Food Flavorings

Food Flavorings Second edition

Edited by

P .R. ASHURST Dr P.R. Ashurst and Associates

Kingstone Hereford

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

First edition 1991 Reprinted 1995 Second edition 1995

© 1991 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & HalI in 1991 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1991

Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by Colset Private Ltd, Singapore.

ISBN 978-1-4613-5903-6 ISBN 978-1-4615-2161-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2161-7

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 94-78406

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Preface

The need for a further edition of a book is gratifying for contributors and editor alike. When faced with the corresponding challenge to identify what has changed in one sector of a particular industry, however, initial enthusiasm frequently declines. Nowhere is this more evident than in this book on food flavourings, because the industry still remains the tantalising blend of art, science and technology that was alluded to in the first edition. Instrumentation and analytical skills can now identify flavour components down to nanogram and picogram concentrations and yet the skilled flavourist is often still able to defeat this scientific ability.

Many parts of the food industry, and in particular the more traditional outlets such as baking and confectionery, use flavours and methods of application that have changed little in fifty years. At the other end of the spectrum, advanced synthetic chemistry methods and computer-controlled natural product processes can give the flavour industry a greater selection of higher quality materials than ever before.

The industry itself has, in recent years, undergone many commercial changes, and in the U.K. some manufacturers' names known for a century or more have disappeared to become part of larger corporate entities. Flavours are for the first time controlled, albeit in a small way, by statute based on a European Directive.

The emphasis, too, has changed with the impact of worldwide recession on the industries using flavours. Harder competition, reduced margins and the demand for shorter lead times made by reduced stocks are all inexorably making the flavour industry concentrate on quality of manufacture and service.

This revised volume mirrors many of these aspects. The first chapter, a new contribution, deals with the issue of quality systems in the flavour industry, whilst Chapters 2 to 4 dealing with raw materials are updated versions of those appearing in the first edition. Chapters 5 and 6 remain substantially as they originally appeared, whilst the flavourings for both bakery and confectionery have been condensed into a single new chapter.

Chapter 8 deals with savoury flavours for snack foods and is a welcome addition, to overcome an obvious weakness of the first edition. The chapters on dairy flavourings and thermal reaction flavourings are also updated.

Overall, the book will remain of wide interest to the flavour industry and all who are concerned in any way with the application, manufacture and

vi PREFACE

analysis of flavouring. I am again very grateful to the contributors who have been tolerant of my editorial pressures on them. Although this book is the work of those authors alone, I accept full responsibility for its short­comings and it is to be hoped the reader will find it both an interesting and informative companion.

P.R.A.

Contributors

P.R. Ashurst Dr P.R. Ashurst and Associates, Unit 5, Gooses Foot Estate, Kingstone, Hereford HR2 9HY, UK

D.G. Ashwood Burtons Gold Medal Biscuits, Blackpool, Lancashire, UK

D. Bahri Givaudan Aromen GmbH, D-4600 Dortmund, Germany

D.C.F. Church D.C. Flavours Ltd, Stephenson Road, Gorse Lane Industrial Estate, Clacton-on-Sea, Essex C0154XA, UK

H. Kuentzel Givaudan Research Company, CH-8600 Dubendorf, Switzerland

D.V. Lawrence Flavex Ltd, Gooses Foot Estate, Kingstone, Hereford HR29HY, UK

A.C. Matthews Net Consultancy, Cinderford, Gloucestershire, UK

C.G. May H.E. Stringer & Co. Ltd, Tring, Hertfordshire, UK

D.A. Moyler H.E. Daniel Ltd, Tunbridge Wells, UK

D.R. Page The Duckworth Group, Old Trafford, Manchester, M169HJ, UK

R.B. Taylor Borthwicks Flavours Ltd, Denington Estate, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire NN82QJ, UK

G. White The Edlong Company Ltd, 7 Anson Road, Martlesham Heath, Ipswich, Suffolk IP57RG, UK

S. White The Edlong Company Ltd, 7 Anson Road, Martlesham Heath, Ipswich, Suffolk IP57RG, UK

J. Wright Bush Boake Allen Ltd, Blackhorse Lane, London E175QP, UK

Contents

1 The control of quality in the manufacture of flavourings 1 D.R. PAGE

1.1 Introduction 1.2 Preamble to the System of Quality 1 1.3 Organisation to Achieve BS 5750 Accreditation 3

1.3.1 Commitment is Mandatory 3

1.3.2 The Driver 3

1.3.3 Management Project Team 3

1.3.4 Dedicated Word Processor 3

1.3.5 Quality Manager 3

1.3.6 Communication 4 1.4 BS 5750 Specification, Production and Installation 4

1.4.1 Introduction 4 1.4.2 Quality System Requirements 5

1.5 The Detail 9 1.5.1 Departmental Manuals 10

1.5.2 Management Responsibility 10

1.5.3 Responsibility and Authority 10 1.5.4 The Policy Manual 10

1.5.5 Quality System 11

1.5.6 Contract Review 12 1.5.7 Document Control 13 1.5.8 Purchasing 14 1.5.9 Purchaser-Supplied Product 15 1.5.10 Product Identification and Traceability 15 1.5.11 Process Control 15 1.5.12 Inspection and Testing 16 1.5.13 Inspection, Measuring and Test Equipment 17 1.5.14 Inspection and Test Status 17 1.5.15 Control of Non-Conforming Products 18 1.5.15 Corrective Action 18 1.5.16 Handling, Storage, Packing and Delivery 19 1.5.17 Quality Records 19 1.5.18 Internal Quality Audits 20 1.5.19 Training 21

1.6 The Assessment 21

x CONTENTS

1.6.1 Outline 21 1.6.2 The Pre-assessment 22

1.7 Conclusion 23 Note 24

2 Essential oils 25 J. WRIGHT 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 The Production of Essential Oils 25

2.2.1 Steam Distillation 25 2.2.2 Water Distillation 26 2.2.3 Dry Distillation Methods 27 2.2.4 Expression of Oils 27 2.2.5 Extraction 27

2.3 Further Processing of Essential Oils 27 2.3.1 Rectification 28 2.3.2 Washed Oils 29 2.3.3 Oil Quality 29

2.4 The Uses of Essential Oils 30 2.5 The Composition of Essential Oils 30

2.5.1 Bitter Almond Oil 31 2.5.2 Bergamot Oil 31 2.5.3 Buchu Leaf Oil 36 2.5.4 Cassia Oil 36 2.5.5 Cinnamon Oil 37 2.5.6 Clove Oil 38 2.5.7 Coriander Oil 39 2.5.8 Cornmint Oil 40 2.5.9 Cumin Seed Oil 41 2.5.10 Davana Oil 41 2.5.11 Dill Oil 41 2.5.12 Eucalyptus Oil 42 2.5.13 Garlic Oil 42 2.5.14 Ginger Oil 43 2.5.15 Grapefruit Oil 44

2.5.16 Jasmin Concrete and Absolute 44

2.5.17 Lemongrass Oil 45 2.5.18 Lemon Oil 46 2.5.19 Lime Oil 47 2.5.20 Litsea Cubeba Oil 48 2.5.21 Nutmeg Oil 49 2.5.22 Peppermint Oil 50 2.5.23 Rose Oil 51 2.5.24 Rosemary Oil 52

CONTENTS xi

2.5.25 Spearmint Oil 53 2.5.26 Star Anise Oil 53 2.5.27 Sweet Orange Oil 54 2.5.28 Tangerine Oil 56 2.5.29 Thyme Oil 57

3 Oleo resins, tinctures and extracts 58 D.A. MOYLER

3.1 Introduction 58 3.1.1 General Comments 58 3.1.2 Costs 58 3.1.3 Raw Materials and Processes 58

3.2 Plant Materials 60

3.2.1 Origin 60 3.2.2 Crop to Crop Variations 60

3.2.3 Storage 61 3.2.4 Yield 61 3.2.5 Degradation 62 3.2.6 Preparation of Plant Material 62 3.2.7 Vanilla Bean Curing (Classical Method) 63

3.3 Solvents 68 3.3.1 Polarity 69 3.3.2 Boiling Point 69 3.3.3 Viscosity 69 3.3.4 Latent Heat of Evaporation 70 3.3.5 Temperature/Pressure 70

3.4 Tinctures 70 3.4.1 Water Infusions 70 3.4.2 Alcoholic Tinctures 72

3.5 Oleoresins 72

3.5.1 Solvents 73 3.5.2 Solubility 73 3.5.3 Commercial Solvent Extraction System 74

3.6 Absolutes 77

3.6.1 Solvents 77 3.7 Extraction with Carbon Dioxide as a Solvent 78

3.7.1 Introduction 78 3.7.2 Sub critical CO2 79 3.7.3 SupercriticalC02 80

3.8 Summary 83

xii CONTENTS

4 Fruit juices 8S P.R. ASHURST and R.B. TAYLOR

4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Fruit processing 86

4.2.1 General Considerations 86 4.2.2 Soft Fruit Processing 88

4.3 Specialised Fruit Processing 91 4.3.1 Citrus 91 4.3.2 Comminuted Citrus Bases 92 4.3.3 Pineapple Juice 93 4.3.4 Processes Requiring Heat 94

4.4 Products and Packaging 94 4.4.1 Frozen Juices 95 4.4.2 Aseptic Packaging 96 4.4.3 Self-Preserved Juice 96 4.4.4 Preserved Juice 97 4.4.5 Hot Pack Products 97

4.5 Product Specifications 97 4.5.1 Soluble Solids Content 98 4.5.2 Titratable Acidity 99 4.5.3 Brix/ Acid Ratio 100 4.5.4 Other Specifications 101 4.5.5 Juice Adulteration 103 4.5.6 Specifications for Essence/Volatiles/Citrus Oils 104

4.6 Volatile Components of Fruit Juices 106 4.6.1 Production 106 4.6.2 Composition of Fruit Juice Volatile Fractions III

4.7 The Use of Fruit Juices in Flavourings 113 4.7.1 Fruit Juice Compounds 113 4.7.2 Flavourings ll4

4.8 Summary ll5

S Synthetic ingredients of food flavourings 116 H. KUENTZEL and D. BAHRI

5.1 General Aspects ll6 5.1.1 Introduction, Definitions and Documentation ll6 5.1.2 Flavour Generation ll8 5.1.3 Flavour Analysis 122 5.1.4 Flavour Manufacture 123 5.5.5 Composition and Formulation 124

5.2 Synthetic Flavour Ingredients 126 5.2.1 Classification 126

CONTENTS xiii

5.2.2 The Flavour Wheel 126

5.2.3 The Different Flavour Notes 127

5.3 Synthetic Flavour Ingredients and the Future 157

6 Beverages flavourings and their applications 160 A.C. MATTHEWS

6.1 Introduction 160

6.2 Categories of Beverages 161

6.3 Types of Flavourings for Beverages 162

6.4 Methods of Extraction, Solubilisation and Concentration of Flavourings 163

6.4.1 Extraction of Coffee Flavour and Manufacture of the Instant Product 163

6.4.2 Flavourings Extracted from Harvested Fruits 164

6.4.3 Extraction Use of Oil Soluble Flavourings 165

6.5 Beverages Based on Ginger 166

6.5.1 Manufacture of Ginger Extract 167

6.5.2 'Original' (hot) Ginger Ale 168

6.5.3 'American' or 'Pale' Ginger Ale 170

6.6 Formulation of Beverages 173

6.6.1 General Principles 173

6.6.2 Principal Components Used in the Formulation of Beverages 175

6.6.3 Label Claims 178

6.6.4 Sweetness/ Acid Ratio 179

6.6.5 Alcoholic Components 180 6.6.6 Water 180

6.6.7 Characterising Ingredients 181

6.6.8 Other Ingredients 183

6.6.9 Acidulants and Acidity Regulators 184

6.7 Summary 186

7 The flavouring of confectionary and bakery products 187 D.V. LAWRENCE and D.O. ASHWOOD

7.1 Introduction to Confectionery Flavourings 187

7.2 Basic Confectionery Types, Recipes, Inherent Flavours 189

7.2.1 High Boilings (Hard Candy) 189

7.2.2 Fat Boilings 191 7.2.3 Toffees and Caramels 194

7.2.4 Fudge 196 7.2.5 Fondant 196

7.2.6 Candy 198

xiv CONTENTS

7.2.7 Cream and Lozenge Paste 198 7.2.8 Compressed Tablets 199 7.2.9 Jellies and Gums 200 7.2.10 Chewing Gum 202 7.2.11 Panned Work 203 7.2.12 Chocolate 204

7.3 Flavours from Ingredients 207

7.4 Flavours Developed During Processing 207 7.5 Selection of Flavourings 208 7.6 Ingredients of Bakery Products 212

7.6.1 Flour 212 7.6.2 Sugars 212 7.6.3 Fats 213 7.6.4 Liquids 213 7.6.5 Gases 214 7.6.6 Other (Minor) Ingredients 215

7.7 Bakery Products 215 7.7.1 Bread 215 7.7.2 Hot Plate Goods 216 7.7.3 Morning Goods 216 7.7.4 Powder Goods 217 7.7.5 Biscuits 217 7.7.6 Cakes 218 7.7.7 Baking Process 219

7.8 Bakery Fillings 221 7.8.1 Jams and Jellies 221 7.8.2 Marshmallow 221 7.8.3 Creams 221 7.8.4 Biscuit Creams 222 7.8.5 Icings 222

7.9 Summary of Flavouring Characteristics 223

8 Savoury flavours for snacks and crisps 224 D.C.F. CHURCH

8.1 Introduction 224 8.2 History of Savoury Flavours for Snacks and Crisps

(Potato Chips) 224 8.3 Snacks 225

8.3.1 Savoury Biscuits 225 8.3.2 Market Separation 225 8.3.3 Potato Crisps/Chips 226 8.3.4 Extruded Maize Snacks 226 8.3.5 Fried Snacks 226

CONTENTS xv

8.3.6 Nuts 227 8.3.7 Tortilla Snacks 227 8.3.8 Snack Biscuits 227

8.4 Basic Recipes for Crisps and Snack Savoury Flavours 227 8.4.1 Salt and Vinegar Flavour 227 8.4.2 Cheese and Onion Flavour 228 8.4.3 Smoky Bacon Flavour 228 8.4.4 Beefy Barbecue Flavour 228 8.4.5 Cheese Flavour (for Corn Curls) 229 8.4.6 Paprika Flavour 229

8.5 Ingredients for Savoury Flavours 229 8.5.1 Production Methods 229 8.5.2 Quality Systems and Methods 231

8.6 Major Raw Materials and Ingredients used in Powder Savoury Flavour Blends 231 8.6.1 Acids and Acidity Regulators 231 8.6.2 Anti-Caking Agents 231 8.6.3 Colours 235 8.6.4 Carriers and 'Fillers' 235 8.6.5 Dairy Powders 235 8.6.6 Fat Powders 236 8.6.7 Flavour Enhancers 236 8.6.8 Flavourings 236 8.6.9 Herbs and Spices 236 8.6.10 Hydrolysed Vegetable Proteins 236 8.6.11 Salt 237 8.6.12 Sweeteners 237 8.6.13 Vegetable Powders 237 8.6.14 Vitamins 237 8.6.15 Yeast and Yeast Extracts 237 8.6.16 Pre-Extrusion Flavours 238

8.7 New Developments and Trends 238 8.8 Conclusion 239

9 Dairy flavourings 240 S. WHITE and G. WHITE

9.1 Introduction 240 9.1.1 History of Animal Milks as a Human Food

Source 241 9.1.2 The Development of Flavour in Dairy Products 241 9.1.3 Instrumental Analysis 241 9.1.4 The Development and Uses of Dairy

Flavourings 242

xvi CONTENTS

9.2 Milk and Cream 244 9.2.1 Whole Cows' Milk 244 9.2.2 Whole Milk Powder 246 9.2.3 Skimmed Milk 246 9.2.4 Sterilised Milk 246 9.2.5 UHT Milk 246 9.2.6 Evaporated and Sweetened Condensed Milk 247 9.2.7 Cream 247 9.2.8 Sterilised Cream 247 9.2.9 Clotted Cream 247 9.2.10 Casein 248 9.2.11 Whey 248 9.2.12 The Applications of Milk and Cream

Flavourings 248 9.2.13 The Development of Milk and Cream

Flavourings 249 9.3 Yogurt and Fermented Products 250

9.3.1 Yogurt 250 9.3.2 Other Fermented Milk Products 254

9.4 Butter 255 9.4.1 Sweet Cream Butter 256 9.4.2 Cultured Cream Butter (Lactic Butter) 256 9.4.3 Ghee 256 9.4.4 The Flavour of Butter 257 9.4.5 The Uses of Butter Flavourings 258 9.4.6 Margarine and Low-Fat Spreads 259 9.4.7 The Development of Butter Flavourings 259

9.5 Cheese 260 9.5.1 The Manufacture of Cheese 261 9.5.2 Classification of Cheese Types 261 9.5.3 The Development of Flavour in Cheese 261 9.5.4 Review of a Range of Key Cheese Types 263 9.5.5 Related Products 271 9.5.6 Applications of Cheese Flavourings 271 9.5.7 The Development of Cheese Flavourings 273

9.6 Manufacturing Considerations 274 9.7 Conclusion 275

10 Thermal process flavourings 276 C.O. MAY

10.1 Introduction 276 10.1.1 Description and Definition 276 10.1.2 History and Necessity 277

CONTENTS xvii

10.2 Research into Beef Flavour 279

10.2.1 Reactions of the Precursors 280

10.2.2 Evolved Volatile Compounds 282

10.3 Creating a Process Flavouring 283

10.3.1 Basic or Foundation Part of the Flavouring 283

10.3.2 The Aroma Volatiles 292

10.3.3 Enhancers, Fats, Herbs and Spices 295

10.3.4 Compounding the Complete Process Flavouring 299

10.4 Applications of Process Flavourings 300

10.4.1 Simple Mixing 300

10.4.2 Application to Outside ('Dusting') 301

10.4.3 Addition During Product Manufacture 301

10.5 The Safety Question 303

10.5.1 Safety of Protein Hydrolysates 303

10.5.2 Safety of Thermal Process Flavourings 305

10.5.3 Microbiological Standards 306

10.6 Thermal Process Flavourings in the Future 307

Appendices 309

References and further reading 315

Index 325