FOOD HABITS: A SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

A handbook of references, 1928-1972, for all concerned with better understanding of man's eating customs.

Christine S. Wilson

CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (Nutritional Anthropology)

Adams, R. N., A nutritional research program in Guatemala, Case 16 in Health, Culture, and Community, Case studies of public reactions to health programs, Paul, B. D., Ed., Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1955. How Indian beliefs that blood cannot be regenerated and fears that children being examined clinically were to be fattened for eating interfered with a nutrition research program in several Indian villages in Guatemala are outlined in this report which also explains how this and other cultural blocks to the study were overcome. Food Beliefs, Food Symbolism

Alland, A., Jr., The ecology of human disease, Ch. 3 in Adaptation in Cultural Evolution-An Approach to Medical Anthropology, Colum­bia University Press, New York, 1970. From his morphology and chem· cal system, man was obviously born to be a meat eater. In tropical regions where grains grow poorly, availability of amino acids would be the limiting factor in population growth. Long nursing thus fllvors infant survival, leading to postpartum sex taboos which prevent kwashi­orkor. Prehistorically, hunter.gatherers were found in game-rich areas; hence the male hunters subsisted with less exertion than the women oatherers. Food Getting, Infant and Child Feeding

Braidwood, R. J., Symposium: Did man once live by beer alone? Amer. Anthropol., 55:515-526, 1953. With answers from other anthro­pologists, including P. C. Mangelsdorf, C. S. Coon, R. Linton and J. Steward. The consensus is that grains were first used as cereals before beer or other fermented drinks were made. However, the oldest domes­ticated plant is yeast. It is possible the earliest grains were eaten popped (parched). The sequence proposed for use of grains is parched, gruel, unleavened bread, leavened bread, and finally beer. Food Getting and Preparation, Worthy or Unusual Foods

Cannon, P., Revolution in the kitchen: With some notes on the an­thropology of food, Saturday Review, 47:54-57, Oct. 24, 1964. An au· thority on cooking, commenting on the relatively sparse study of food IlS an artefact, says the anthropology of food " ... has never been written." Tracing back some foods through time, she comments, " ... the food remembers ... who their grandmothers were, and from what part of the world their ancestors hailed." Food Ways, Food Linkages

Firth, R., Health planning and community organization, Health Educ. J., 15:118-124, 1957. Discussing the need for attention to social and community life, a British anthropologist commends collaboration of nutritionists and social anthropologists. The latter have developed sys­tematic technics of collecting information about food habits, beliefs and taboos in the framework of social and economic life. Food Beliefs, Hot-and-Cold Foods

Hundley, J. M., Nutrition problems associated with food habits and environment, Ch. I in Proceedings of the Borden Centennial Symposium on Nutrition, pp. I-II, April 12, 1958, The Borden Company Founda­tion, Inc., New York. The nutritional consequences of population pres­sures, as opposed to economic ones, on soil products and the com­petition between food and cas.h crops are reviewed. Many indigenous

THE AUTHOR is Research Associate, Dept. of International Health, University of California, San Francisco. Her address is 1065 Miller Ave., Berkeley, CA 94708.

This bibliography was prepared and published through a contract to the National Nutrition Education Clearing House (NNECH) from the Food and Nutrition Information Center, National Agricultural Library, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705. Reprints may be obtained from FNIC.

VOL. 5, NO. I, SUPPLEMENT I, JAN.-MARCH, 1973

foods developed from environmental necessity, and resources may con· dition cooking practices. Includes cautions to consider in attempts to change food habits. Economic Aspects, Food Preparation, Directing Change

Jelliffe, D. B., The Assessment of the Nutritional Status of the Com­munity, World Health Organization Monograph Series No. 53, Genevll, Switzerland, 1966. Chapter 4 "Assessment of Ecological Factors," gives valuable suggestions how to coiled information regarding cultural and related aspects of foods and eating-including classes of food Iltti­tudes-and beliefs about child rearing and disease causation. Food Beliefs, Meal, Diet and Eating Patterns, Infant and Child Feeding

Keesing, F., Cultural Anthropology; The science of custom, Holt, Rinehart and Co., Inc., New York, 1958. Chapter VIII, "Material Cul­ture" (pp. 198-202), the author reviews briefly food and food habits and customs as a part of culture from the anthropologist's point of view. Social Role of Food

Lee, D., Cultural factors in dietary choice, Amer. J. Clin. Nutr., 5:116-170, 1957. In this paper presented to a symposium on nutrition and behavior, an anthropologist discusses cross-cultural factors in eating with references to published reports. The culture tells when to have an appetite for what, defines a food, feasts and fasting. Food Symbolism, Feasting and Fasting, Food Gifts and Sharing

Lee, D., Learning about cultures, J. Home Econ., 59:278-282, 1967. An interview with an anthropologist who tells how to study and under· stand other cultures. Social Role of Food

Livingston, S. K., What influences malnutrition? J. Nutr. Educ., 3: 18· 27, 1971. The meaning of food, cultural and other ethnic influences, socioeconomic and psychological factors are all part of the things which interact to help produce or prevent malnutrition. Economic Aspects of Nutrition, Food Ways

McHenry, E. W., Basic Nutrition, J. B. Lippincott Co., P.hiladelphia, 1963. In a section on food habits, pp. 5-8 of Chapter I on hunger, ap­petite and nutritional requirements, the author states there is little evidence that man has an instinctive ability to choose food suitable for health. The climate, as well as technology and economy, affeds regional staples. Other fadors affeding food habits include race and religion, prestige, custom, advertising and prejudices. Social Role of Food, Social Status of Food, Food Beliefs, Food Habits Problems

Pijoan, M., Food availability and social function, New Mex. Quart. Rev., 12:418-423, 1942. Nutritional deficiencies found in New Mexico were due to a gradual evolving of food habits patterns and the culture, of which the people themselves were unaware while recalling when deer and goat's milk were plentiful. When agriculture was introduced, total food supply increased, but variety decreased and some essential nutri­ents disappeared. When improvements are planned, they should be familiar to the people to assure permanent adoption. Food Habits and Nutritional Status, Changes of Food Habits, Directing Change

Polgar, S., He<1lth and human behavior: Areas of interest common to the social and medical sciences, Curro Anthropol., 3: 159-205, 1962. A thorough review of this subject with comments of readers and an exten­sive bibliography. Nutrition in chronic disease is included as are some cultural problems of food habits and general problems of introducing change. Food Habits Problems, Directing Change

Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION /41

Pyke, M., Food and Society, John Murray , London, 1968. A nontech· nicol, though technically referenced, discussion of various cultural and socia l aspects of eating. How food habits ore formed and changed cannot be predicted or deduced. If Sir Wolter Roleigh brought us the potato now, we would not be allowed to import it : it contains solanine! Food Habits Problems, Directing Change

Pyke, M., Social behavior and economics, Ch . 9, pp. 147·165 in Man and Food, McGraw·Hill, New York , 1970. In contents similar to Food ond Society (cited immediately above) but less detailed and technical with a more limited bibliography. Economic Aspects of Nutrition

Quamina, E., The crossroads of emotion, religion, tradition and habit, Cajanus, V: 158·162, July·Sept. 1'172 . Food has been the basis of man's evolutionary history. This author postulates that our primate an cesto rs adapted from an existence as gatherers to one as hunters and then slowly to agriculturalists. Social instincts were realized and eati ng mores became the crossroad s o f e motio n, re ligion, trad ition and habit . New food patterns we re established wi th the shift from the rural, agrarion ex istence to tha t of the urban, industria lized com muni ty. Changes of Food Habits, Food Beliefs, Food Ways

Quick, H. F., Geographic dimensions of human ecology, in Dimensions of Nutrition, pp. 133·152, Proc. of the C olo. Dietet. Assoc. Conf., Colo­rado Associa ted Universities Press, Boulder, Colo., 1969. Interactions of man and his environment in various climatic and environmental zon es, with some discussions of their interaction with diets as well as physio l· ogy. Food Habits and Nutritional Status

Rappaport, R. R., Ritual regulation of environmental relations of a New Guinea people, Ethnology, 6: 17·30, 1967. The author's thesis is thot pig killing as practiced by a New Guinea tri be reg ulates rela t ion· shi ps of these peo ple with the pigs in their environment, helps mai ntl!in bot.h in their biotic commun ities, redistributes land and peo ple within it, mobilizes a llies and redi stributes pork surplus through a large popu· lation while helping to assure a supply of pork to the loca l p opull!tion when it is most in need of high qua lity protein . Food Habits and Nutri­tional Status, Food Gifts and Sharing

Read, M., Children of their Fathers: Growing up among the Ngoni of Nyasaland, Methuen and Co., Ltd. , London, 1959. An anthropolo· gist's report of how a child grows up in Central Africa and the way he learns and is trained by famil y a nd su rround ings. The role of women in the culture is also presented , and th ere is a section on foods an d how they are prepared . Food Getting and Preparation, Infant and Child Feeding

Renne r, H. D., The Origin of Food Habits, Faber and Fabe r, Ltd ., Lond on, 1944. This early work on food habits considers phys iologic as· pects, taste , smell, color, the wo rk of chewing, psych olog y, avoidances, environmental factors, food fad s I he calls t hem fashions), and the validity of d ietetic explanations of food val ues. While there is nothing on food taboos or prejudices, he notes that middle and upper c lasses in many countries have less conservative food habits. There is material on relations of agriculture and clim at e t o food habits, and how chang . ing ways of life affect them. Th e a uthor was perhaps the first to com· me nt that the main dish is an indivisi ble unit. Economic Aspects of Nutrition, Psychologic Aspects of Food Selection, Food Linkages, Food Aversions

Terro, G . J . A., Food patterns in Indonesia , Proc. 3rd Int. C ongr. Dietet ., pp. 40·45, 1961. Agricultural practices in the different pa rt s of Indonesia and their effect on the diet , histo ri ca lly and a t present . Food Getting and Preparation

Todhunter, E. N., Food is man's source of all nutrients, Food and Nutr. News, 36: No. I, Oct. 1964, National Live Stock and Meat Board, Chicago. A review which points out the cultura l meanings of food t o all peo ples. Social Role of Food

W ellin, E., Cultural factors in nutrition, Nutr. Rev., 13: 129·131, 1955. T.hese factors are studied primarily in food habits, the second of two d istinct spheres comprehended by the scien ce of nutrition. The fi rst includ es b iochemistry, phys iology and nutrient requirements. The other invo lves actual food usages and effective mea ns of adjusting habits to nutri tional needs. Anthropology can be useful in diet surveys via prior knowledg e of the group studied, in the epidemiology of malnutrition and the meaning of di sease to people, as some examples. Food Ways, Food Beliefs, Infant and Child Feeding, Food Distribution in Families

Wenkam, N. S., Cultural determinants of nutritional behavior, Nutr. Prog. News, July·Aug. 1969, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washin gton, D.C. Some points considered by this general rev iew of the subject are: the behavioral sciences' recognition of cultural aspects of food, forma· tion of food habits, cultural ava il ability of food and the applied sc ience of cha ngi ng food habits. Food Getting and Preparation, Social Status of Food , Ceremonial Foods, Eating Patterns

42 I Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION

Winton, M., Nutritional adaptation of some Colombian Indians, Amer. J . Phys. Anthropol., 32:293·297, 1970. Seven groups of Colom. bian Indians, compared on the basis of information available, depend on agriculture for a substantial portion of their diet. This report suggests a f romework for future studies of the effect of nutrition on human evolution. Food Getting and Preparation, Food Habits and Nutritional Status

Economic Aspects of Nutrition Dove, W . F., A study of the relation of man and of animals to the

environment; Food as a commodity for exchange and its relation to malnutrition, BioI. Lab. Pap. No. 239, Maine Agric . Exp. Sta . Bull. 405, pp. 441 ·458, 1940·41. Whe reas food produced must g ive an economic ret urn to the producer as we ll as nutri e nts to the consume r and physi. ologic needs ca nnot be ex pressed in terms of market demand, the au thor proposed a term for foods that meet both needs : og gridant. Those who eat them are characterized by a higher productive long life using the food energy efficiently. Th ese must be marketable foods thot al so meet the nutrient and palatability needs of the region where they are produced as well as balanci ng agriculture. The paper reviews crops which might meet these definitio ns for Maine. Food Selection, Food Habits and Nutritional Status, Taste

Eggan, F. and Pijoan, M., Some problems in the study of food and nutrition, America I ndigena, 3 :9·22, 1943 . Socia l and economic data are necessary fo r full understand ing of nutritional problems of II group. Some of th ese are land tenure , crops and agriculture, domestic animals, wild foods, and social and econo mic organization of the group. Col· labo ra ti on of both anthropologist and physicia n i s importa nt; both kinds of knowledge are needed to propose rem edial measures. Ch anging food habits is a slow process. Wh e re food is a symbol of social status, it is difficult to get accurate info rmation of foods eaten. Food Getting and Preparation, Infant and Child Feeding, Directing Change, Taboos, Food Sharing

G eig er, T., Modernization in Africa: Realities and misconception., Int. Dev. Rev., 4 (No.4) : 13· 1 S, 1962. Prob lems of tra nsformation of th e rural socie ty and economy with special reference to the cultural essence of the African. Presently, the subsistence ogricultures have low produc­t ivi ty so the region has little money for investment. It is wasteful to start programs to change traditiona l patte rns when there is little research on their motivations o r whether pro posals wi ll stimula te self.help. Food Getting, Directing Change

Henry, J., The economics of Pilaga food distribution, Amer. Ant hro · pol., 53:187·219, 1951. Th ese South American Indians' economic acts are measured in terms of receiv in g an d giving food. Their solu tio n is poor and inefficient, placing heavy burdens on productive peopl e with· o ut g uaranteeing them equal returns. Sharing is socially IIpproved be· yond the kin group. The basic fo od s set the soci al bo nd s and tensio ns . Food Gifts and Sharing, Food Getting, Social Role of Food

Oshima, H. T., Food consumption, nutrition, and economic develop­ment in Asian countries, Econ. Dev. and Cult. Change, 15:385·397, 1967. The author hypothesizes that food intake for the majority of work­ing Asia ns is less than optimal for energy output needed to improve economic productivity a mong their agriculturists. He proposes incrells­ing c rop production by greater use of fertilizer along with multiple c ropping to make more fo od available to the people. Food Habits and Nutritional Status, Food Getting

Queen, G. S., Culture, economics and food habits, J. Amer. Dietet. Assn., 33: 1 044·1 052, 1957. Th e author's thesis is that econ omics rather than culture is the predomina nt influence in determining food habits. People eat what is locally ava ilab le, carry old food habits to a new home and then gradually confo rm to new resources. Food habits orig . inate in what is ava ilable. but sociology comes second. Food Selection, Food Getting

Sharman, A., Nutrition and social planning, J. Dev. Stud ., 6 :77·91, 1970. An a nthropo logica l study of the nutritio n of the people of West Buda ma County, Eastern Uganda. from the economic point of view which demonstrates that child maln utrition may be as important a result of domestic organization of the housewife's time-leaving insufficient tim e for attention to meal preparation a nd child feeding-as to poverty per se. These people's prefe re nce rankin g of staples and relishes were approximately in the order of their protein content. Some food beliefs are cited. Infant and Child Feeding, Food Preferences, Food Beliefs

VOL. 5, NO. I, SUPPLEMENT I, JAN .. MARCH, 1973

Steward, J. H., Ed., Contemporary Change in Traditional Societies; Vol. I, Introduction and Africa; Vol. II, Asian Rural Societies; Vol. III, Mexican and Peruvian Communities, University of Illinois Press, Urbona, III., 1967, How changes came to specific communities in these areas or if they did. Except for fiestas, food is considered chiefly in the economic sense in these studies by social anthropologists. Feasting, Ceremonial Foods

Wittfogel, K. A., Food and society in China and India, in Human Nutrition, Historic and Scientific, Galdston, I., Ed., New York Academy of Medicine, New York, 1960. Descriptions of the agriculture of these "hydraulic societies" with some comments on their economic status and diet, food preferences and avoidances. Land reform in Taiwan has pro­duced profits being spent on protein foods. Effects of state-planned agriculture and public eating canteens in mainland China are described. Changes of Food Habits, Food Preferences, Food Beliefs and Taboos

Social Role of Food Bateson, G. and Mead, M., Balinese Character. A photographic analy­

sis, New York Academy of Sciences, New York, 1942. Eating is accom­panied by shame, done quickly and in silence. Other aspects discussed -wit.h illustrations-include food offerings, food preparation, scaveng­ing, suckling, and drinking water. Eating snacks and drinking are done casually without shame. Eating Patterns, Infant and Child Feeding, Food Getting and Preparation, Religion and Other Rituals

Bell, F. L. S., The place of food in the social life of the Tanga, Oce­ania, 19:51-74, 1948. These people's most important item of wealth is food. Nothing social can be done without eating. Its sacredness is ob­served by rituals and taboos. Everyone is obliged to share food from his earliest days. Grief is expressed by radical alteration of diet to foods which do not give pleasure. Earlier issues of this journal contain other papers by the author on the food resources of the Tangll and are cited in the bibliography. Feasting, Fasting and Hunger, Food Sym­bolism, Food Gifts and Sharing, Priorities of Food Distribution, Food Getting and Preparation, Economic Aspects of Nutrition, Sacralization

Bossard, J. H. S., Family table talk-an area for sociological study, Amer. Sociol. Rev., 8:295-301, 1943. Family table talk is an essential part of the process of introducing the child to its society and defining every­one's role in it. The family at ease in this situation interacts to develop personality traits and transmit the culture effectively in this setting. Meals have different values, depending on the social status of the fam­ily. Social Status of Food, Meal Patterns

Fortes, M. a nd Fortes, S. L., Food in the domestic economy of the Tallensi, Africa, 9:237-276, 1936. For this tribe living just north of the White Volta River, a man's granary is his most private possession. They have several staples, and men and women share in agricu!tural work. Food is exchanged. Meat is not food but gluttony, eaten at feasts. Also given are children's foods, menus and recipes, food distribution to family members, and taboos. Food Getting and Preparation, Food Gifts and Sharing, Cultural Superfoods, Feasting, Fasting and Hunger, Food Beliefs and Taboos, Foods for Special Age Statuses, Priorities of Food Distribution

Furnas, C. C. and Furnas, S. M., Man, Bread and Destiny, Reynal and Hitchcock, New York, 1937. A book about the role of diet in man's life. Bizarre food choices of many peoples and other dietary oddities are presented. Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices, Food Preferences, Cuisines

Garine, I. de, Food is not just something to eat, Ceres, 4:46-51, 1971. The sociocultural symbolism of food and food habits as seen by II

French ethnographer and compared for different cultures. Every society chooses what it considers edible. Taboos are logical and relate to social integration. Food gifts and sharing, food's role in rituals, prestige through food, the sacralization of food, and food and the supernatural are discussed. Western man's desacralization of food is also considered. Food Symbolism, Food Selection, Food Beliefs and Taboos, Food Gifts and Sharing, Social Status of Food, Feasting and Fasting, Religion and Other Rituals, Sacralization

Hogbin, I., A Guadalcanal Society. The Kaoka speakers, Holt, Rine­hart and Winston, New York, 1964. Although not so singled out, food is an integral part of the culture of these agriculturists as observed for nearly three decades by an Australian anthropologist. Food Getting and Preparlltion

VOL. 5, NO. I, SUPPLEMENT I, JAN,-MARCH, 1973

Jerome, N. W., American culture and food habits, in Dimensions of Nutrition, pp. 223-234, Proc. of Colo. Dietet. Assoc. Conference, Colo­rado Associated Universities Press, Boulder, Colo., 1969. People com­municate who they are by the way they use food. Some basic cultural themes so expressed in the United States are: individualism, democracy, capitalism, pluralism, industrialism, leisure, youthfulness. Leisure, for example, is expressed via use of restaurants, snacks or finger foods. Food Symbolism, Food Preferences, Food Ways

Knutson, A. L., The Individual, Society and Health, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1965. Social factors-including values, attitudes and beliefs, motivation, socialization-as related to health behavior. Chapter 10 deals with the meaning of food which varies with the socio­cultural group and has much to do with what is available. Also discussed is the relation of food to the life cycle, work, social organization, per­sonality development, and symbolic uses of food. Changes in form of a food may change its meaning. Food Beliefs, Psychologic Aspects, Be­havior and Emotions, Food Symbolism

Lee, D., Food and human existence, Nutr. News, 25 (No.3) :9-10, Od. 1962. The supra nutritional (cultural) meanings of food to people, in­cluding food gifts and sharing, ceremonies, food cuisines, by an anthro­pologist. Food Gifts and Sharing, Cuisines, Religion and Other Rituals

Lee. R. B., Eating Christmas in the Kalahari, Natur. Hist., 78INo.10): 14-22, Dec. 1969. Since the 1930s, t.he African Bushmen have adopted enough of Christmas to have a special feast and dance. The author de­scribes the criticism and insults to which he was subjected after he donated the beast and the culturally necessary reason for them to do this to keep the provider (usually the killer) of the meat from becoming too arrogant. Taste, Ceremonial Foods, Feasting, Food Gifts and Sharing

Leininger, M., Some cross-cultural universal and non-universal func­tions, beliefs, and practices of food, in Dimensions of Nutrition, pp. 173-179, Proc. of Colo. Dietet. Assoc. Confer., Colorado Associated Universities Press, Boulder, Colo., 1969. Food is used to provide energy and satisfy hunger, initiate and maintain interpersonal relations, express religious ideas, for prestige, to help cope with psychological stresses, reward or punish, influence political status of a group, and to treat and prevent behavior deviations. The last includes taboos, supernatural be­liefs and magic, and the way food is served. Social Status of Food, Re­ligion and Other Rituals, Ceremonial Foods, Behavior and Emotions, Food Beliefs and Taboos, Magie, Cuisines

Lessa, W. A., Ulithi. A Micronesian design for living, Holt. Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1966. The first chapter of this ethnographic study of the people of an atoll in the Caroline Islands deals, among other things, with what there is to eat and what it means to these people, ending with the statement "Food plays an important part in al­most all ritualistic events and is often the only occasion for the event ... nothinq makes the people .happier than to eat or talk about eating." Food Getting and Preparation, Religion and Other Rituals, Food Sym­bolism

Linton, R., The Study of Man, An introduction, Appleton-Century­Crofts, New York, 1936. An excellent, very readable introduction to anthropology. Food in the society is discussed specifically on pp. 440 ff., but other references are scattered throughout the book. Food Ways

Loeb, M. B., The social functions of food habits, J. Appl. Nutr., 4:227-229, 1951. Nursing is a tactile, satisfying experience for both child and mother. Every group has anxieties in relation to food, some of which get expressed in taboos or rituals. The future food supply is controlled through the use of magic and religion. To break bread with another is a symbol of trust. In trying to introduce change. do not upset the social equilibrium. Commanding everyone to eat a certain thing dissipates their sense of adequacy. For more satisfactory results, try to modify rather than revolutionize, help people make their own decisions. Psychologic Aspects, Religion and Other Rituals, Food Be­liefs and Taboos, Magie, Food Symbolism, Behavior and Emotions, Eat­ing Patterns, Directing Change

Mead, M., Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies, Mentor Book, New American Library, New York, 1950. A comparative study of mountain-, rivero, and lake-dwelling tribespeople in New Guinea. For the Arapesh, "growing" food and children is their central concern. but food plays important roles in the lives of the Mungugumor and Tcham­buli as well. Infant and Child Feeding, Food Getting and Preparation, Feasting, Religion and Other Rituals

Remington, R. E., The social origins of dietary habits, Sci. Mon., 43: 193-204, 1936. With the making of the first weapons came division of labor, and hunters got the best food, though women could gather. Where hunting was precarious, women could dominate. With cooking, d new set of tastes became established. All religions were sacrificial,

Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION /43

of the best, which used to be entrails and blood, now tabooed, but may have been esteemed once. "Food likes and dislikes are taught in child­hood." Food Getting and Preparation, Taste, Self-Selection of Diets, Religion and Other Rituals, Food Beliefs and Taboos

Renaud, E. B., Influence of food on Indian culture, Soc. Forces, 10:97-101, 1931. Ethnologists divide the U.S. continent into food areas. Food is an essential in life and culture. The buffalo made all Plains Indians hunters and nomads, so they developed no pottery which would have been too heavy to carry. I nstead, they used the buffalo pouch for cook­ing which affected their cooking practices. Their psychology was shaped by their food as were their society, art and religion. Food Getting and Preparation, Religion and Other Rituals

Van Schaik, T. F. S. M., Food and nutrition relative to family life, J. Home Econ., 56:225-232, 1964. Eating and meal patterns are cul­turally determined and vary among social groups. Some regularity in them is desirable for adequate intake of nutrients. Food has cultural uses also, such as recreation or enjoyment. Meal, Diet and Eating Pat­terns, Food Habits and Nutritional Status

Whiteman, J., The function of food in society, Nutr., 20:4-8, 1966. Social functions of food include status symbol, a form of currency, cement to social relationships, aesthetic satisfaction, religious satis­faction, symbolic significance, food as medicine, recreation and legal aspects. A table illustrates how food fills some of these functions in the United States and the Trobriand Island societies. Social Status of Food, Religion and Other Rituals, Food Symbolism

Social Status of Food

/ Bennett, J. W., Food and social status in a rural society, Amer. Sociol. Rev., 8 :561-569, 1943. People living in a river-bottom area of Southern Illinois in transition between a rural, folk-sacred and an urban-secular culture developed status systems on the basis of economic level in a desire for security. Food is a status symbol of the desire to rise. Beliefs and emotional responses to these foods are analyzed for various sub­groups. There was a developed preference for food as a symbol of prestige without regard to taste. At that time, food .habits changes were very slow, due to economic deprivation and powerful traditional­izing factors although they lacked the ritualization of primitive societies. Social Status of Food, Food Symbolism, Food Beliefs, Behavior and Emotions, Food Preferences, Changes of Food Habits

Carstairs, G. M., The Twice-born. A study of a community of high­caste Hindus, Hogarth Press, London, 1957. A psychiatrist-anthropolo­gist who studied them presents "eating together" of Hindustanis as distressful to different castes. He who renounces all ties of caste can no longer eat with his kin or even enter their homes. He has left be­hind all the taboos and threatens those remaining with pollution. In social life, eating together for these people outweighs most other con­sideration. Food Symbolism, Religion and Other Rituals, Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices, Food Preferences and Aversions, Behavior and Emotions, Eating Patterns, Feasting

Cussler, M. T. and Give, M. L. de, Foods and nutrition in our rural Southeast, J. Home Econ., 35:280-282, 1943. T.here is a tendency for these people to grow cash crops, for the poor to ape higher-ups, and a preference for prestigious, store-bought foods. Food Getting

Hogbin, I., Social Change, Watts, London, 1958. Melanesians' prin­cipal wealth is food, used to advance the grower by giving more feasts with more food. Prestige can prevent change. Some examples are given of how it has been used to introduce new foods. There are many other examples of interactions of food and culture in this book that deals with social change both past and future. Directing Change, Foods for Special Statuses, Food Gifts and Sharing, Feasting, Religion and Other Rituals

Todhunter, E. N., Food, the fabric of life-facts and myths, Proc. 5th Int. Congr. Dietet., pp. 87-88, 1969. The need to understand people's emotional beliefs about the choices of foods is discussed. Perhaps we, too, classify foods as prestigious, for some particular group, ceremonial. health foods, or religious. People need to be helped to enjoy food within their own culture pattern. Food Beliefs, Behavior and Emotions, Food Selection, Ceremonial Foods

Food Symbolism Balcomb, J., Thought for food-the social and cultural aspects of

malnutrition, An interview with D. B. Jelliffe, Cajanus, V(2) :67-85, April-

44/ Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION

June 1972. People eat for symbolic rather than nutritional values. Man has cultural attitudes regarding food, including food taboos, and con­cepts of cultural "superfoods" that have mystical, historical, emotional or religious connotations. Malnutrition may result if children's diets are restricted by these food attitudes. Nutrition education must be carried out in a framework of cultural food values. Food Beliefs, Child Feeding

Lowenberg, M. E., Socio-cultural basis of food habits, Food. Technol. 24(7) :27-32, 1970. This paper reviews the principal social and cultural aspects of food habits, integral parts of any culture. Changes in them thus affect that culture and its individuals. Most foods are defined as edible by everyone, but each group differs in those it takes to itself. Some foods symbolize security, others status, still others are thought of as things to have for lunch. Social Status of Food, Cuisines, Changes of Food Habits

Mead, M., Dietary patterns and food habits, J. Amer. Dietet. Assn., 19: 1-5, 1943. Habits are not just things to make or break; food has a special role in emotional disturbances or other problems, echoed in cultures other than our own. Food eaten in pleasant childhood sur­roundings becomes a symbol of them. A U.S. child is presented with "right" and "wrong" foods, is rewarded for eating the former. This sets up permanent conflict in the child who must decide between doing right and enjoyment. Simpler societies set food out, and the child copies what the mother takes. Food Preferences, Food Habits Problems, Be­havior and Emotions, Child Feeding

Mead, M" The factor of food habits, Ann. Amer. Acad. Pol it. Sci. Sociol., 225:136-141, 1943. Food habits are an aspect of individual be­havior, subject to change, characteristically selected out by parents, teachers and others to be commented on in terms of change. Possible changes are: morally dictated (what's good for you), socially desirable, scientifically sanctioned and forced changes. Of the last, lowered eco­nomic status is perceived as deprivation. Changes of Food Habits, Be­havior and Emotions, Social Status of Food

Moore, H. B., Psychologic facts and dietary fancies, J. Amer. Dietet. Assn., 28:789-794, 1952. Food as a symbol is viewed by a psychologist. Milk expresses home to soldiers under stress. Appetite under stress often reverts to the familiar, bland foods of childhood. Even people who don't overeat use food as a pleasure substitute. Magical meanings of food include: gland meats thought to be less energy-giving than muscles. Housewives withhold love when they serve liver or spinach. Foods are also indicators of sophistication. Food Beliefs, Behavior and Emotions, Food Preferences and Aversions

Reid, M. G., Food for People, J. Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1943. The factors that shape food preferences and habits are complex. Few food attributes are universally liked or disliked. Foods are seen as symbols of status, hospitality, sacrifice, indulgence, religion. Food Preferences, Social Status of Food, Changes of Food Habits

Tremolieres, J. and Baquet, R., Le comportement alimentaire de I'homme (in French), Maroc Med., No.508, pp. 759-763, 1967. The physiologic, biochemical and psychosensory influences on man's food behavior as seen by a French nutritionist. In North Africa as elsewhere, the symbolic value of food is at least as important as the physiologic and should be taken into consideration in any planning for nutritional programs. Psychologic Aspects, Food Selection

Magic and Totems

Frazer, J. G., The Golden Bough. A study in magic and religion, Abridged, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1963. The classic an­thropological study of myth, magic and taboo in which food and food rituals playa central role. Originally published in t,hree volumes it was abridged by the author into one in 1922. No other work of its kind is so complete, encyclopedic and exhaustive. Food Symbolism, Religion and Other Rituals, Sacralization, Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices

Malinowski, B., Soil-tilling and Agricultural Rites in the Trobriand Islands. Vol. I, Coral gardens and their magic, Indiana University Press', Bloomington, Ind., 1965. Food in the social structure is described in this study of magic and ritual in all aspects of agriculture from planting to harvest. The memory of the dead for the last year is celebrated with ceremonial distribution of food. At harvest, the new crops are dis­played in neat cones. All ceremonies are "framed by decorations of food" everywhere. Feasts in this culture are large agglomerations of uncooked food later redistributed. Religion and Other Rituals, Cere­monial Foods, Feasting and Fasting, Food Getting and Preparation

*8y arrangement with George Allen Unwin Ltd.

VOL. 5, NO. I, SUPPLEMENT I, JAN.-MARCH, 1973

Malinowski, B., The Language of Magic and Gardening. Vol. II, Coral gardens and their magic, Indiana University Press*, Bloomington, Ind .. 1965. All the linguistic material collected in his study of agriculture of the Trobriand Islonders, this work presents primarily a study of linguistics, taboos, magic and rites related to gardening. Religion and Other Rituals, Food Beliefs and Taboos

Passin, H. and Bennett, J. W., Changing agricultural magic in South­ern Illinois. A systematic analysis of folk-urban transition, Soc. Forces, 22:98-106, 1943. The magic used in agriculture changed systematically in the direction of secularization, rationalization and disorganization with the change from isolation to external contoct, homogeneity to het­erogeneity, as a result of economic changes. The maqic dealt with such things as planting time, determining weather, time for slaughter, etc. Food Getting and Preparation, Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices

Read. M., Education and Social Change in Tropical Areas, Nelson, London, 1955. Common elements in peasant life in the tropics are de­pendence on and love of the land, agriculture as a livelihood and some self-sufficiency. The growing and eating of food is closely associated with magic and religion which ensures a regular, sure food supply. Food Getting and Preparation, Diet and Eating Patterns, Religion and Other Rituals

Skeat, W. W., Malay Magic. Being an introduction to the folklore and popular religion of the Malay Peninsula, Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1900; republished by Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1967. A classic reporting of the folkways of the Malays at the turn of this century by one who observed them at first hand, this book includes descriptions of food taboos, food used in ceremonies and spirit propitiations, and the rice-growing and fishing rituals which have not yet totally vanished from this land. Food Ways, Food Beliefs and Taboos, Ceremonial Foods, Religion and Other Rituals, Food Getting and Preparation, Sacralization

Religion and Other Rituals

Devadas, R. P .. Social and cultural factors influencing malnutrition, J. Home Econ., 62:164-171, 1970. There are 10 cultural bonds which should not be threatened in attempts at change. Among them are cus­toms, beliefs, traditions, attitudes and religion. Religious feasts make great contributions to diets normally poor. Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices, Social Status of Foods, Ethnic Food Classifications

Hickey, G. C., Village in Vietnam, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1964. An anthropological study of rice farmers in the Mekong Delta of South Vietnam. Diet and the role of food in rituals and feasts, food restrictions in pregnancy and postpartum, and food beliefs and taboos are included. Feasting and Fasting, Food Beliefs and Taboos, Diets for Reproducing Women

Isaac, E., Influence of religion on the spread of citrus, Science. 129:179-186, 1959. Jewish religious practices helped spread citrus fruits to the Mediterranean. Citron was essential for some of their feasts so they took it with them wherever they went. The author postulates this is the original Biblical "fruit of the goodly tree." Feasting and Fasting, Food Getting, Food Symbolism

Matter, S. l. and Wakefield, l. M., Religious influence on dietary intake and physical condition of indigent, pregnant Indian women, Amer. J. Clin. Nutr., 24:1097-1106. 1971. Three major world religions exist together in India. The effects of religious factors on dietary intake of pregnant, low-income, women outpatients (as measured by biochemi­cal and clinical status) were studied by trimester of pregnancy. Mus­lims and Christians tended to have similar dietary intakes. The Hindus, who avoid animal protein food, had the lowest nutrient intakes for pro­tein, fat, calories. and calcium. Taboos and Prejudices, Social Status of Foods, Food Beliefs

Mitchell, H. S., Rynbergen, H. J. and Anderson, L.. Regional, national and religious food patterns, Ch. II in Cooper's Nutrition in Health and Disease, 15th ed., J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1968. This chapter is devoted to regional or cultural diet and food patterns in the United States, including Jewish dietary laws, Mexican and Puerto Rican dieh, and Chinese and Japanese meals and food as adapted in the U.S. Meal, Diet and Eating Patterns, Dietary Laws, Cuisines

New, P. K.-M. and Priest, R. P., Food and thought: A sociologic study of food cultists, J. Amer. Dietet. Assn., 51: 13-18, 1967. A study of gen­eral health food users and those who follow a particular. semi-religious diet, eat a particular food, and t.he supposed benefits to be derived therefrom. Food Preferences, Ethnic Food Classifications

Rappaport, R., Pigs for the Ance~tors. Ritual in the ecology of a New Guinea people, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1967. The author has tried to show how ritual pig killing operates to keep the

• By arrangement with George Allen Unwin Ltd.

VOL. 5, NO. I, SUPPLEMENT I, JAN.-MARCH, 1973

trophic demands of these people and their pigs within the carrying capacity of their territory. This study includes a section on the nutri· tion and energy expenditure of the group. Food Habits and Nutritional Status, Food Beliefs and Taboos, Food Gifts and Sharing

Simpson, I. A, The people-Psychology in relation to food and food habits. Influence of traditional, racial and religious customs and their beliefs on food habits and nutrition, Ch. IV in Applied Nutrition in Malaya, Institute for Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1957. The effects of race, tradition and religion on the food practices of the Malays, Chinese and Indians in Malaya. Appendix II of this publication describes Maloy birth customs. Cuisines, Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prej­udices, Diets for Reproducing Women

Wagner, P. M., Food as ritual, in Food and Civilization, a symposium, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, III., 1966. The culture of food and how it pervades our lives as seen by 11 former newspoper editor. Food Sym­bolism, Food Beliefs and Taboos, Food Ways

Dietary Laws

Cassel. B., Jewish dietary laws and customs, Public Health Nurs., 32: 682-687, 1940. What foods are clean, unpure or prohibited to the Jew are described. The author feels the prohibition against mixing meat and milk in the same vessel probably originated when porous, wooden bowls were used. Yom Kippur is a fast for those over 13. There are always special Sabbath foods. Religion and Other Rituals, Ceremonial Foods, Feasting and Fasting. Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices

Korff, S. I., The Jewish dietary code, Food Technol., 20(No.7) :76-78, 1966. The only purpose of the Jewish dietary laws is to train and con· dition the human being to a pattern permitting self-sanctification. It is a communion. The required procedures for slaughtering are entrusted to those whose interest in producing Kosher meat is solely religious. Religion and Other Rituals, Food Getting and Preparation, Sacralization

McKenzie, J. c., Social and economic implications of minority food habits, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 26: 197-205, 1967. Among the groups discussed are Muslims, Jews, vegans, vegetarians, and immigrants. Minority food habits set a group apart from the community. Food may also be used in religion to preserve group unity. Religion and Other Rituals, Food Habits, Taboos and Prejudices, Food Getting and Preparation, Social Role of Food

Sakr, A. H., Dietary regulations and food habits of Muslims, J. Amer. Dietet. Assn., 58:123-126, 1971. These are described as laid down for them by the Koran and by Muhammed. No other reason than sin is given for pork avoidance. A Muslim must know the ingredients of any food before using it. Muslims are advised to eat no more than two­thirds their capacity and not to waste. Feasting and Fasting, Cuisines, Religion and Other Rituals, Food Gifts and Sharing

Sacralization

Ammar, H., Growing Up in an Egyptian Village. Silwa, Province of Aswan, Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., London, 1954. A study of social and psychological aspects of education in a village in which the autho' grew up. These people are taught from an early age to sacralize bread, not to let a crumb drop. If it does, they must pick it up and kiss it. Its name literally means "life." Food Getting and Preparation, Foods for Special Statuses, Food Preferences, Aversions and Cravings, Food Gifts and Sharing, Cultural Superfoods

Anderson, E. N., Sacred fish, Man, 4:443-449, 1969. Fish tabooed for eating are anomalous in appearance or behavior-or are very large and strong-in the view of Hongkong boat Chinese. They are not to be caught but consecrated. Since they are rare and hard to catch, they have no economic significance. Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices, Food Symbolism

Garine, I. de, The social and cultural background of food habits in developing countries, FAO Nutr, Newslett., 8 (No.1) :9-22, 1970. Socio­cultural and religious factors can be studied in food taboos and pro­hibitions. Religious aspects are particularly strong in traditional so­cieties where scientific knowledge is limited. Hazards of nature make food appear a divine gift of the gods. so it becomes sacred and power­ful. Perhaps food cults in our society are attempts to restore the sym­bolic and emotional content of food. Religion and Other Rituals, Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices, Magic, Food Getting

Mead, M., The changing significance of food, Amer. Sci., 58: 176-1 8 I, 1970. Agriculture has become not a food but an economic-crop-pro­ducing activity. Divorced from its primary significance of feeding peo­ple, agriculture loses its original significance, and the land is mined. Food, Getting, Economic Aspects of Nutrition, Food Symbolism

Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION /45

Mead, M., Changing significance of food, J. Nutr. Educ., 2: 17·19, 1970. A condensation of the paper cited immediately above.

Ceremonial Foods

Covarrubias, M., Island of Bali, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1937. A study of the culture of the Balinese by an observant artist. He includes rituals, food offerings. a section on cooking, meals, preparation of fes­tival and daily foods, food gifts. Religion and Other Rituals, Food Get­ting and Preparation, Cuisines

Ryan. N. J., The Cultural Background of the Peoples of Malaya, Long­mans of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 1961. Sections of this book on the festivals of the three races (Malay, Chinese, Hindu) found on the Malay Peninsula describe food use for special occasions. Religion and Other Rituals

Valassi, K. V., Food habits of Greek-Americans, Amer. J. Clin. Nutr., II :240-248, 1962. Food is the primary object for which Greeks spend willingly. A meal is a family ritual and medium of hospitality. Ordinary meals are simple but for holidays and special occasions there are many delicacies. Food Gifts and Sharing, Cuisines, Food Preparation, Eating Patterns, Feasting and Fasting, Food Preferences

Yang, M. C .. A Chinese Village: Taitou, Shantung Province, Columbia University Press, New York, 1945. An anthropological study of a rural, agricultural village in mainland China in t.he 1940s describes foods of feasts and ordinary meals of various economic classes throughout the year. Celebration foods are expensive and difficult to make. Mooncakes are a special food for religious festivals. The farewell offering to the kitchen gods is a sweet made of glutinous rice to glut their lips and prevent them from speaking badly. Feasting and Fasting, Religion and Other Rituals, Priorities of Food Distribution, Social Status of Food

Feasting, Fasting and Hunger

Castro, J. de, The Geography of Hunger, Little, Brown, Boston, Mass., 1952. The author believes hunger, like sex, is one of the taboo subjects. His theory is that hunger t.hrough protein lack stimulates fertility be­cause the female liver then ceases to inactivate excess estrogen. He also defines hunger as any kind of dietary lack. Self-Selection of Diets, Spon­taneous Food Habits Changes

DuBois, C., Attitudes toward food and hunger in Alor, in Language, Culture and Personality. Essays in memory of Edward Sapir, Spier, L., Hallowell. A. I. and Newman, S. S., Eds., Sapir Memorial Publication Fund. Menasha, Wis., 1941. About two weeks postpartum, the mother returns to her work in the family gardens so the new baby in this East Indian island is left to be fed by an older sibling. When a new baby replaces him. he must fend for himself and beg for .his food from the community. Thus hunger is with him from his earliest days, resulting in a fear of famine that never exists and little generosity with regard to food. Infant and Child Feeding, Priorities of Food Distribution

Fraser, T. N., Jr., Fishermen of South Thailand. The Malay villagers, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1966. The agricultural and economic life of some Malay-speaking fishing people of South Thailand. A section on fasting and feasting shows the role of food in this commu­nity. Food Getting and Preparation

Geertz. C., The Religion of Java, The Free Press of Glencoe, Collier­Macmillan, Ltd., New York, 1960. An anthropological study of a small town in East Central Java shows how the simple but formal, ritual meal -for men only-called the slametan is at the core of all social activity, being performed before any important occasion. Religion and Other Rituals

Knutssor, K. E. and Selin us, E .. Fasting in Ethiopia: An anthropologi­cal and nutritional study, Amer. J. Clin. Nutr., 23 :956-960. 1970. Fast­ing is a periodically applied taboo based on an individual's life cycle and seasonal and ritual events recurring yearly. Fasts are imposed by both Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Islam. For the former, it is un­relenting. except for pregnant and lactating women and those seriously ill. Even the food market is geared to the fast so that meat may not be available. Religion and Other Rituals, Priorities of Food Distribution, Diets for Reproducing Women, Social Status of Food

Pfeffer. K. H., The sociology of nutrition, malnutrition, and hunger in developing countries, in Food Cultism and Nutrition Quackery, Sym­posia of the Swedish Nutrition Foundation VIII, Blix, G., Ed., pp. 30-33, Swedish Nutrition Foundation, Uppsala, Sweden, 1970. Social causes of malnutrition and undernutrition in the developing world are reviewed. Food Habits Problems

46/ Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION

Powdermaker, H., Feasts in New Ireland; the social function of eating, Amer. Anthropol., 34:236-247, 1932. Feasts are given to maintain pres­tige, transact trade, strengthen and transmit systems of organized emo­tional tendencies from one generation to another. Communal eating maintains the cohesion of the society and determines the relation of the individual to it. Social Status of Food, Food Gifts and Sharing, Food Beliefs and Taboos

Richards, A. I., Hunger and Work in a Savage Tribe. A functional study of nutrition among the Southern Bantu, The Free Press, Glencoe, III., 1948. A classic study, probably the first of its kind, of the central role of food in a society. The lives and society of these people are described in terms of nutritional relationships with food as the focus. This excellent study, first published in 1932, is the more remarkable for being based primarily on published literature about the lives of the people concerned. Social Role of Food, Sacralization, Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices, Taste, Meal, Diet and Eating Patterns, Food Getting and Preparation

Sorokin, P. A., Man and Society in Calamity, E. P. Dutton, New York. 1942. Famine changes the amount of time given to food-seeking, inhibit· ing other activities and stimulating antisocial ones. The effects of this and other calamities on emotions, mind, vital processes, economics and social organization, and cultural life are reviewed. Food Getting and Preparation, Social Role of Food

Taylor. D .. The meaning of dietary and occupational restrictions among the Island Carib, Amer. Anthropol., 52:343-349, 1950. Carib Indian males undergo a kind of couvade: fathers fasting before and after the baby's birth, then eating only cassava or cassava beer for 1 to 2 [T',onths. Fasting for similar periods is also part of mourning. There are various other dietary taboos for women in childbirth and menstrua­tion. All the restrictions are done to protect t.he living. Food Beliefs, Taboos and Prejudices, Magic, Diets for Reproducing Women

Food Gifts and Sharing

Fathauer, G. H .. Food habits-an anthropologist's view, J. Amer. Dietet. Assn., 37:335-338, 1960. Food is defined culturally and has sym­bols for people similar to religion. Food sharing symbolizes social in­timacy and acceptance. This paper discusses the best ways to approach attempts at change. Food Symbolism, Directing Change, Meal Patterns

Gerlach, L. P., Socio-cultural factors affecting the diet of the North­east Coastal Bantu, J. Amer. Dietet. Assn., 45:420-424, 1964. Food is distributed among these agriculturists by an extensive gift exchange and reciprocal aid, sharing at feasts, and trading. These methods, work­ing together, aSsure that fishermen get garden produce and farmers get fish. Food Getting and Preparation, Feasting, Food Beliefs and Taboos

Kavanagh, M., Food-sharing behavior within a group of Douc mon­keys (Pygathrix nemaeus nemaeus). Nature, 239-406. Oct. 13. 1972. Observations of Douc mon keys suggest that food sharing may be an older primate characteristic than had been generally believed previous­ly. Active sharing behavior may have been part of man's ancestors' way of life long before hunting and gathering were adopted. Food Getting

Kearney, M., The Winds of Ixtepeji, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New York, 1972. An anthropologic study of Zapotec Indians living in a moun­tain village of Oaxaca, Mexico, includes data on food production, diet and how eating is done. The author sees food sharing as a means of social self-defense, as well as fulfilling reciprocal social obligations. Food Getting and Preparation, Social Status of Food

Mauss, M., Introduction a I'oeuvre de Marcel Mauss (in French), in Sociologie et Anthropologie, Levi-Strauss, C., Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1966. Discussion of the work of one of the earliest ethnog· raphers to study the whole culture. the whole man. Exchange is the common denominator for many apparently heterogeneous social activi­ties. Food Symbolism

Newman. P. L .. Knowing the Gururumba, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New York, 1965. Sharing and exchange of food and other items of value play important roles in the culture and life of these highland New Guinea people as viewed by an American ethnographer. For nonanthro­pologists, this book could serve as a good introduction to how profes­sionals go about carrying out such a study. Food Symbolism, Food Get­ting and Preparation, Feasting, Fasting and Hunger

Shack, D. N., Nutritional processes and personality among the Gurage of Ethiopia, Ethnol., 8:292-300, 1969. A woman reincorporates herself into the community after childbirth by carrying the child from one

VOL. 5, NO.1, SUPPLEMENT I, JAN.-MARCH, 1973

house to another through the village, receiving in each a gift of food, A guest cannot refuse offered food and sometimes eats when he doesn't want it, Foods for Special Physiologic Statuses, Eating Patterns, Priori­ties of Food Distribution

Sorenson, E, R. and Gajdusek, D. C., Nutrition in the ~uru region. I. Gardening, food handling, and diet of the Fore people, Acta Trop., 26:281-330, 1969. These former cannibals of New Guinea now center their life around pig killing festivals. Formal feasts involve planning, food exc.hanges, and cooking together as a social activity. While snack­ing is accepted as natural eating according to one's impulses, much food is shared. Food Habits Changes, Feasting and Fasting, Food Get­ting and Preparation, Religion and Other Rituals

T remolieres, J., Socioeconomic implications of food habits, Proc. 1st Int. Congr. Food Sci. Technol., Vol. V, Leitch, J, M., Ed., pp. 221-234, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York, 1962. Food shared is one of the three fundamental social bonds, a natural communion. Society rests on these communions and interchange where a meal. or drink, is taken. Since the Greeks, those who have not done so have been barbarians. Priorities of Food Distribution, Changes of Food Habits, Food Taboos, Social Status of Food

Woodburn, J., An introduction to Hadla ecology, Ch, 5 in Man, the Hunter, Lee, R. B., and DeVore, I., Eds., Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago, 1968. A little-acculturated African tribe of hunter-gatherers share after each sex has eaten t.he food it obtained independently in the bush. Meat may be wasted, but it is widely distributed and rapidly consumed, Diet and Eating Patterns, Priorities of Food Distribution, Food Getting and Preparation

Ethnic Food Classifications Erhard, D., Nutrition education for the "now" generation, J. Nutr,

Educ., 2:135-139, 1971. A review of the food and eating practices and beliefs of present-day food cultists in the San Francisco Bay Area as learned by a public health nutritionist by observation and questioning of the people concerned. Food Beliefs, Feasting and Fasting, Food Habits and Nutritional Status, Food Symbolism

Jelliffe, D. B., Parallel food classification in developing and industrial­ized countries, Amer. J. Clin. Nutr., 20:279-281, 1967. Food classifica­tions are learned in early childhood by imitation and are "notoriously difficult to modify or change," The following appear to be world-wide: cultural superfoods, prestige foods, body-image foods, sympathetic magic, physiologic group foods. Cultural Superfoods, Social Status of Food, Magic, Foods for Special Physiologic Statuses.

Hot-and-cold Foods Currier, R. L., The hot-cold syndrome and symbolic balance in Mex­

ican and Spanish-American folk medicine, Ethnol., 5:251-263, 1966. A theoretical and philosophical discussion of the Latin-American folk clas­sification of foods and diseases as "hot" and "cold." The categorizations of foods into these classifications by a village in Michoacan, Mexico, are presented. Food Beliefs, Food Symbolism

VOL. 5, NO. I, SUPPLEMENT I, JAN,-MARCH, 1973

Foster, G. M., Relationships between theoretical and applied anthro­pology: A public health program analysis, Human Organ" II (No.3) :5-16, 1952. The problems created by folk beliefs regarding medicine in Latin America are discussed, These include categorizations of "hot" and "cold," as well as others. Food Beliefs, Food Symbolism

Foster, G. M., Tzinhunhan. Mexican peasants in a changing world, Little, Brown and Company, 1967. A study by an anthropologist of traditional peoples undergoing change. Chapter 3 includes a descrip­tion of usual diet and its preparation. Chapter 9 discusses the "hot" and "cold" theory of disease and the foods so classified. Food Beliefs, Food Getting and Preparation, Diet Patterns

Hart, D. Y., Bisayan Filipino and Malayan Humoral Pathologies: Folk m&dicine and ethnohistory in Southeast Asia, Southeast Asia Program Data Paper No. 76, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1969. The ",hot" and "cold" categorizations of foods and diseases in several coun­tries of Southeast Asia, including Philippine, Hindu, Burmese, Thai, Malay, Chinese and Vietnamese data. The similarity to beliefs found in Latin America is discussed. Usefully documented. Food Beliefs, Diets for Reproducing Women

Harwood, A., The hot-cold theory of disease, Implications for treat­ment of Puerto Rican patients, J. Amer. Med. Assn., 216: 1153-1158, 1971, Puerto Ricans in New York City hold the classic "hot-cold" be­liefs categorization of most Latin-Americans for food, medicine, and illness. Numerous examples are given. The author suggests ways the physician can elicit these beliefs and how to circumvent t,hem in treat­ment satisfactory to the patient. Older, less educated persons are more likely to adhere to these beliefs than younger ones. Food Beliefs, Direct­ing Change

Madsen, W., Hot and cold in the universe of San Francisco Tecospa, valley of Mexico, J. Amer. Folklore, 68:123-139, 1955. The Indians of the southern part of this valley have integrated the European "hot-cold" complex into their own system of complementary opposites, w.hich they believe antedates God. "Hot" and "cold" are determined by exposure to water or sun. Cooking changes extreme ratings to moderate. Even souls and supernatural beings have "hot-cold" classifications. Food Be­liefs, Food Preparation

Mazess, R. B., Hot-cold food beliefs among Andean peasants, J. Amer. Dietet. Assn., 53:109-113, 1968. Attitudes of Andean Indians toward foods in health and illness are presented in the framework of the "hot­cold" food beliefs system common throughout much of Latin America. As is true of other groups holding these beliefs, certain greens are thought "cold" and .harmful to health, leading to vitamin A deficiency in the diet. Food Beliefs, Food Habits and Nutritional Status

Redfield, R., Culture changes in Yucatan, Amer. Anthropol., 36:57-69, 1934. The "hot" and "cold" foods, medicines, lands, and peoples in Yucatan are discussed. The author, studying current change, found ritual dying out with only the forms maintained. Religion and Other Rituals

Saunders, L., Cultural Difference and Medical Care; the case of the Spanish-spea~in9 people of the Southwest, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1954. In "Healing ways," Ch. 4, Mexican and Spanish-Amer­ican folk medicine and the relation to it of "hot" and "cold" and other foods are discussed, especially the use of food as medical treatment. Food Beliefs

Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION /47