, agreement that led to the creation of theKingdom of Great Britainin

1707

The history of the United Kingdom as a unifiedsovereign statebegan with thepolitical

unionof the kingdoms ofEngland, which the husosWales, andScotlandinto a new kingdom

calledGreat Britain. On this new state the historianSimon Schamasaid "What began as a

hostile merger would end in a full partnership in the most powerfulgoing concernin the world...

it was one of the most astonishing transformations inEuropean history."[1]A furtherAct of

Unionin 1800 added theKingdom of Irelandto create theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and

Ireland.

The early years of the unified kingdom of Great Britain were marked byJacobite risingswhichended with defeat for the Stuart cause atCullodenin 1746. Later, in 1763,victory in the Seven

Years Warled to the dominance of the British Empire, which was to be the foremostglobal

powerfor over a century and grew to become thelargest empirein history. As a result,

theculture of the United Kingdom, and its industrial, political, constitutional, educational and

linguistic legacy, is widespread.

In 1922, following theAnglo-Irish Treaty, Ireland effectively seceded from the United Kingdom to

become theIrish Free State; a day later,Northern Irelandseceded from the Free State and

became part of the United Kingdom. As a result, in 1927 the United Kingdom changed its formal

title to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,"[2]usuallyshortened to the

"United Kingdom", the "UK" or "Britain". Former parts of theBritish Empirebecame independentdominions.

In theSecond World War, in which the Soviet Union and the US joined Britain asallied powers,

Britain and its Empire fought a successful war against Germany, Italy and Japan. The cost was

high and Britain no longer had the wealth or the inclination to maintain an empire, so it granted

independence to most of the Empire. The new states typically joined theCommonwealth of

Nations.[3]The United Kingdom has sought to be a leading member of theUnited Nations,

theEuropean UnionandNATO, yet since the 1990s large-scale devolution movements in

Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales have brought into question the future viability of this

constantly evolving political union.

Contents

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1 18th century

o 1.1 Birth of the Union

o 1.2 Hanoverian kings

o 1.3 South Sea Bubble

o

1.4 Warfare and finance
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o 1.5 British Empire

2 1800 to 1837

o 2.1 Union with Ireland

o 2.2 Napoleonic warso 2.3 George IV and William IV

o 2.4 Whig reforms of the 1830s

o 2.5 Leadership

3 Victorian era

o 3.1 Foreign policy

o 3.2 Free trade imperialism

o 3.3 Russia, France and the Ottoman Empire

o 3.4 American Civil War

o 3.5 Empire expands

o 3.6 Ireland and the move to Home Rule

o 3.7 Leadership

3.7.1 Queen Victoria

3.7.2 Disraeli

3.7.3 Gladstone

3.7.4 Salisbury

3.7.5 Morality

4 Early 20th century

o 4.1 Edwardian era 19011914

o 4.2 World War I

o 4.3 Irish independence and partition

5 Interwar era

o 5.1 Politics and economics of 1920s

o

5.2 Economics 5.2.1 Labour

o 5.3 Great Depression

o 5.4 Appeasement

6 World War II

7 Postwar

o 7.1 Austerity, 19451950

o 7.2 Prosperity of 1950s

o 7.3 Empire to Commonwealth
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o 7.4 From the Troubles to the Belfast Agreement

o 7.5 The economy in the late 20th century

o 7.6 Common Market (EEC), then EU, membership

o 7.7 Devolution for Scotland and Wales8 21st century

o 8.1 War in Afghanistan and Iraq, and terrorist attacks at home

o 8.2 Nationalist government in Scotland

9 The 2008 economic crisis

o 9.1 The 2010 coalition government

10 See also

11 Notes

12 See also

13 References

14 Further reading

15 Primary sources

16 External links

[edit]18th century

Main article:18th century Britain

[edit]Birth of the UnionMain articles:Treaty of UnionandActs of Union 1707

See also:Union of the CrownsandHistory of the formation of the United Kingdom

"Articles of Union with Scotland", 1707

The united kingdom ofGreat Britaincame into being on 1 May 1707, as a result of thepolitical

unionof theKingdom of England(which includedWales) and theKingdom of Scotland. The

terms of the union had been agreed in theTreaty of Unionthat was negotiated the previousyear and then ratified by the parliaments ofScotlandandEnglandeach approvingActs of

Union.[4]

Although previously separate states, England and Scotland hadshared monarchssince 1603

whenJames VI of Scotlandbecome James I of England on the death of the childlessElizabeth

I, an event known as theUnion of the Crowns. The Treaty of Union enabled the two kingdoms

to be combined into a single kingdom with the two parliaments merging into a singleparliament

of Great Britain.Queen Anne, who reigned from 1702 to 1714, had favoured deeper political

integration between the two kingdoms and became the first monarch ofGreat Britain. The union

was valuable to England from a security standpoint, since it meant that Scotland lost the

possibility to choose a different monarch on her death, reducing the chance of a Europeanpower using Scotland as a route to invading England.
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Although now a single kingdom, certain aspects of the former independent kingdoms remained

separate, in line with the terms in the Treaty of Union:ScottishandEnglish lawremained

separate, as did thePresbyterianChurch of Scotlandand theAnglicanChurch of England.

England and Scotland also continued to have divergent systems of education.

The creation of Great Britain happened during theWar of the Spanish Succession, in which just

before his death in 1702 William III had reactivated the Grand Alliance against France. His

successor, Anne, continued the war. TheDuke of Marlboroughwon a series of brilliant victories

over the French, England's first major battlefield successes on the Continent since theHundred

Years War. France was nearly brought to its knees by 1709, whenKing Louis XIVmade a

desperate appeal to the French people. Afterwards, his generalMarshal Villarsmanaged to turn

the tide in favour of France. A more peace-minded government came to power in Great Britain,

and the treaties ofUtrechtandRastadtin 17131714 ended the war.

[edit]Hanoverian kings

George I in 1714, by Godfrey Kneller

Queen Anne died in 1714, and the Elector of Hanover, George Louis, became king asGeorge

I(17141727). He paid more attention to Hanover and surrounded himself with Germans,

making him an unpopular king, However he did build up the army and created a more stable

political system in Britain and helped bring peace to northern Europe.[5][6]Jacobite factions

seeking a Stuart restoration remained strong; they instigated a revolt in 17151716. The son

ofJames IIplanned to invade England, but before he could do so,John Erskine, Earl of Mar,

launched an invasion from Scotland, which was easily defeated.[7]

George II(17271760) enhanced the stability of the constitutional system, with a governmentrun by SirRobert Walpoleduring the period 173042.[8]He built up the first British Empire,

strengthening the colonies in the Caribbean and North America. In coalition with the rising

power Prussia, defeated France in theSeven Years War(17561763), and won full control of

Canada.[9]

George IIIreigned 17601820; he was born in Britain, never visited Hanover, and spoke English

as his first language. Frequently reviled by Americans as a tyrant and the instigator of the

American War of Independence, he was insane off and on after 1788 as his eldest son served

as regent.[10]The last king to dominate government and politics, his long reign is noted for losing

the first British Empire with a loss in the American Revolution, as France sought revenge for its

defeat in the Seven Years War by aiding the Americans. The reign was notable for the buildingof a second empire based in India, Asia and Africa, the beginnings of the industrial revolution

that made Britain an economic powerhouse, and above all the life and death struggle with the

French, theFrench Revolutionary Wars17931802, ending in a draw and a short truce, and the

epicNapoleonic Wars(18031815), ending with the decisive defeat of Napoleon.[11]

[edit]South Sea Bubble

The era was prosperous as entrepreneurs extended the range of their business around the

globe. TheSouth Sea Bubblewas a business enterprise that exploded in scandal. The South

Sea Company was a private business corporation set up in London ostensibly to grant trade

monopolies in South America. Its actual purpose was to renegotiate previous high-interestgovernment loans amounting to 31 million through market manipulation and speculation. It
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blehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:George_I_Oval.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sea_Bubblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Warshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Warshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Years_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Walpolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Erskine,_22nd_Earl_of_Marhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_II_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Rastatthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrechthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Louis_Hector_de_Villarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Churchill,_1st_Duke_of_Marlboroughhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Successionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_Law


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issued stock four times in 1720 that reached about 8,000 investors. Prices kept soaring every

day, from 130 a share to 1,000, with insiders making huge paper profits. The Bubble

collapsed overnight, ruining many speculators. Investigations showed bribes had reached into

high placeseven to the king.Robert Walpolemanaged to wind it down with minimal political

and economic damage, although some losers fled to exile or committed suicide.[12][13]

[edit]Warfare and finance

From 1700 to 1850, Britain was involved in 137 wars or rebellions. It maintained a relatively

large and expensiveRoyal Navy, along with a small standing army. When the need arose for

soldiers it hired mercenaries or financed allies who fielded armies. The rising costs of warfare

forced a shift in government financing from the income from royal agricultural estates and

special imposts and taxes to reliance on customs and excise taxes and, after 1790, an income

tax. Working with bankers in the City, the government raised large loans during wartime and

paid them off in peacetime. The rise in taxes amounted to 20% of national income, but the

private sector benefited from the increase in economic growth. The demand for war supplies

stimulated the industrial sector, particularly naval supplies, munitions and textiles, which gaveBritain an advantage in international trade during the postwar years.[14][15][16]

[edit]British Empire

Main article:British Empire

Lord Clivemeeting withMir Jafarafter theBattle of Plassey, byFrancis Hayman(c. 1762).

TheSeven Years' War, which began in 1756, was the first war waged on a global scale, fought

in Europe, India, North America, the Caribbean, the Philippines and coastal Africa. The signing

of theTreaty of Paris (1763)had important consequences for Britain and its empire. In North

America, France's future as a colonial power there was effectively ended with the ceding ofNew

Franceto Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control)

andLouisianato Spain. Spain cededFloridato Britain. In India, theCarnatic Warhad left

France still in control of itsenclavesbut with military restrictions and an obligation to support

British client states, effectively leaving the future of India to Britain.The British victory over

Francein the Seven Years War therefore left Britain as the world's dominant colonial power.[17]

During the 1760s and 1770s, relations between theThirteen Coloniesand Britain became

increasingly strained, primarily because of opposition to Parliament's repeated attempts to tax

American colonists without their consent.[18]Disagreement turned to violence and in 1775

theAmerican Revolutionary Warbegan. In 1776 the Patriots expelled royal officials

anddeclared the independence of the United States of America. After capturing a British

invasion army in 1777, the US formed an alliance with France (and in turn Spain aided France),

evening out the military balance. The British army controlled only a handful of coastal cities.

178081 was a low point for Britain. Taxes and deficits were high, government corruption was

pervasive, and the war in America was entering its sixth year with no apparent end in sight.

TheGordon Riotserupted in London during the spring of 1781, in response to increased

concessions to Catholics by Parliament. In October 1781Lord Cornwallissurrendered his army

atYorktown, Virginia. TheTreaty of Pariswas signed in 1783, formally terminating the war and

recognising the independence of the United States.[19]
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British general John Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga (1777), painting by John Trumbull 1822

The loss of the Thirteen Colonies, at the time Britain's most populous colonies, marked the

transition between the "first" and "second" empires,[20]in which Britain shifted its attention to

Asia, the Pacific and later Africa.Adam Smith'sWealth of Nations, published in 1776, hadargued that colonies were redundant, and thatfree tradeshould replace the

oldmercantilistpolicies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back

to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal. The growth of trade between the newly independent

United States and Britain after 1783[21]confirmed Smith's view that political control was not

necessary for economic success.

During its first 100 years of operation, the focus of theBritish East India Companyhad been

trade, not the building of an empire in India. Company interests turned from trade to territory

during the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined in power and the British East India

Company struggled with its French counterpart, theLa Compagnie franaise des Indes

orientales, during theCarnatic Warsof the 1740s and 1750s. The British, led byRobert Clive,defeated the French and their Indian allies in theBattle of Plassey, leaving the Company in

control ofBengaland a major military and political power in India. In the following decades it

gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or indirectly

via local puppet rulers under the threat of force of theIndian Army, 80% of which was

composed of native Indiansepoys.

Voyages of the explorer James Cook

On 22 August 1770,James Cookdiscovered the eastern coast of Australia[22]while on a

scientificvoyageto the South Pacific. In 1778,Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage,

presented evidence to the government on the suitability ofBotany Bayfor the establishment of

a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment ofconvictsset sail, arriving in 1788.

At the threshold to the 19th century, Britain was challenged again by France underNapoleon, in

a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two

nations.[23]

British Empire in 1921

The British government had somewhat mixed reactions to the outbreak of the French

Revolution in 1789, and when war broke out on the Continent in 1792, it initially remained

neutral. But the following January,Louis XVIwas beheaded. This combined with a threatened

invasion of the Netherlands by France spurred Britain to declare war. For the next 23 years, the

two nations were at war except for a short period in 18021803. Britain alone among the

nations of Europe never submitted to or formed an alliance with France. Throughout the 1790s,

the British repeatedly defeated the navies of France and its allies, but were unable to perform

any significant land operations. An Anglo-Russian invasion of the Netherlands in 1799

accomplished little except the capture of the Dutch fleet.
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It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was threatened: Napoleon threatened

invasion of Britain itself, and with it, a fate similar to the countries of continental Europe that his

armies had overrun.

[edit]1800 to 1837

Main article:United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

Further information:Georgian era,British Regency,Victorian era,British Empire, andHistory of

British society#Georgian society

[edit]Union with Ireland

TheFlag of the United Kingdomis based on the flags ofEngland,ScotlandandIreland

Main article:Act of Union 1800

On 1 January 1801, theGreat BritainandIrelandjoined to form theUnited Kingdom of Great

Britain and Ireland.

Events that culminated in the union with Ireland had spanned several centuries. Invasions from

England by the rulingNormansfrom 1170 led to centuries of strife inIrelandand

successiveKings of Englandsought both to conquer and pillage Ireland, imposing their rule by

force throughout the entire island. In the early 17th century, large-scale settlement by Protestant

settlers from both Scotland and England began, especially in the province ofUlster, seeing the

displacement of many of the nativeRoman CatholicIrish inhabitants of this part of Ireland.

Since the time of the first Norman invaders from England, Ireland has been subject to control

and regulation, firstly by England then latterly by Great Britain.After theIrish Rebellion of 1641, Irish Roman Catholics were banned from voting or attending

theIrish Parliament. The new English Protestant ruling class was known as theProtestant

Ascendancy. Towards the end of the 18th century the entirely Protestant Irish Parliament

attained a greater degree of independence from the British Parliament than it had previously

held. Under thePenal Lawsno Irish Catholic could sit in theParliament of Ireland, even though

some 90% of Ireland's population was native Irish Catholic when the first of these bans was

introduced in 1691. This ban was followed by others in 1703 and 1709 as part of a

comprehensive system disadvantaging the Catholic community, and to a lesser extent

Protestant dissenters.[24]In 1798, many members of this dissenter tradition made common

cause with Catholics in a rebellion inspired and led by theSociety of United Irishmen. It wasstaged with the aim of creating a fully independent Ireland as a state with a republican

constitution. Despite assistance from France theIrish Rebellion of 1798was put down by British

forces.

Possibly influenced by theWar of American Independence(17751783), a united force of Irish

volunteers used their influence to campaign for greater independence for the Irish Parliament.

This was granted in 1782, giving free trade and legislative independence to Ireland. However,

theFrench revolutionhad encouraged the increasing calls for moderateconstitutional reform.

The Society ofUnited Irishmen, made up of Presbyterians fromBelfastand both Anglicans and

Catholics inDublin, campaigned for an end to British domination. Their leaderTheobald Wolfe

Tone(176398) worked with theCatholic Conventionof 1792 which demanded an end tothepenal laws. Failing to win the support of the British government, he travelled toParis,
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encouraging a number of French naval forces to land in Ireland to help with the planned

insurrections. These were slaughtered by government forces, but these rebellions convinced

the British under Prime MinisterWilliam Pittthat the only solution was to end Irish independence

once and for all.

Henry Gratton, an Irish politician who opposed the union with Britain

The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was brought about by the Act of Union 1800,

creating the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". The Act was passed in both the

Parliament of Great Britain and theParliament of Ireland, dominated by theProtestant

Ascendancyand lacking representation of the country'sRoman Catholicpopulation. Substantial

majorities were achieved, and according to contemporary documents this was assisted

bybriberyin the form of the awarding ofpeeragesandhonoursto opponents to gain their

votes.[25]Under the terms of the merger, the separate Parliaments ofGreat

BritainandIrelandwere abolished, and replaced by a unitedParliament of the United Kingdom.Ireland thus became an integral part of the United Kingdom, sending around 100 MPs to the

House of Commons at Westminster and 28representative peersto the House of Lords, elected

from among their number by the Irish peers themselves, except that Roman Catholic peers

were not permitted to take their seats in the Lords. Part of the trade-off for the Irish Catholics

was to be the granting ofCatholic Emancipation, which had been fiercely resisted by the all-

Anglican Irish Parliament. However, this was blocked byKing George III, who argued that

emancipating the Roman Catholics would breach hisCoronation Oath. The Roman Catholic

hierarchy had endorsed the Union. However the decision to block Catholic Emancipation fatally

undermined the appeal of the Union.

[edit]Napoleonic wars

Main article:Napoleonic wars

During theWar of the Second Coalition(17991801), Britain occupied most of the French and

Dutch colonies (the Netherlands had been a satellite of France since 1796), but tropical

diseases claimed the lives of over 40,000 troops. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war,

Britain was forced to return most of the colonies. The peace settlement was in effect only a

ceasefire, and Napoleon continued to provoke the British by attempting a trade embargo on the

country and by occupying the German city ofHanover(afiefof the British crown). In May 1803,

war was declared again. Napoleon's plans to invade Britain failed due to the inferiority of his

navy, and in 1805, Lord Nelson's fleet decisively defeated the French and Spanish at Trafalgar,which was the last significant naval action of the Napoleonic Wars.

The BritishHMS Sandwichfires to the FrenchflagshipBucentaure(completely dismasted) into battle

offTrafalgar. TheBucentaure also fightsHMS Victory(behind her) andHMS Temeraire(left side of the picture).

In fact, HMS Sandwich never fought at Trafalgar, it's a mistake fromAuguste Mayer, the painter.[26]

The series of naval and colonial conflicts, including a large number of minor naval actions,

resembled those of the French Revolutionary Wars and the preceding centuries of European

warfare. Conflicts in the Caribbean, and in particular the seizure of colonial bases and islandsthroughout the wars, could potentially have some effect upon the European conflict. The
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9/29

Napoleonic conflict had reached the point at which subsequent historians could talk of a "world

war". Only theSeven Years' Waroffered a precedent for widespread conflict on such a scale.

In 1806, Napoleon issued the series ofBerlin Decrees, which brought into effect theContinental

System. This policy aimed to eliminate the threat of the United Kingdom by closing French-

controlled territory to its trade. The United Kingdom's army remained a minimal threat to France;

the UK maintained a standing army of just 220,000 at the height of the Napoleonic Wars,

whereas France's army exceeded a million menin addition to the armies of numerous allies

and several hundred thousandnational guardsmenthat Napoleon could draft into the military if

necessary. Although the Royal Navy effectively disrupted France's extra-continental tradeboth

by seizing and threatening French shipping and by seizing French colonial possessionsit

could do nothing about France's trade with the major continental economies and posed little

threat to French territory in Europe. In addition, France's population andagriculturalcapacity far

outstripped that of the United Kingdom.

Many in the French government believed that cutting the United Kingdom off from the Continent

would end its economic influence over Europe and isolate it. Though the French designed theContinental System to achieve this, it never succeeded in its objective. The United Kingdom

possessed the greatest industrial capacity in Europe, and its mastery of the seas allowed it to

build up considerable economic strength through trade to its possessions from its rapidly

expanding new Empire. Britain's naval supremacy meant that France could never enjoy the

peace necessary to consolidate its control over Europe, and it could threaten neither the United

Kingdom nor British colonies outside the continent.

The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent. The

Duke of Wellington and his army of British and Portuguese gradually pushed the French out of

Spain and in early 1814, as Napoleon was being driven back in the east by the Prussians,

Austrians, and Russians, Wellington invaded southern France. After Napoleon's surrender andexile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned, but when he escaped back into

France in 1815, the British and their allies had to fight him again. The armies of Wellington and

Von Blucher defeated Napoleon once and for all at Waterloo.

Signing of the Treaty of Ghent (1812), by A. Forestier in c. 1915

Simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes and British impressment of American

sailors led to theWar of 1812with the United States. A central event in American history, it was

little noticed in Britain, where all attention was focused on the struggle with France. The Britishcould devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814. American frigates

also inflicted a series of embarrassing defeats on the British navy, which was short on

manpower due to the conflict in Europe. A stepped-up war effort that year brought about some

successes such as the burning of Washington D.C., but many influential voices such as the

Duke of Wellington argued that an outright victory over the US was impossible.

Peace was agreed to at the end of 1814, but not beforeAndrew Jackson, unaware of this, won

a great victory over the British at theBattle of New Orleansin January 1815 (news took several

weeks to cross the Atlantic before the advent of steam ships). The Treaty of Ghent

subsequently ended the war. As a result, the Red River Basin was ceded to the US, and the

Canadian border (now fixed at the49th parallel) completely demilitarised by both countries,although fears of an American conquest of Canada persisted through the 19th century.
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Documents

For History Prior to the Acts of Union of 1707