For article translations in Wikipedia.docx

7/27/2019 For article translations in Wikipedia.docx

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For article translations in Wikipedia, seeWikipedia:Translation.

Translation is the communication of themeaningof a source-language text by means of anequivalenttarget-language text.

[1]Whereasinterpretingundoubtedly antedateswriting,

translation began only after the appearance of writtenliterature; there exist partial translations of

the SumerianEpic of Gilgamesh(ca. 2000 BCE) intoSouthwest Asianlanguages of the secondmillennium BCE.[2]

Translators always risk inappropriatespill-overof source-languageidiomandusageinto thetarget-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language

calquesandloanwordsthat have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped

substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated.[3]

Due to the demands ofbusinessdocumentation consequent to theIndustrial Revolutionthat

began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, withdedicated schools and professional associations.

[4]

Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automatetranslation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator(computer-assisted

translation).[5]

The rise of theInternethas fostered a world-wide market for translation services

and has facilitatedlanguage localization.[6]

Translation studiesdeal with the systematic study of the theory, the description and the

application of translation.[7]

Rosetta Stone

The word translation derives from the Latin translatio (which itself comes fromtrans-andfero,thesupineform of which is latum, together meaning "to carry across" or "to bring across"). ThemodernRomance languagesuse words fortranslation derived from that source or from the

alternative Latin traduco ("to lead across"). TheGermanic(exceptDutch) andSlaviclanguages

likewise usecalques of these Latin sources.[8]

TheAncient Greekterm fortranslation, (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), hassuppliedEnglishwithmetaphrase(a "literal," or "word-for-word," translation)as contrastedwithparaphrase("a saying in other words", from ,paraphrasis).[8]Metaphrasecorresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; andparaphrase,

to "dynamic equivalence."

[9]

Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphraseof "word-for-word translation"is animperfectconcept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning; andbecause a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one

word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as idealconcepts that mark

the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.[10]

At the very beginning, thetranslator keeps both the [s]ource [l]anguage... and [t]arget [l]anguage... in mind and tries to
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_Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-The_Translator_p._83-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calque#.22Translation.22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supinehttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fero#Latinhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trans#Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_localizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanwordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_guidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwest_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgameshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_and_formal_equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_%28linguistic%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Translation


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translate carefully. But it becomes very difficult for a translator to decode the whole text...

literally; therefore he takes the help of his own view and endeavours to translate accordingly.[11]

Asecular iconfor the art of translation is theRosetta Stone. This trilingual (hieroglyphic-

Egyptian,demotic-Egyptian,ancient-Greek)stelebecame the translator's key todecryptionofEgyptian hieroglyphsbyThomas Young,Jean-Franois Champollionand others.[12]

In the United States of America, the Rosetta Stone is incorporated into thecrestof theDefenseLanguage Institute.

Theory

John Dryden

Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back intoantiquityand show

remarkable continuities. Theancient Greeksdistinguished betweenmetaphrase(literaltranslation) andparaphrase. This distinction was adopted by EnglishpoetandtranslatorJohnDryden(16311700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes ofphrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," orequivalents, for the

expressions used in the source language:

When [words] appear . . . literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be

changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes

nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of hisauthor's words: tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense.[8]

Cicero

Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e., of adapted translation: Whena painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..."

[9]

This general formulation of the central concept of translationequivalenceis as adequate asany that has been proposed sinceCiceroandHorace, who, in 1st-century-BCERome, famouslyand literally cautioned against translating "word for word" (verbum pro verbo).

[9]

Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actualpractice of translation has hardly changed

sinceantiquity. Except for some extrememetaphrasersin the earlyChristianperiod and theMiddle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th

century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seekingequivalents"literal"where possible,paraphrasticwhere necessaryfor the originalmeaningand other crucial"values" (e.g.,style,verse form, concordance withmusicalaccompaniment or, infilms, with

speecharticulatorymovements) as determined from context.[9]
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Samuel Johnson

In general, translators have sought to preserve thecontextitself by reproducing the original orderofsememes, and henceword orderwhen necessary, reinterpreting the actualgrammaticalstructure, for example, by shifting fromactivetopassive voice, orvice versa. The grammatical

differences between "fixed-word-order"languages

[13]

(e.g.English,French,German) and "free-word-order" languages[14]

(e.g.,Greek,Latin,Polish,Russian) have been no impediment in this

regard.[9]

The particularsyntax(sentence-structure) characteristics of a text's source language are

adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language.

Martin Luther

When a target language has lackedtermsthat are found in a source language, translators have

borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to theexchange ofcalquesandloanwordsbetween languages, and to their importation from other

languages, there are fewconceptsthat are "untranslatable" among the modern Europeanlanguages.[9][15]

Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or

between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio ofmetaphrasetoparaphrasethatmay be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts inecological nichesof words, acommonetymologyis sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other

language. For example, the English actualshould not be confused with thecognateFrench actuel

("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical," "timely,""feasible"),

[16]the Swedish aktuell("topical", "presently of importance"), the Russian

("urgent", "topical") or the Dutch aktueel.

The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed

at least sinceTerence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's

role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to thatof anartist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as

Cicero.Drydenobserved that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the

translator with amusicianoractorgoes back at least toSamuel Johnsons remark aboutAlexander PopeplayingHomeron aflageolet, while Homer himself used abassoon.

[16]

Johann Gottfried Herder

If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century,Roger Baconwrote that if atranslation is to be true, the translator must know bothlanguages, as well as thesciencethat he isto translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and

translators altogether.[17]

Ignacy Krasicki
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_%28language_use%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_%28language_use%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_%28language_use%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sememehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sememehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sememehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanwordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanwordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanwordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untranslatabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untranslatabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untranslatabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_nichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_nichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_nichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Drydenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Drydenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Drydenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Popehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Popehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flageolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flageolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flageolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Luther46c.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Luther46c.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herder_by_K%C3%BCgelgen.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Luther46c.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flageolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Popehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Drydenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._85-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_nichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphrasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untranslatabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanwordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._84-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sememehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_%28language_use%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnson


4/19

The translator of the Bible into German,Martin Luther, is credited with being the first European

to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that

sinceJohann Gottfried Herderin the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one translatesonly toward his own language.

[18]

Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that nodictionaryorthesauruscan everbe a fully adequate guide in translating. The British historianAlexander Tytler, in hisEssay on

the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduousreadingis a more

comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also includinglisteningto thespoken language, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and

grammarianOnufry Andrzej Kopczyski.[19]

The translators special role in society is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by "Poland's LaFontaine", the Roman CatholicPrimate of Poland,poet,encyclopedist,authorof the first Polish

novel, and translator from French and Greek,Ignacy Krasicki:

[T]ranslation . . . is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore isnot the labor and portion of common minds; [it] should be [practiced] by those whoare themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the

works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the

service that they render their country.[20]

Other traditions

Due to Western colonialism and cultural dominance in recent centuries, Western translation

traditions have largely replaced other traditions. The Western traditions draw on both ancient and

medieval traditions, and on more recent European innovations.

Though earlier approaches to translation are less commonly used today, they retain importance

when dealing with their products, as when historians view ancient or medieval records to piecetogether events which took place in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, though

heavily influenced by Western traditions and practiced by translators taught in Western-style

educational systems, Chinese and related translation traditions retain some theories andphilosophies unique to the Chinese tradition.

Ancient Near East

This section requiresexpansion.(March 2012)

The traditions of translating material among Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Syriac, Anatolian and

Hebrew go back several millennia. An early example of a bilingual document is the 1274 BCETreaty of Kadesh.

Orient
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thesaurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thesaurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thesaurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Tytlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Tytlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Tytlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_%28activity%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_%28activity%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_%28activity%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onufry_Andrzej_Kopczy%C5%84skihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onufry_Andrzej_Kopczy%C5%84skihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._86-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._86-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._86-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fontainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fontainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fontainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fontainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_of_Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_of_Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_of_Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Kadeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Kadeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Kadeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Translation&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_of_Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fontainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fontainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-Kasparek_p._86-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onufry_Andrzej_Kopczy%C5%84skihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_%28activity%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Tytlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thesaurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther


5/19

.

Mark Twain, back-translator

Mark Twainprovided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of hisshort story,

The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in asingle 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and aPrivate History of the 'Jumping Frog Story. The latter included a synopsized adaptation of hisstory that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwicks GreekProse Composition (p. 116) under the title, The Athenian and the Frog; the adaptation had fora time been taken for an independentancient Greekprecursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog"

story.[27]

When a historic document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers

sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An exampleinvolves the novelThe Saragossa Manuscriptby the Polish aristocratJan Potocki(17611815),who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 181314.Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the

missing fragments survived in a Polish translation that was made byEdmund Chojeckiin 1847

from a complete French copy, now lost. French-language versions of the complete SaragossaManuscripthave since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on

French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojeckis Polish version.[28]

Similarly, when historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another

language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting

evidence by showing that such characteristics asidioms,puns, peculiargrammaticalstructures,etc., are in fact derived from the original language.

For example, the known text of theTill Eulenspiegelfolk tales is inHigh Germanbut containspuns that work only when back-translated toLow German. This seems clear evidence that these

tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated

into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.

Similarly, supporters ofAramaic primacyof the view that theChristianNew Testamentor itssources were originally written in theAramaic languageseek to prove their case by showingthat difficult passages in the existingGreektext of the New Testament make much better sensewhen back-translated toAramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible references are in

fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek.

Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century GnosticGospel of Judas, which

survives only inCoptic, was originally written inGreek.

Translators
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_storyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_storyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_storyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Celebrated_Jumping_Frog_of_Calaveras_Countyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Manuscript_Found_in_Saragossahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Manuscript_Found_in_Saragossahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Manuscript_Found_in_Saragossahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Potockihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Potockihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Potockihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Chojeckihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Chojeckihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Chojeckihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Till_Eulenspiegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Till_Eulenspiegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Till_Eulenspiegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_primacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_primacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_primacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Judashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Judashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Judashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mark_Twain,_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait,_Feb_7,_1871,_cropped.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Judashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_primacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Till_Eulenspiegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Chojeckihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Potockihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Manuscript_Found_in_Saragossahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Celebrated_Jumping_Frog_of_Calaveras_Countyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_storyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twain


6/19

A competent translator shows the following attributes:

a very goodknowledge of the language, written and spoken,from which he is translating(the source language);

an excellentcommand of the language into which he is translating (the target language);

familiarity with the subject matter of the text being translated; a profound understanding of theetymologicalandidiomaticcorrelates between the two

languages; and

a finely tuned sense of when tometaphrase("translate literally") and when toparaphrase, so as to assure true rather than spuriousequivalentsbetween the source- and

target-language texts.[29]

A competent translator is not onlybilingualbutbicultural. Alanguageis not merely a collection

ofwordsand of rules ofgrammarandsyntaxfor generatingsentences, but also a vast

interconnecting system ofconnotationsandculturalreferences whose mastery, writeslinguist

Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."[30]

The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming

an accomplished translatorafter having already acquired a good basic knowledge of bothlanguages and culturesmay require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light,it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will,

by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.[19]

The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or

actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other arts, inescapably involves choice, andchoice implies interpretation.

[31][16]

English-language novelistJoseph Conradadvised his niece

andPolishtranslator Aniela Zagrska:

[D]on't trouble to be too scrupulous... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion "il vaut

mieux interprter que traduire"["it is better to interpret than to translate"]....Il s'agit donc de

trouver les quivalents. Et l, ma chre, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutt par votretemprament que par une conscience svre.... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent

expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament

than by a strict conscience....][32]

A translator may render only parts of the original text, provided he indicates that this is what he

is doing. But a translator should not assume the role ofcensorand surreptitiously delete or

bowdlerizepassages merely to please a political or moral interest.[33]

Translation has served as a school of writing for many authors. Translators, including monks

who spreadBuddhisttexts inEast Asia, and the early modern European translators of theBible,in the course of their work have shaped the verylanguagesinto which they have translated. They

have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge betweencultures; and along with ideas, they

have imported from the source languages, into their own languages,loanwordsandcalquesofgrammatical structures,idiomsandvocabulary.
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Lewis and Clarkand theirNative Americaninterpreter,Sacagawea: 150th-anniversary

commemorative stampMain article:Interpreting

Interpreting, or "interpretation," is the facilitation oforalorsign-languagecommunication, eithersimultaneously or consecutively, between two, or among more, speakers who are not speaking,

or signing, the same language.

The term "interpreting," rather than "interpretation," is preferentially used for this activity by

Anglophonetranslators, to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "interpretation."

Unlike English, many languages do not employ two separate words to denote the activities of

writtenand live-communication (oralorsign-language) translators.[34]

Even English does not

always make the distinction, frequently using "translation" as a synonym for "interpreting."

Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles inhistory. A prime example isLa Malinche,also known asMalintzin,Malinalli andDoa Marina, an early-16th-centuryNahuawoman fromthe MexicanGulf Coast. As a child she had been sold or given toMayaslave-traders from

Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual. Subsequently given along with other women to the

invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in theSpanishconquest ofMexico, acting asinterpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover toHernn Corts.

[35]

Nearly three centuries later, in theUnited States, a comparable role as interpreter was played fortheLewis and Clark Expeditionof 18046 bySacagawea. As a child, theLemhi Shoshonewoman had been kidnapped byHidatsaIndians and thus had become bilingual. Sacagawea

facilitated the expedition's traverse of theNorth American continentto thePacific Ocean.[36]

Four decades later, in 1846, the Pacific would become the western border of the United States.

Computer-assisted translation

Main article:Computer-assisted translation

Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called "computer-aided translation," "machine-aidedhuman translation" (MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a form of translation wherein a

human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer program. The machine

supports a human translator.

Computer-assisted translation can include standarddictionaryand grammar software. The term,however, normally refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, includingtranslation-memory,terminology-management,concordance, and alignment programs.

With the Internet, translation software can help non-native-speaking individuals understand webpages published in other languages. Whole-page-translation tools are of limited utility, however,

since they offer only a limited potential understanding of the original author's intent and context;

translated pages tend to be more humorous and confusing than enlightening.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expeditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expeditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expeditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagaweahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagaweahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagaweahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commemorative_stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commemorative_stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interprethttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interprethttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interprethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Malinchehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Malinchehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Malinchehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahua_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahua_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahua_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9shttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9shttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expeditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expeditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expeditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagaweahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagaweahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagaweahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemhi_Shoshonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemhi_Shoshonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemhi_Shoshonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidatsahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidatsahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidatsahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_continenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_continenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_continenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lewis_and_Clark_1954_Issue-3c.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_continenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidatsahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemhi_Shoshonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagaweahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expeditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9shttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahua_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Malinchehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writinghttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interprethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commemorative_stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagaweahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition


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Interactive translations withpop-up windowsare becoming more popular. These tools show one

or more possible equivalents for each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the

likeliest equivalent as the mouse glides over the foreign-language text. Possible equivalents canbe grouped by pronunciation.

translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.[45]

Claude Pironwrites that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator's

job; the harder and more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research toresolveambiguitiesin thesource text, which thegrammaticalandlexicalexigencies of the target

language require to be resolved.[46]

Such research is a necessary prelude to the pre-editing

necessary in order to provide input for machine-translation software, such that the output will not

bemeaningless.[43]

Literary translation

Translation ofliterary works(novels,short stories,plays,poems, etc.) is considered a literary

pursuit in its own right. For example, notable inCanadian literaturespecifically as translators are

figures such asSheila Fischman,Robert DicksonandLinda Gaboriau, and theGovernor

General's Awardsannually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-Englishliterary translations.

Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, includeVasily Zhukovsky,Tadeusz Boy-eleski,Vladimir Nabokov,Jorge Luis Borges,Robert StillerandHaruki Murakami.

History

The first important translation in the West was that of theSeptuagint, a collection ofJewishScriptures translated into earlyKoine GreekinAlexandriabetween the 3rd and 1st centuries

BCE. The dispersedJewshad forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions

(translations) of their Scriptures.[47]

Throughout theMiddle Ages,Latinwas thelingua francaof the western learned world. The 9th-

centuryAlfred the Great, king ofWessexinEngland, was far ahead of his time in

commissioningvernacularAnglo-Saxontranslations ofBede'sEcclesiastical Historyand

Boethius'Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile theChristian Churchfrowned on even partialadaptations ofSt. Jerome'sVulgateof ca. 384 CE,

[48]the standardLatinBible.

InAsia, the spread ofBuddhismled to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over

a thousand years. TheTangut Empirewas especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then

newly inventedblock printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporarysources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort,
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alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that

had taken theChinesecenturies to render.[citation needed]

TheArabsundertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having conquered the Greek world, they

madeArabicversions of its philosophical and scientific works. During theMiddle Ages,

translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly atCrdobainSpain.[49]

Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped

advance EuropeanScholasticism, and thus European science and culture.

Geoffrey Chaucer

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of

translation into theEnglish language.

The first fine translations into English were made in the 14th century byGeoffrey Chaucer, who

adapted from theItalianofGiovanni Boccaccioin his ownKnight's TaleandTroilus andCriseyde; began a translation of theFrench-languageRoman de la Rose; and completed atranslation ofBoethiusfrom theLatin. Chaucer founded an Englishpoetictradition on

adaptationsand translations from those earlier-establishedliterary languages.[49]

The first great English translation was theWycliffe Bible(ca. 1382), which showed the

weaknesses of an underdeveloped Englishprose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the

great age of English prose translation begin withThomas Malory'sLe Morte Darthuranadaptation ofArthurian romancesso free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation.

The first greatTudortranslations are, accordingly, theTyndale New Testament(1525), which

influenced theAuthorized Version(1611), andLord Berners' version ofJean Froissart's

Chronicles (152325).

Marsilio Ficino

Meanwhile, inRenaissanceItaly, a new period in the history of translation had opened inFlorencewith the arrival, at the court ofCosimo de' Medici, of theByzantinescholarGeorgius

Gemistus Plethoshortly before the fall ofConstantinopleto the Turks (1453). A Latin translation

ofPlato's works was undertaken byMarsilio Ficino. This andErasmus' Latin edition of theNew

Testamentled to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor ofrendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words ofPlato,Aristotle

andJesus.[49]

Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on adaptation.France'sPliade,England's

Tudorpoets, and theElizabethantranslators adapted themes byHorace,Ovid,Petrarchand

modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets andtranslators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of amiddle classand the

development ofprinting, with works such as the original authors would have written, had they

been writing in England in that day.[49]
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Documents

For article translations in Wikipedia.docx