APPROACHES, METHOD AND TECHNIQUESi) Grammar- Translation Method

ii) Direct Method

iii) Audio-lingual Method

iv) Silent Way

v) Suggestopedia

vii) Community Language Learning

vii) Total Physical Response

viii) Communicative Approach

ix) Task-based Learning

x) Lexical Approach

xi) Eclectic Approach

Second Language Learning Theories (Krashens Monitor Model)a) Acquisition Learning Hypothesis

Language acquisition (an unconscious process developed through using language meaningfully) is different from language learning (consciously learning or discovering rules about a language) and language acquisition is the only way competence in a second language occurs. Language acquisition (an unconscious process developed through using language meaningfully) is different from language learning (consciously learning or discovering rules about a language) and language acquisition is the only way competence in a second language can develop. This acquisition-focused approach sees communicative competence progressing through three stages: (a) aural comprehension, (b) early speech production, and (c) speech activities, all fostering "natural" language acquisition, much as a child would learn his/her native tongue.

Following an initial "silent period", comprehension should precede production in speech, as the latter should be allowed to emerge in natural stages or progressions.

b) Monitor Hypothesis

Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or editor that checks or repairs the output of what has been acquired Acquired system is responsible for spontaneous language use Learned system acts as a monitor

Three specific conditions: Time Focus on form Know the rule

Individual variation in monitor use:Monitor Over-users are learners who attempt monitor all the time.Monitor Under-users are learners who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge.Optimal Monitor users are learners who use the monitor appropriately. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is or should be minor.

Knowing a language rule does not mean one will be able to use it in communicative interactions (Brown, 2000). Discourage Speech is halting Focus more on accuracyWeaknessesThere is no clear evidence to show us monitor use. We are not able to determine the language that has been produced by the learned system and the acquired system (Lightbown, & Spada, 1993).

Applications to teachingProduce Optimal Monitor Users

Easy rules to remember and apply Communicative competency

c) The Natural Order Hypothesis

Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order and it does little good to try to learn them in another orderBy referring to several prior research findings by Brown, 1973; Dulay and Burt , 1974 ; Andersen, 1976; Kessler and Idar, 1977; Fabris, 1978; Christison, 1979; Makino, 1980, Krashen said that grammatical morphemes seem to be acquired in natural order. Some structures are acquired earlier and some later. Natural order is found in both language acquisition by children and adults alike. In case of L2, natural order exists regardless of the acquirers L1. Later findings show that this hypothesis is valid for other language acquisition as well.

Weaknesses of the Natural Order HypothesisThe morphemes themselves do not form any linguistic unity, so there can be no unitary hypothesis to explain why they should follow in sequence.(Mason, 2002)Any language learners behavior may vary. So a morpheme present today may disappear tomorrow. (Mason, 2002)The order may depend to some greater or lesser extent upon the situation in which the learners acquire their L2.The complexity of morphemes depends on the learners L1.Implication on Teaching A syllabus should not be based on the Natural Order Hypothesis (Krashen, 1982).Lots of grammar programs are based on whether the points covered are easy or difficult for the teacher to formulate, rather than on whether they are easy or difficult for the learner to acquire

d) Input Hypothesis

People acquire language best from messages that are just slightly beyond their current competence: i+1 An important condition for language to occur is that the acquirer understand (via hearing or reading) input language that contains structure a bit beyond his or her current level of competence.For example, If a learner is at a stage I, then maximum acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level i + 1'. The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not learning.Human acquires language in only way by understanding messages, or by receiving comprehensible input and Learners improve and progress along the the natural order when they receive L2 comprehensible input. Speaking is a result of acquisition & NOT its cause. If input is understood, and there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is automatically provided

Teaching Application Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus. Michael Long (1985-1996) takes up where in a sense Krashen left off. He posits in what has come to be called the interaction hypothesis, that comprehensive input is the result of modified interaction.

e) The Affective Filter Hypothesis

The learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes or blocks input necessary for language acquisition. Learners feeling or attitude as an adjustable filter that freely pass, impedes or block input necessary to acquisition 3 kinds of affective or attitudinal variables related to SLA 1) Motivation: high2) Self-confidence: high3) Anxiety: low(Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 183)

Learners with a low affective filter: high motivation, self-confidence, a good image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in SLA Learners with a high affective filter: low self-esteem and a high level of anxiety Form a mental block.

When the filter is high, it blocks language acquisition.The low affective filter is desirable.

Weaknesses of The Affective Filter Hypothesis

Sheltered classroom environmentvs.Real world environmentThe stresses of everyday life and communication are uncontrollable variables.

Implication for Language Teaching Students activities should be based on meaningful communication rather than on form. Input should be interesting and student needs based. Input should contribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere.

f) Implication of the hypotheses for Teaching

Acquisition is more important than learning. In order to acquire, two conditions are necessary. The first is comprehensible (or even better, comprehended) input containing i+1, structures a bit beyond the acquirer's current level, and second, a low or weak affective filter to allow the input 'in'. Present as much comprehensible input as possible Things that help comprehension are student needs based such as pics/realia- exposure to wider lexicon / vocabulary Focus should be on reading & listening speaking comes later when ELLs ready Natural Approach focuses mainly on basic communication skills. 2nd perspective is that the purpose of a language course will vary according to the needs of the students and their particular interests Krashen & Terrell 1983:65.

g) Universal Grammar

Proposed by Noam Chomsky What is a linguistic theory? Linguistic Theory

Descriptive adequacy Explanatory adequacy ( to characterize what human languages ( to explain why they are that way) are like ) Universal Grammar is therefore a proper theory as it explains the underlying linguistic knowledge in second-language learners minds

What is Universal Grammar? Noam Chomsky claims that all languages have a common underlying system and all human beings inherit a universal set of principles that provide SLLs to acquire L2 as they acquire their native language with the help of an acquisition device that is UG. Much of unconscious knowledge of grammar ( abstract linguistic system )does not need to be learned in the course of L1 acquisition as it derives from UG. The focus is on what is universal within this mind

UG arguments from L1 acquisitionMain characteristics of L1 acquisition; Children go through developmental stages These stages are very similar across children although the rate differs These stages are similar across languages Rule governed and systematic Children are resistant to correction Childrens processing capacity limits the number of rules they can apply at any time and they will revert to earlier hypothesis when two or more rules compete. These characteristics of L1 acqusition are similar to L2 acquisition characteristics , hence Universalists could not conclude the evidence that there is a langugae module in the brain out of it. However, it is clear that child language acquisiton has nothing with intelligence.

EXAMPLES

a. John saw himself b. * Himself John saw c.Looking after himself bores John d.*John said that Fred liked himself e.*John told Bill to wash himself f. John believes himself to be intelligent g.* John believes that himself is intelligent These sentences show that children deal with a difficult task to arrive at correct rule. Children with cognitive deficits achieve it Brocas aphasia and Wernickes aphasia Specific language impairment (SLI)

It shows that specific areas of brain deal with specific aspects of language and that suffering from a language deficit does not mean having lost language completely. All this evidence make universalists claim that there must be a kind of innate language faculty that is biologically triggered . As language in children seems to grow in the same way a teeth develop or children start walking

More evidence for language specific module in brain by Lennebergs criteria The behaviour emerges before it is necessary Its appearance is not the result of a conscious decision Its emergence is not triggered by external events Direct teaching and intensive practice have relatively little effect Children go through well-defined stages milestones critical period controversial issue

Principles and Parameters

UG approach claims that there is a universal set of principles and parameters that control the shape of human languages .Goverment & Binding TheoryLanguage

Principles Paramaters -unvarying -possess a limited -applicable to all number of open natural languages values We can not apply the same structure to all languages although the principles are the same. The reason of it is that languages not only have PRINCIPLES but also PARAMETERS. Parameters decide and limit the way in which sth can be done.

Minimalist Programme of ChomskyChomsky argues that the core of human language is lexicon.In Minimalist programme , parametic variation occur within functional category such as various word order, morphology, determiners, auxilirias..etcAbstract principles underlying all languages will already be specified in the computational module , children and SLLs is facing the task of learning lexicon of the language as well as the settings of parameters.

Lexical categories ( content words)

Lexicon Functional categories ( grammatical words)

Principles Structure Dependency : Language is organized in such a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence. Words are regrouped into higher-level structures which is based on a hierarchical structure. Ex: My friend bought a new car yesterday. The friend that I met in Australia last year bought a new car yesterday. The friend I am closest to and who was so supportive when I lost my job two years ago bought a new car yesterday. The same kind of groupings perform the same role in the sentence. We know that the crucial word is friend or she This kind of grouping is called as Phrase such as NP ( noun phrase), VP (verb phrase), AP, PP according to the head ( main element) of the phrase.

UG & L2 Second Language Learning is theoretically more complicated than L1 acquisition as many factors intervene the process such as; L2 learners are cognitively mature L2 learners already know at least one language L2 learners have different motivations for learning a second language. So, even if UG hypothesis is correct for L1 , there are still a number of logical possibilities concerning its role in L2.

It has been a very useful tool for linguistic analysis, enabling more researches , such as principled way of language transfer, cross-linguistic influence and principles and parameters. UG is useful not only in establishing some facts about SLA but also explaining. Theories of Language Learning

a) Behaviorism

Behaviorism assumes that a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. Believes that a learner starts out with a clean slate, and behavior is shaped by positive and negative reinforcement. Reinforcement, positive or negative, increases the possibility of an event happening again. Punishment, both positive and negative, decreases the possibility of an event happening again. Positive reinforcement is the application of a stimulus. Negative reinforcement is the withdrawal of a stimulus. Behaviorism is a precursor to cognitive learning.

Important People in Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov- Did the experiment with the dogs. Came up with the theory of classical conditioning. B.F. Skinner- Developed the theory of operant conditioning. Operant Conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. John B. Watson- The Little Albert experiment. He gets credit for establishing the psychological school of behaviorism.

Important B. F Skinner Theory Schedules of reinforcement- Continuous, interval, and ration. These theories are used often in daily life with everything from parenting to schooling to work life. Operant Conditioning- the use of consequences to modify the occurrence or form of behavior. Differs from classical conditioning in that it deals with voluntary behavior.

What teachers do under this theory Give the learner immediate feedback. Break down the task into small steps Repeat the directions as many times as possible Work from the most simple to the most complex tasks Give positive reinforcement Skinner believed that positive reinforcement is more effective in changing behavior then punishment. All of these are to be adjusted to be age appropriate

What students do under this theory Respond to reinforcement Pace themselves in an assignment to work from the most basic to the more complicated concepts Ask questions for more clarity in directions Ask for feedback

Behavioral Theory and my own Teaching I think that the behavioral theory can be very useful in my own teaching. I can use reinforcement to encourage students to do their best work and to encourage improvement. I will try to avoid punishment, unless absolutely neccesary. I will clearly explain my expectations and have clear, printed out and verbally explained, directions to assignments. I will always be positive and let my students know that they can do it, and can do it well.

b) Humanism

Abraham MaslowHe first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation"and his subsequent book,Motivation and Personality

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need forself actualization at the top. The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs

Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs.

Carl Rogers Hewas an influential American psychologistand among the founders of theHumanistic approach topsychology. According to him, what people want is unconditional positive self regard(the feeling of being loved without strings attached) The role of any educator and leader in this approach is to be a facilitator Listening rather than talking is the skill needed. Learners choose what is to be learned and Educators serves as resource persons who will help guide learners to make wise decisions/choices.

Fostering: Curiosity Enthusiasm Initiative Responsibility Enduring

Humanistic Psychology contends that feelings and emotions are the keys to learning, communication and understanding Tell me how you feel is much more important statement to humanists rather than Tell me what you think

Self ActualizationThe main goal of human existence is self-actualisation:(becoming all what we are capable of)

All students are intrinsically motivated to self actualize or learn.

Weaknesses of the Theory

The theory has been criticized for promoting self-centered learners who cannot take criticisms or compromise their deeply felt positions The touchy-feely approach of the humanists makes some learners and educators feel truly uncomfortable. Facts, information, memorization, drill, practice and the tedious work which humanists minimize and sometimes disdain have been found to contribute to significant learning, knowledge building, and skill development

Application of Humanist Theory

On whole school level: Open classrooms , class meetings, alternative modes of assessment.On class level: would support:-Students having control over daily activities.-Students monitor their own progress, andsSelf-evaluation.-Teacher does not control learning process, only a facilitator.-Integrating personal and communications skills ( Cooperative learning)

c) Cognitivism

Jean Piagets Theory Of Cognitive DevelopmentBasic components: Schemas (building blocks of knowledge) Processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration) Stages of Cognitive Development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational)Schemas Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior a way of organizing knowledge. When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e. a state of cognitive (i.e. mental) balance. Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations.

Assimilation and Accommodation Assimilation using an existing schema to a new situation. Accommodation happens when the existing schema (knowledge) needs to be changed to take in new information. Equilibration the force which moves development along. An unpleasant state of disequilibrium happens when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation.) Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation)

Stages of development Piaget believed that children think differently than adults and stated they go through 4 universal stages of cognitive development. These different levels is that they are qualitatively different. In other words, at each successive stage, it's not just a matter of doing something better, but of doing a different thing altogether.

Stage 1: Sensorimotor Though (birth-2 years)They know the world only in terms of their own sensory input (what they see, smell, taste, touch, and hear) and their physical or motor actions on it (e.g. sucking, reaching, grasping)Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate substages that are characterized by the development of a new skill.Reflexes (0-1 month):During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):This substage involves coordinating sensation and newschemas. For example, a child may such his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions asa way of getting attentionfrom a caregiver.Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

Stage 2: Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Intuitive Though logic bases only on experiences Symbols in Play Egocentrism lack of conservation Symbols in Play Symbolic play: use one object to stand for another Fantasy play: pretend to be something, or pretend activities that are impossible Make-believe play: use toys as props

Stage 3- Concrete operational Stage (7-11 years)This period spans the time of middle childhood and is characterized by the development oflogical thought. While kids at this age become more logical about concrete and specific things, they still struggle with abstract ideas.During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

LogicPiaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use ofinductive logic (inductive reasoning). Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.

ReversibilityOne of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding ofreversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.

Stage 4- Formal Operational Stage (age 12 and up) The formal operational stage begins at approximatelyage twelve and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.

LogicPiaget believed thatdeductive reasoningbecame necessary during the formal operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a particular outcome. Science and mathematics often require this type of thinking about hypothetical situations and concepts.Abstract ThoughtWhile children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think aboutabstract conceptsemerges during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term planning.Problem-SolvingIn earlier stages, children used trial-and-error tosolve problems. During the formal operational stage, the ability tosystematically solve a problemin a logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to plan quickly an organized approach to solving a problem.The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories of cognitive an processes, starting from the simplest to the most complex (see thetable belowfor an in-depth coverage of each category): Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis EvaluationThe categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next one can take place.Bloom's Revised TaxonomyLorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited the cognitive domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the three most prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths, Wittrock, 2000): changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms rearranging them as shown in the chart below creating aprocesses and levels of knowledge matrix

Bloom Taxonomy

Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge) Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self) Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills)

d) Social Constructivism

Lev Vygotsky Social constructivism focuses on the artifacts that are created through the social interactions of a group. It emphasized the profound influence of social contexts in the advances in the levels of knowing. One key concept of Vygotskys social constructivism theory is that, knowledge construction is both a social and cognitive process. Knowledge and meanings are actively and collaboratively constructed in a social context mediated by frequent social discourse. In a social constructivist learning environment, effective learning happens only through interactive processes of discussion, negotiation, and sharing.

1. Cultural influences on cognitive development Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic materials/abilities for intellectual development. Eventually, through interaction within the socio-cultural environment, these are developed into more sophisticated and effective mental processes/strategies which he refers to as Higher Mental Functions.

2. Social influences on cognitive development Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema. Much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skilful tutor. The tutor may model behaviours and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalises the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Two main principles of Vygotsky's work: More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) It refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. Vygotsky sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.

3. Language in cognitive development Language is an accelerator to thinking/understanding. Language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes. Later language ability becomes internalized as thought and inner speech. Language plays 2 critical roles in cognitive development: 1: It is the main means by which adults transmit info to children. 2: Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

Application in literacy learning Reciprocal teaching Teacher and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the process is reduced over time. Scaffolding A teacher or more advanced peer helps to structure or arrange a task so that a novice can work on it successfully. Collaborative learning Group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their ZPD.