Fodder production through agro-forestry: A boon for ... · (CAFRI, 2015). Presently, in India, about 60% the cropped area is rainfed, which contribute about 44% food-grain production

Fodder production through agro-forestry: A boon for profitable dairy

farming

Dr. R. K. Mathukia and Prof. C.N. Jadav

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture

Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh - 362 001

ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to

maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015

In Indian agriculture, livestock

plays a pivotal role in the development and

progress of mankind with crop production

programme as a complementary enterprise.

However, livestock productivity is

constrained by an acute shortage of feed and

fodder. A general agreement is that there is a

shortage of 40.4% dry fodder and 24.7%

green fodder against the requirement of

650.7 and 761.5 million tonnes (MT) for dry

and green fodder, respectively (Singh et al.,

2011). In India, there is a deficit of green

fodder particularly during summer season. In

India, only 4.4% of the cultivated area is

under fodder crops with annual total forage

production of 846 MT. In Gujarat, the total

area under forage crops is about 7.96

thousand hectares and the production of

green and dry fodder in Gujarat is 57.64 and

15.25 MT (http://kashvet.uni.cc).

Agroforestry

Agroforestry is a collective name for

land use systems and practices in which

woody perennials are deliberately integrated

with crops and/or animals on the same land

management unit (ICRAF; FAO, 2005).

There are different types of

agroforestry practices that can be used, these

includes improved fallow, Taungya, home

gardens, alley cropping, growing

multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmland,

boundary planting, farm woodlots, orchards

or tree gardens, plantation/crop

combinations, shelterbelts, windbreaks,

conservation hedges, fodder banks, live

fences, trees on pastures and apiculture with

trees (Nair 1993; Siclair 1999). The different

types of agroforestry technologies have been

found to address specific human and

environmental needs. One of the important

benefits is production of fodder to feed

livestock. Farmers have enjoyed increased

incomes from livestock production,

increased crop production, and reduced

labour especially for herding cattle from

adoption of agroforestry practices (FAO,

2005). Improved soil fertility through

production of leguminous and other

agroforestry trees is another benefit. Planting

shrubs in fallow for two years and rotating

with maize has improved maize yields

compared with planting continuous

unfertilized maize (Franzel et al., 2014).

Timber and firewood as well as

environmental services such as wind breaks,

carbon sequestration and biodiversity among

others are more benefits that can be obtained

from agroforestry practices (FAO, 2005).

Global Scenario

Agroforestry is practiced in all

continents of the world. A high percentage

of tree cover is found in nearly all continents

of the world, highest being in Central

America and Southeast Asia. There is now

general agreement about the magnitude and

scale of the integration of trees into

agricultural lands and their active

management by farmers and pastoralists.

Dixon (1995) estimated a total 585-1215

million hectares (Mha) of land in Africa,

Asia and the Americas under agroforestry,

while Nair et al. (2009) estimated a land area

of 1023 Mha under agroforestry worldwide.

Almost half of the world’s agricultural lands

have at least a 10% tree cover, suggesting

that agroforestry, an integrated system of

trees, crops and/or livestock within a

managed farm or agricultural landscape, is

widespread (Zomer et al., 2009).

Agroforestry is contributing substantially in

economic growth of various countries. The

economic importance of agroforestry can be

partly understood by examining data on the

export value of major tree products.

FAOSTAT (2011) shows that conservative

estimates of international trade of this list of

tree products was valued at a whopping

US$140 billion in 2009. The actual

production levels are much higher,

considering that the list includes only well-

known and common tree products and that

many tree products in developing countries

are not marketed internationally (e.g.

firewood, fodder, medicinal uses) and for

products such as fruit, as much as 90% of

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production is consumed domestically. In

addition, the positive externalities (or

ecosystem services) represented by trees

(e.g. carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling,

provision of shade, etc.) are not counted.

Indian Scenario

Indian agriculture is facing diverse

challenges and constraints due to growing

demographic pressure, increasing food, feed,

pulp, fodder and timber needs, natural

resource degradation and climate change.

Diversification of land use with agroforestry

as a component can address some of these

challenges. Agroforestry has traditionally

been a way of life and livelihood in India for

centuries. The country has also been in the

forefront since organized agroforestry

research started worldwide. It developed

robust agroforestry science, innovations and

practices that are attracting global interest.

India faces a critical imbalance in its

natural resource base with about 18% human

and 15% livestock population of the world

being supported only on 2.4% geographical

area, 1.5% forest and pasture lands and 4.2%

water resources. Agriculture sector

contributes about 15% national GDP,

employs 56% of the total workforce and

supports about 58% of the total population.

Thus, this sector is very vital not only to

provide income support, but also to ensure

livelihood security for majority of the people

(CAFRI, 2015).

Presently, in India, about 60% the

cropped area is rainfed, which contribute

about 44% food-grain production. Its

contribution in coarse cereals & pulses is

about 90%, in oilseeds 60% and in case of

cotton it is about 80%. Significant

proportion of livestock population (66%) is

also in the rainfed areas. However, these

areas are characterized by low input use and

low yield levels. The yield levels are highly

prone to variety of risks. For such areas,

diversification of land use systems with

agroforestry is a necessary strategy for

providing variety of products for meeting

requirements of the people, insurance

against risks caused by weather aberrations,

controlling erosion hazards and ensuring

sustainable production on a long-term basis.

Besides, 90% of the forests in the country

are performing the critical functions of

protecting fragile watersheds and are not fit

for commercial exploitation (Dhyani et al.,

2007).

Agroforestry is playing the greatest

role in maintaining the resource base and

increasing overall productivity in the rainfed

areas in general and the arid and semi-arid

regions in particular. Agroforestry land use

increases livelihood security and reduces

vulnerability to climate and environmental

change. There are ample evidences to show

that the overall (biomass) productivity, soil

fertility improvement, soil conservation,

nutrient cycling, microclimate improvement,

and carbon sequestration potential of an

agroforestry system is generally greater than

that of an annual system (Dhyani et al.,

2009). Agroforestry has an important role in

reducing vulnerability, increasing resilience

of farming systems and buffering households

against climate related risks. It also provides

for ecosystem services - water, soil health

and biodiversity. Therefore, agroforestry

will be required to contribute substantially to

meet the demands of rising population for

food, fruits, fuel wood, timber, fodder, bio-

fuel and bio-energy as well as for its

perceived ecological services (Fig.1).

Table 1: Total domestic demand for various

commodities (CAFRI, 2015)

Items 2010-11 Projected

for 2050

Contribut

ion from

Agrofores

try in

2050

Food grains

(MT)

218.20 457.1 41.14*

Fruits (MT) 71.20 305.3 47.74*

Fodder (MT) 1061.00 1545 154.50

Fuel wood

(MT)

308.00 629 308.00

Timber (MT) 120.00 347 295.00

Biodiesel

(MT) required

for 20%

blending of

diesel

12.94 37.92 30.34

Area (Mha)

required for

TBOS

12.32 21.67 17.34

*Food-grains/fruits production from

systematic agroforestry systems viz. agri-

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silviculture/ agri-horticulture only

considered

In order to meet the requirement of

the population in 2050 an increase by 1.5

times in fodder, two times in food grains and

fuelwood and three times in timber

production will be required (Table 1). Also,

to meet the energy requirement from

biodiesel and achieve 20% blending in

diesel, a three-fold increase in production of

biodiesel will be required (Dhyani et al.,

2013).Agroforestry has the potential to

provide most or all the ecosystem services.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

(2005) has categorized the ecosystem

services into provisioning service (e.g.,

fuelwood, fodder, timber, poles etc.),

regulating service (hydrological benefits,

microclimatic modifications), supporting

service (nutrient cycling, agro-biodiversity

conservation), and cultural service

(recreation, aesthetics).

Agroforestry systems on arable lands

envisage growing of trees and woody

perennials on terrace risers, terrace edges,

field bunds, as intercrops and as alley

cropping. Agroforestry practices for non-

arable degraded lands such as bouldery

riverbeds, torrents, landslide, shifting

cultivation areas, waterlogged soils, control

of desertification, mine spoil rehabilitation

and treatment of saline and alkaline lands

have been developed and demonstrated.

Agroforestry land use in conjunction with

soil and water conservation and animal

husbandry needs to be emphasized.

Organized agroforestry research in

India began in the late eighties when the

Indian Council of Agricultural Research

(ICAR) launched the All India Coordinated

Research Project (AICRP) on Agroforestry

in 1983. Further, National Research Centre

for Agroforestry (NRCAF) was established

in 1988 at Jhansi to accelerate basic,

strategic and applied research in

agroforestry, now named as Central

Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI) in

December 2014. At present there are 37

Centres under AICRP on Agroforestry

representing the major agro-ecologies of the

country with the project coordinating unit at

CAFRI, Jhansi.

In fact, agroforestry has proven as an

important tool for crop diversification.

National Agriculture Policy, 2000

recommends agroforestry for sustainable

agriculture and advocates bringing up

agroforestry in areas currently under shifting

cultivation. National Forest Policy, 1988 sets

a goal of increasing forest cover on one-third

geographical area of the country. Major

Policy initiatives including National Forest

Policy 1952, 1988 and the National

Agriculture Policy 2000, Task Force on

Greening India 2001 and National Bamboo

Mission 2002 emphasized the role of

agroforestry for efficient nutrient cycling,

organic matter addition for sustainable

agriculture and for improving forest cover.

India launched the much-needed

National Agroforestry Policy (NAFP) in

2014. The NAFP is a path-breaker in making

agroforestry an instrument for transforming

lives of rural farming population, protecting

ecosystem and ensuring food security

through sustainable means. The major

highlights of the policy are: establishment of

institutional setup at national level to

promote agroforestry under the mandate of

Ministry of Agriculture; simplify regulations

related to harvesting, felling and

transportation of trees grown on farmlands;

ensuring security of land tenure and creating

a sound base of land records and data for

developing an market information system

(MIS) for agroforestry; investing in research,

extension and capacity building and related

services; access to quality planting material;

institutional credit and insurance cover to

agroforestry practitioners; increased

participation of industries dealing with

agroforestry produce; strengthening

marketing information system for tree

products.

Table 2: Land use (Mha) scenario at present

and projected for 2050.

Classification 1970 2010 2050

Forest cover# 63.83 69.63 69.63

Net area sown 140.86 140.86 142.60

Other

uncultivated land

(Fallow,

pastures,

cultivable waste,

misc. tree crops

and groves)

54.46 55.18 53.44

Not available for

cultivation

44.60 40.00 40.00

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Reporting area 303.75 305.67 305.67

Agroforestry$ - 25.32 53.00

*Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance,

2010, Directorate of Economics and

Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of

India. #Forest Survey of India, State of

Forest Report 2009. $Dhyani et al. (2013).

The current area under agroforestry

in India is estimated as 25.32 Mha or 8.2%

of the total geographical area of the country.

There is further scope of increasing the area

under agroforestry in future by another 28.0

Mha. The major share of the land to be

brought under agroforestry will come from

fallows, cultivable fallows, pastures, groves

and rehabilitation of problem soils. Thus, a

total of 53.32 Mha (Table 2), representing

about 17.5% of the total reported

geographical area (TRGA) of the country,

could potentially be brought under

agroforestry in the near future, which will

make agroforestry a major land-use activity,

after agriculture (140.86 Mha, 46.08% of the

TRGA) and forestry (69.63 Mha, 22.78% of

the TRGA) in India (Dhyani et al., 2013).

At present agroforestry meets almost

half of the demand of fuelwood, 2/3 of the

small timber, 70-80% wood for plywood,

60% raw material for paper pulp and 9-11%

of the green fodder requirement of livestock,

besides meeting the subsistence needs of

households for food, fruit, fibre, medicine,

timber etc. However, current biomass

productivity per unit area and time is less

than 2 t/ha/y. Agroforestry practices have

demonstrated that this could be safely

enhanced to 10 t/ha/y by carefully selecting

tree-crop combinations. Area under forest is

degrading due to tremendous demographic

pressure and infrastructure growth needs,

while agricultural area is almost stable. In

India, nearly 120.72 Mha land or 37% of the

total geographical area is under one or the

other forms of soil degradation (e.g., water

erosion: 93 Mha, wind erosion: 11 Mha, salt

affected soils: 6.74 Mha, and 16.53 Mha of

open forest area; ICAR, 2010). About 56.54

Mha area has been treated under various

watershed development programmes,

however a sizeable area is yet to be treated.

Trees are known to grow even in areas

polluted by heavy metals and other

hazardous industrial chemicals. In fact, there

are trees, which can absorb and tolerate such

pollutants, which not only reduce crop yields

but also impair quality of crop produce. A

number of agroforestry tree species e.g.

Terminalia arjuna, Eucalyptus hybrid,

Morus alba and Syzygium cummini etc. have

been evaluated and identified for their

potential for phytoremediation (Dhillon et

al., 2008). In India, 24.68 Mha area is

affected by chemical pollution. These areas

can be brought under cultivation through

biological amelioration. Agroforestry can

play vital role in such endeavours. Meeting

diverse needs of people and livestock from

limited land resources is only possible, when

agroforestry becomes common land use on

majority of arable and non-arable lands. This

will not only avert degradation, but also

enhance total productivity and restore eco-

balance simultaneously. Agroforestry

answers many problems that are faced by

today’s agriculture in terms of stability in

production, regular returns, restoration of

fertility, indiscriminate deforestation,

drought mitigation and environmental

pollution.

Features of Agroforestry Agroforestry practices are

intentional systematic combinations of trees

with crops and/or livestock that involve

intensive management of the interactions

between the components as an integrated

agro-ecosystem. To be called agroforestry, a

land-use practice must be intentional,

intensive, interactive and integrated.

Classification of Agroforestry Systems

Nair (1993) classified agroforestry

on structural, functional, socioeconomic and

ecological basis.

1. Based on Structure (Composition and

dimension of crop)

(a) Agri-silviculture: In this system,

tree species are grown and managed in the

farmland along with agricultural crops. The

aim is to increase overall yield of the land.

Based on the nature of the components this

system can be grouped into various forms.

(i) Improved fallow species in shifting

cultivation: Fallows are crop lands left

without crops for a period ranging from one

season to several years. The objective of

improved fallow species in shifting

cultivation is to recover depleted soil

nutrients. In shifting cultivation, people

cleared a forest, burnt the slash, raised a crop

5



for few years and then shifted to clear

another forest. As civilization progressed,

people took to settle cultivation but many

tribal communities still practice shifting

cultivation. The practice is largely confined

to the North-Eastern hill state and Orissa. It

is called ‘Jhum’ in the North-Eastern hill

region and ‘Podu’ in Andhra Pradesh and

Orissa. The task force on shifting cultivation

(1983) estimated the forest area affected by

shifting cultivation to be 4.35 Mha. The

main function of the fallow is to maintain or

restore soil fertility and reduce erosion.

Some plants can be introduced primarily for

their economic value.

(ii) The Taungya system: The Taungya

(Taung = hill, Ya = cultivation) is a business

word coined in Myanmar in 1850. The

Taungya is one of the earliest form of land

use in which trees are regularly arranged and

agricultural crops are harvested on a

temporarily basis. In Taungya cultivation,

the major objective is harvest of the tree.

Annual crops are interplanted for 1-3 years,

mainly to meet the household requirements.

It has helped to settle shifting cultivators and

the landless by providing employment and

income in ‘forest villages’. However, the

system has important shortcomings such as

insecure land tenure for the farmers.

Taungya systems are of three types:

departmental, leased and village Taungya.

(iii) Multi-species tree garden: In this

system of agroforestry, various kinds of tree

species are grown mixed. The major

function of this system is production of food,

fodder and wood products for home

consumption and sale for cash.

(iv) Alley cropping: Alley cropping also

known as hedgerow intercropping, in which

food crops are grown in alleys formed by

hedgerows of trees. The woody plants are

cut regularly and leaves or twigs are used as

fodder or mulch on the cropped alleys in

order to reduce evaporation from the soil

surface, suppress weeds and all nutrients and

organic matter to the top soil. Trees or

shrubs must be amenable to lopping

management besides being multipurpose

(including nitrogen fixing) and fast growing

(i) Leucaena leucocephala, (ii) Sesbania

sesban, (iii) Cassia samiea, (iv) Gliricidia

maculate and (v) Calliandra spp.

(v) Multipurpose trees and shrubs on

farm lands: In this system various

multipurpose tree species are scattered

haphazardly or according to some systematic

pattern on bunds, terraces or plot/field

boundaries. The major components of this

system are multipurpose trees and common

agricultural crops. The primary role of this

system is production of various tree products

and the protective function is fencing, social

values and plot demarcation, examples of

multipurpose tees employed in agroforestry

are: Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia albida,

Cassia siamea, Casuarina equisetifolia,

Azadirachta indica, Acacia senegal, Cocos

nucifera etc.

(vi) Crop combination with plantation

crops: Perennial trees and shrubs such as

coffee, tea, coconut and coco are combined

into intercropping system in numerous ways

including (a) multi-storeyed agroforestry

system- this system is managed by the

combination between cultural practices and

respects the natural processes of vegetation

production and reproduction. It represents a

profitable production system and constitutes

an efficient buffer between villages and

forests. This is common in coastal parts of

Southern India, where coconut is grown with

black pepper and tapioca, (b) mixture of

plantation crops in alternate or other regular

arrangement, (c) shade tree for plantation

crops, and (d) intercropping with agricultural

crops.

(vii) Agroforestry for fuelwood

production: In this system various

multipurpose fuelwood/firewood species are

intercropped on or around agriculture lands.

The primary objective is to produce

firewood. Tree species commonly used as

fuelwood are: Acacia nilotica, Albizia

lebbeck, Cassia siamea, Casuarina

equisetifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Prosopis

juliflora etc.

(viii) Shelter belts: In general shelter belt

is a wide belt of trees, shrubs and grasses,

planted in rows at right angle to the direction

of wind velocity and planted for wind

protection. A shielding or screen structure

especially against weather is called shelter

and belt is a zone or band or broad strip of

anything. Therefore, a shelter belt is a term

which is broader than windbreak. A shelter

belt is a broad strip of trees, shrubs etc. to

6



provide a screening structure for the

protection of crops against any type of

weather. Properly oriented and perforated

shelterbelts are effective in giving protection

against wind damage through reducing

mechanical damage, reducing moisture

stress, reducing soil erosion and altering

temperature conditions.

(ix) Windbreaks: Any barrier erected to

break or slow down the effect of wind is

known as windbreak. In North India, strong

winds cause uprooting and lodging of crops.

Windbreaks have been effective in

increasing crop production in semi-arid

region. Maximum protection is obtained

when windbreaks are planted in right angle

to the direction of wind. In areas with 5%

slope, windbreaks should be planted along

the contours.

(x) Soil conservation hedges: Trees can be

planted on soil conservation works (grass

strips, bunds, risers and terraces), wherein

they play two roles: to stabilise the structure

and to make productive use of the land they

occupy. In some of steep slopping landscape

of the country, the risers or terraces are

densely planted with trees. In this system the

major groups of components are:

multipurpose and/or fruit trees and common

agricultural species. The tree species used

for soil conservation are Grevillea robusta,

Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii, Acacia

modesta, Prosopis juliflora, Leucaena

leucocephala etc.

(b) Silvi-pastoral system: In the silvi-

pastoral system, improved pasture species

are introduced with tree species. In this

system, grass or grass-legume mixture is

grown along with the woody perennials

simultaneously on the same unit of land.

This system provides fodder, fuelwood and

small timber under arid conditions. Sesbania

sesban increases forage production of

Cenchrus ciliaris, Setaria anceps,

Desmanthus, Chrysopogon fulvus gives

higher yield when grown with Eucalyptus

hybrid. This system is again classified into

three categories:

(i) Protein bank: In this silvi-pastoral

system of agroforestry, various multipurpose

trees (protein rich trees) are planted on

wasteland and rangelands for cut and carry

fodder production to meet the feed

requirements of livestock during the fodder

deficit period in winter. About 25% of the

total annual diet of livestock is composed of

trees and shrubs. Tree species for dry areas

are: Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica,

Alianthus excelsa, Albizia lebbeck, Leucaena

leucocephala, Ziziphus mauritiana,

Tecomella grandis etc. Acacia nilotica seeds

contain crude protein (18.6%), whereas,

Leucaena leucocephala seeds are highest in

protein (about 30%).

(ii) Living fence of fodder trees and

hedges: Fodder trees and hedges are planted

along the border as live fences. Trees like

Sesbania grandiflora, Gliricidia sepium,

Erythrina byssica, Euphorbia spp., Acacia

spp., Katkaranj etc. can be used.

(iii) Trees and shrubs on pasture: In this

system various trees and shrubs are scattered

irregularly or arranged according to some

systematic pattern, especially to supplement

forage production. The trees and shrub

species used for humid and sub humid

region are: Derris indica, Emblica

officinalis, Psidium guajava, Tamarindus

indica and for dry region: Acacia spp.,

Prosopis spp. and Tamarindus indica.

(c) Agri-silvi-pastoral system: This system

is the result of the union between silvi-

pastoral and agri-silvicultural systems.

Under this system, the same unit of land is

managed to get agricultural and forest crops

where farmers can also rear animals. This

system holds promise especially in highland

humid tropics. It may be tree, livestock-crop

mix around homestead, wood hedgerow for

browsing, green manure, soil conservation or

for an integrated production of pasture,

crops, animals and wood.

Homestead agroforestry: Farmers generally

plant trees in and around their habitations,

courtyard, threshing floor and in the field.

These house gardens are aimed to satisfy the

family needs of fruit, fuel, fodder and small

timbers. The system of home garden is more

prevalent in high rainfall areas of Kerala and

Tamil Nadu. In India every homestead has

around 0.2-0.5 ha land for personal

production, on which trees are grown for

timber, fruit, vegetable, small plots of

sugarcane in more open patches and a

surrounding productive live fence of

bamboo. Home gardens epitomise the

qualities of agroforestry systems. They are

highly productive, extremely sustainable and

7



very practicable. Food production is the

primary function of most home gardens.

(d)Multipurpose forestry production

system: Forest is managed to yield multiple

product in addition to wood. They are grown

to yield fruits, flower, leaves, honey, gum,

lac and medicine. This system is best suited

for hill tribal.

2.Based on the Dominance of Components

(i) Silvi-agriculture: The trees are the major

component of land use and agriculture crops

are integrated with them e.g. shifting

cultivation, Taungya cultivation.

(ii) Agri-silviculture: Agricultural

component is the major one and trees are

secondary e.g. hedge cropping, alley

cropping.

(iii) Silvi-pastoral system: Trees are the

major component and pasture is secondary

to allow the animals for grazing.

(iv) Pastoral-silviculture: Pasture is the

major component and trees are secondary,

sometimes allowing overgrazing of forest

beyond its carrying capacity.

(v) Agro-silvi-pastoral system:

Combination of crops, trees and pasture e.g.

home garden, wherein trees, herbs, shrubs,

climbers and grasses are grown on the same

land.

(vi) Silvi-agri-pastoral: Silviculture is the

dominant component, agriculture and

pasture are secondary.

3. Based on Arrangement of Components

The arrangement of component gives

first priority to the plants. Such plant

arrangement in multispecies combinations

involve the dimension of space and time.

(i) Spatial arrangement: Spatial

arrangements of plants in an agroforestry

system mixture may result in dense mixed

stands (as in home gardens) or in sparse

mixed stands (as in most systems of trees in

pasture). The species or species mixture may

be laid out in zones or strips of varying

width. There may be several forms of such

zones, varying from micro zonal

arrangements (such as alternate rows) to

macro zonal ones. A common example of

the zonal pattern is hedge row intercropping

(alley cropping). An extreme form of

planting is the boundary planting of trees.

(ii) Temporal arrangement: Temporal

arrangement of plants in agroforestry system

may also take various forms.

(a) Coincident: Different crops occupy the

land together e.g. coffee under shade trees,

pasture under trees.

(b) Concomitant: The components stay

together, for some part of life e.g.

agricultural crops grown for only a few

years.

(c) Intermittent: Scope is dominated, the

annual crops grown with perennial crops.

(d) Interpolated: Space and time are

dominated different components occupy the

space during different times in home garden.

4. Based on Allied Components

(i) Agroforestry-cum-sericulture: This is a

very complex system of agroforestry. In this

system, crops/vegetables are grown along

with tree species (silk host plants). The

larval excreta are good manure for the

crops/vegetables.

(ii) Agroforestry-cum-apiculture: The

land is managed for concurrent production

of flowers, crops and honey. Flowering

plants often favour increase of parasites and

predators of crop pests and thus an anti-

regulatory biocontrol system. The main

purpose of this system is the production of

honey.

(iii) Agroforestry-cum-pisciculture: It is a

system under which silviculture of

mangroves and fish is done simultaneously.

In paddy field, fish can easily be reared by

planting trees on field bunds or boundary.

This system can be followed in high rainfall

areas.

(iv) Agroforestry-cum-lac culture: In this

system crops are grown along with lac host

plants. It is very common in Chotta Nagpur

plateau of Bihar.

(v) Multipurpose wood lots: In this

system special location specific MPTs are

grown mixed or separately planted for

various purposes such as wood, fodder, soil

protection, soil reclamation etc.

5. Functional Classification of

Agroforestry System: Agroforestry system

have two functions i.e. production and

protection.

(a) Productive function (producing one or

more products): The various productive

functions of agroforestry system are:

(i) Food(ii) Fodder(iii) Fuelwood

8



(iv) Other wood (v) Other product

(b) Protective function (protecting and

maintaining production systems): the

protective functions of agroforestry are:

(i) Windbreak (ii) Shelterbelt (iii) Moisture

conservation (iv) Soil

conservation (v) Soil

improvement (vi) Shade

(for crop/animal/man6.

Socioeconomic Classification

Based on major socioeconomic criteria,

agroforestry systems have been grouped into

three categories:

(a) Commercial: e.g. commercial production

of agricultural plantation crop such as

rubber, oil palm etc.

(b) Intermediate: between commercial and

subsistence scale of production.

(c) Subsistence: satisfying basic needs and

managed by owner and his family.

7. Ecological Grouping of Agroforestry

Systems

Based on major agro-ecological

zone, agroforestry systems are grouped into

the following categories:

(i) Humid/sub humid lowlands

(ii) Semiarid/arid lands

(iii) Highlands

Thus, it can be seen that there may

be many approaches to agroforestry

classification. However, a system based on

the nature of the components and their major

functional characteristics for specific

purpose appears more logical, simple and

pragmatic purpose oriented approach. Again

the choice of system may depend on many

factors like social, ecological and

economical. However, selection of right

agroforestry system for right situation is

necessary.

Fodder Trees

Fodder trees are playing an

important role in reducing the fodder

shortage problem in India. In most parts of

our country after the end of rainy season,

animals suffer badly due to lack of protein

rich diet since availability of fodder become

scarce. The situation becomes serious during

the dry season under rainfed conditions,

when generally no crop can be grown and

natural pasture, grasses, and weeds become

unproductive. Farmers either feed their

animals with the low-quality hay of the

stored crop residues or they travel long

distances to gather green grasses or fodders.

In such circumstance, shrubs and fodder

trees are able to withstand the drought, stay

green, and provide a nutritious fodder for

livestock (Dhyani, 2003). Alarming

shortages of forage in our country can be

solved partially by planting fodder trees

capable of sustained production of palatable

forage high in protein and Total Digestible

Nutrients (TDN). Through the plantation of

these species on degraded lands under silvi-

pastoral systems and in farmer’s fields under

various agroforestry systems, fodder

availability can be enhanced. Oaks, Grewia

optiva, Celtis austrails in Western Himalaya,

and Ficus spp., Alnus nepalensis and

Bauhinia spp., in Eastern Himalayas have

been used as important fodder trees. Lopping

of Prosopis cineraria (Khejri) in western

Rajasthan, Albizia lebbeck, Albizia procera,

Azadirachta indica in northern and central

India for leaf fodder, use of pods of Acacia

nilotica and Prosopis juliflora for fodder are

common practices since old days. Most of

these species are important source of fodder

during lean period as well. Advantages of

tree fodder are that trees can be grown on

steep, rocky mountain slopes, in arid, saline,

or water-logged soils, and in areas with

severe climatic conditions. Also, trees do not

need heavy inputs of fertilizer, irrigation,

labour, pesticides, etc., as are generally

needed to grow conventional fodder crops.

Trees use and recycle nutrients that are

beyond the reach of grasses and other

herbaceous plants. Trees that accumulate

nitrogen enhance forage quality. Their

relative deep root system can exploit deep

moisture resources and, using this and other

strategies, trees are more tolerant to dry

periods than pastures.

Cultivation of Important Fodder Crops

Package of practices of some

important fodder crops suitable in different

agroforestry systems are briefly discussed

hereunder.

1. Jowar (Sorghum), Sorghum bicolor (L.)

Varieties:

Single cut: Pusa Chari-1, Haryana Chari

(J5-73/53), SL-44, MP Chari, Pusa

Chari-6, HC-136

Double Cut: CO-27, Gujarat Forage

Sorghum (AS-16), GFSH-1.

9



Multi Cut: SSG-59-3 (Meethi Sudan),

Maldandi, Jawahar Chari-69, Proagro

Chari (SSG-988), PCH-106 (Hybrid),

Punjab Sudex Chari-1,

Cultivation Practices:

Sowing time: Kharif: June-July,

Summer: February-March.

Spacing: 25-30 cm row spacing.

Seed rate: 30 kg/ha for improved

varieties and 20 kg/ha for hybrids.

Manure: 6-8 t FYM/ha at the time of

land preparation.

Fertilizers: Improved varieties: 20 kg

N/ha at sowing and 20 kg N/ha at 30-35

DAS. Hybrids: 40-40 kg N-P2O5/ha at

sowing and 40 kg N/ha at 30-40 DAS.

Multicut: 25-40 kg N-P2O5/ha at sowing,

25 kg N/ha at 30 DAS and 25 kg N/ha

after first cut. Zn deficient soil (<0.5

ppm): Zinc sulphate 25 kg/ha.

Weed management: Interculturing and

hand weeding at 30-35 DAS. Atrazine or

propazine @ 0.25-0.50 kg/ha as PE. 2,4-

D (EE) @ 0.75 kg/ha as PoE at 25-30

DAS, it also control striga. If

intercropped with pulses, alachlor 1

kg/ha as PE.

Irrigation: In summer, 4-5 irrigations and

for multicut, 7-8 irrigations at 10-15

days interval.

Harvesting: Single cut: 60-65 DAS (50%

flowering). Multicut: First cut at 40-45

DAS and subsequent at 30 days interval.

Since HCN is present in sorghum

especially in early stages, water stressed

and ratoon crop, proper care has to be

exercised during harvesting for avoiding

HCN poisoning.

The mixed/inter cropping is also

practiced with fodder legumes, viz.,

pigeonpea, cowpea and clusterbean, in

2:1 ratio to improve fodder yield and

quality.

Yield: Single cut: 350-400 q/ha, Double

cut: 450-650 q/ha, Multicut: 650-1050

q/ha green fodder.

2. Bajra (Pearlmillet), Pennisetum

glaucum L., Poaceae

Varieties: Rajka Bajri, Giant Bajra, Raj

Bajra Chari-2, CO-8, TNSC-1, APFB-2,

Proagro No. 1 (FMH-3), GFB-1, PCB-164,

FBC-16, Avika Bajra Chari (AVKB-19),

Narendra Chara .


Sowing time: Kharif: June-July,

Summer: February-March.

Spacing: 30-45 cm row spacing.

Seed rate: 8-10 kg/ha.


land preparation.

Fertilizers: 50-25 kg N-P2O5/ha at

sowing and 50 kg N/ha at each cut. Soil

application of 20 kg ZnSO4/ha or foliar

spray @ 0.5% Zn at tillering and pre-

flowering stage also increases grain and

fodder yield.

Weed management: 1-2 interculturing

and hand weeding. Atrazine @ 0.50

kg/ha as PE. 2,4-D (EE) @ 0.75 kg/ha as

PoE at 25-30 DAS. If intercropped with

pulses, alachlor 0.75 kg/ha as PE.

Irrigation: In summer, 4-5 irrigations at

10-15 days interval.

Harvesting: First cut at 60-70 DAS (50%

flowering) and subsequent at 40-45 days.

Yield: Single cut: 300-350 q/ha, Double

cut: 600 q/ha green fodder.

3. Napier × Bajra Hybrid (NB hybrid),

Pennisetum purpureum × P. glaucum,

Poaceae

Varieties: CO-1, Hybrid Napier-3

(Swetika), CO-2, CO-3, Dharwad-2, PBN-

83, PBN-87, Yashwant (RBN-9), IGFRI-5,

NB-5, Supriya, Sampoorna (DHN-6),

IGFRI-10.


Sowing time: June-July and February-

March.

Spacing and seed rate: For 60 x 60, 90 x

90, 100 x 100 cm spacing, root slips or

stem cuttings required are 27778, 12346

and 10000/ha.


land preparation.

Fertilizers: 30-40-30 kg N-P2O5-K2O/ha

at sowing and 30 kg N/ha after each cut,

and 30-40 kg N-P2O5/ha every year.


hand weeding as per requirement.

Irrigation: Irrigation at an interval of 15-

20 days in rabi and 10-15 days in

summer.

Harvesting: First cut at 60 DAS 45 cm

above ground level and subsequent cut at

40-50 days interval.

10



Yield: 1000-1500 q/ha/year green

fodder.

Intercropping: Cowpea in kharif and

lucerne in rabi can be intercropped with

hybrid napier, for that napier should be

planted at 150 x 25 cm.

4. Berseem (Egyptian clover), Trifolium

alexandrinum L., Fabaceae

Varieties: Pusa Giant, Mescavi, Berseem

Ludhiana-1 (BL-1), Jawahar Berseem-1 (JB-

1), JB-2, JB-3, Wardan, BL-10, BL-22, BL-

2, UPB-10, UPB-103, BL-180, IGFRI-99-1,

IGFRI-54


Sowing time: June-July

Seed treatment: Dipping seeds in 10%

NaCl solution for 10-15 minutes to

separate chicory seeds. Seeds should be

treated with H2SO4 for loosening hard

seed coat. Rhizobium culture can be

treated.

Spacing and seed rate: Broadcasting: 20-

30 kg/ha, 25-30 cm row spacing: 10-15

kg/ha.


land preparation.


at sowing and 15 kg N/ha at 30 DAS.

Soil application or foliar spray of

micronutrients as per soil test.


hand weeding as per need.

Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha as PE.



summer.


flowering) and subsequent cut at 25-30

days interval. Mescavi varieties give 5-6

cuts.

Yield: 350-550 q/ha/year green fodder.

Intercropping: Berseem can be

intercropped with hybrid napier.

5. Lucerne (Alfalfa), Medicago sativa L.,

Fabaceae

Varieties: Chetak (S-244),GAUL-1 (Anand-

2), GAUL-2 (SS-627), LL Composite 5, LL

Composite 3, Lucerne No. 9-L, NDRI

Selection No.1, Anand-3, RL-88, Anand

Lucerne-3 (AL-3), IGFRI-S-54.

Cultivation Practices

Sowing time: October-November

Seed treatment: Dipping seeds in 10%

NaCl solution for 10-15 minutes to

separate chicory seeds. Seed treatment

with thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg seeds.

Rhizobium culture can be treated.

Spacing and seed rate: Broadcasting or

25 cm row spacing: 10-15 kg/ha.

Fenugreek 5 kg seeds/ha should be

mixed with lucerne to increase

digestibility of first cut fodder.


land preparation.


at sowing. In subsequent years, annual

supplementation of 50-50 kg P2O5-

K2O/ha should be done. Application of

molybdenum and boron may be done

based on soil test.


hand weeding as per requirement.

Pendimethalin @ 0.5 kg/ha as PE.

Imazethapyr @ 70 g/ha as PoE at 10-12

DAS. For control of dodder, 0.1% spray

of paraquat.



summer.


flowering) and subsequent cut at 30

days.

Yield: Annual: 700-950 q/ha, Perennial:

1000-1100 q/ha green fodder. In general,

annual lucerne gives 4-5 cuts while in

the perennial crop, 7-8 cuts can be taken.

Intercropping: Lucerne can be

intercropped with hybrid napier.

Milk flavour problems and ways to troubleshoot it

Sagar Chand, S.S Patil and H.H Savsani

Department of Livestock Products and technology, College of Veterinary Science & A. H.




Flavour in one of the most

important qualities that determine the

acceptability of milk. Even though milk is

highly nutritious, people will not drink it if

they do not like it. Hence, milk should be

produced under conditions that give good

flavor initially, and also be handled to

protect its flavor at every step from the

cow to the consumer. With urbanization

milk is usually transported longer

distances to supply the urban population.

Transporting milk over longer distances

usually increases the time between

production and processing, which provides

a greater opportunity for development of

off-flavors. To maintain bacteriological

quality during this extended storage

period, greater emphasis is placed on

improved sanitary practices and effective

refrigeration. Defects of bacterial origin

are generally kept under control, but the

changes may result in an increased

incidence of other defects. For example, as

dairying became more intensive, bulk

collection systems were introduced. They

provided for cooling milk to lower storage

temperatures, and when couple with longer

storage times, oxidized and rancid flavors

could develop.

When the average number of cows

in herds increases, farmers have to provide

a larger proportion of the cow's feed in dry

form as hay and concentrate, instead of as

pasture and silage. In general, dry feeds

yield milk with greater susceptibility to

oxidized and rancid flavors than do

succulent feeds. Feeding high levels of

concentrate, as practiced in intensive dairy

areas, increases the concentration of

unsaturated fatty acids in milk lipids, with

an accompanying increase in liability of

the fat to oxidation.

How we perceive the flavor

Before we proceed to know about

various flavor defects in milk, it is

important to know that how we perceive

the flavor. With our sense of taste, we are

able to perceive the five basic tastes. They

are: salty, sour, bitter, sweet and umami.

We all know salty (for example, salt), sour

(for example, lemons), bitter (for example,

coffee), and sweet (for example, cherries);

umami is less known. Umami, which is a

Japanese word and means “pleasant savory

taste” it indeed describes a savory taste as

we find it in meat, tomatoes, mushrooms,

cheese etc.

However, these five basic tastes are

not enough to perceive the flavor of food.

Rather, we perceive the flavor of food via

the sense of smell. From the oral cavity,

the odor molecules travel backwards, until

they reach the throat; the throat is

connected to the nasal cavity (the inside of

the nose) in the top, to the oral cavity (the

mouth in the middle), and in the bottom

part it is connected to the larynx and

eventually to the trachea and the lungs as

well as to the esophagus. Odor molecules

can easily travel from the mouth to the

nose via this connection in the throat. So,

they can reach the olfactory receptors, and

they can evoke a smell perception. The

interesting thing is that we do not realize

that this happens in the nose, we have the

impression that our perception stems from

the mouth. We call this perception of

flavors retro-nasal olfaction. Therefore all

type flavors we perceive is a result of

sensory stimuli to both tongue and nose

receptors.

Normal milk flavor

Milk of good quality is a very

bland food with a slightly sweet taste, very

little odor, and a smooth, rich feel in the

mouth. Because of its bland flavor, the

presence of minute quantities of abnormal

constituents frequently results in off-

flavors. Most people associate the

palatability of milk with its 'richness'. It is

generally assumed that milk fat is one of

47



the most important constituents in

contributing to the desirable flavor of milk.

Although the importance of SNF to milk

flavor cannot be denied and there are many

studies suggesting its importance. Cows'

milk is a palatable beverage, but nature did

not develop it to appeal to man's taste. We

should not limit ourselves to using milk as

nature produces it for the calf. To increase

milk sales, we should take advantage of

modern technology to modify milk to

man's taste and nutritional requirements.

Various defects in milk flavor

Sometimes certain nutrition

programs or management practices on the

farm can cause off-flavor problems in

milk. This can have long-term implications

with consumers because of a poor tasting

product. This can undermine consumer

confidence in dairy products. Therefore, it

is in everyone’s interest to prevent these

occurrences from happening regardless of

the source.

Classification of Off-flavors

Off-flavors commonly found in

milk can be classified in three basic

categories – the ABC’s of off-flavor

development.

Absorbed milk flavor defects

Absorbed flavor defects can

develop before, during and after milking. It

can occur when milk is left uncovered in

the consumer’s refrigerator or kept in cold

rooms and dairy cases with other odor-

producing foods.

Feedy and weedy flavor

In many countries the most

common flavor defect of milk is feed

flavor. The incidence in different countries

is hard to assess because evaluations are

based only on subjective judgments, and

opinions regarding the intensity of the off-

flavor that constitutes a defect are very

variable. Likewise, levels that are

objectionable to consumers are equally

variable. The presence of feed or weed

flavors in a high proportion of milk

samples in a number of surveys indicates

that the off-flavors may be detected by,

and are presumably objectionable to, many

consumers.

Understanding the mode of

transmission of flavor substances in the

cow's body assists practical control of feed

flavors. All feed flavors are absorbed

through the cows system rather directly

into the milk. Cows impart an odor and

taste within 30 minutes of eating or

breathing silage. It is strongest after about

one hour. The two methods which odor

can be transferred to milk is:

Nose or mouth → lungs → blood

→ milk

Mouth → digestive tract → blood

→ milk

For some feeds, both the

respiratory and digestive tracts are

involved in the transmission of flavor to

milk. Some feeds, such as garlic and

onion, release volatile flavors after partial

digestion in the rumen. Odors belched

from the rumen are inhaled into the lungs

and transferred to the blood. This pathway

provides a more rapid transfer of feed

flavors from ingested feed than direct

absorption from the digestive tract.

Fortunately, blood provides a two-way

street for transportation of feed flavors.

When the concentration of the flavor

substances is higher in the milk in the

udder than in the blood, the substances

transfer from the milk to the blood. If

sufficient time is allowed after the feed is

consumed, the flavor substances are

eliminated from the blood, partly by

transfer of volatile substances to the air in

the lung, and partly by metabolism of the

substances. In either case, they are

eliminated from the cow's body. The time

interval between eating and milking is an

important factor influencing the intensity

48



of feed flavors. Whether the off-flavor

resulted from only breathing the odor of

silage, or from eating the silage, the feed

flavor was most pronounced from 2 to 3

hr. later, but had been eliminated from the

milk 5 hr. later. Not all feeds respond to

flavor control. Some flavor substances

accumulate in cow body tissues,

particularly in the fat. They then transfer to

the blood, and hence to the milk, over long

periods of time. Flavors from some weeds

persist for longer than 12 hr. after they are

eaten, and therefore such weeds must be

kept out of a cow's ration. In selecting

feeds for a dairy ration, one criterion must

be that either the feed does not impart an

undesirable flavor to milk, or the flavor

can be controlled by withholding the feed

for a reasonable time before milking.

Barny, cowy and unclean flavor

These terms describe flavors that

are attributable to unsatisfactory

production conditions, but there are several

possible causes. One of the most common

is inhalation by the cows of foul air in

poorly-ventilated barns or corrals in which

wet manure has accumulated. The barny,

unclean odors are transferred to the milk

through the cow's respiratory system in the

same manner as for feed flavors. Although

direct absorption of the odors by milk

during and after milking is frequently

mentioned as a possible cause. Mastitis

reduces the flavor quality of milk, but the

effects are variable. Mild cases may result

in a flat flavor, probably due to a lower

concentration of the normal milk

constituents. In more severe cases of

mastitis, the milk is usually criticized for

cowy, unclean, and salty flavors. In some

cases cowy, barny and unclean flavors

may be attributable to the cow's feed.

Some weeds cause the appearance in milk

of indole and skatole compounds that give

the characteristic odor to faces.

Musty flavor

This flavor is suggestive of musty

or moldy hay. It may be absorbed directly

by the milk but is more likely to come

from feed or stagnant water consumed by

the cow.

Bacterial milk flavor defects

Bacterial degradation results from

bacteria that get into the milk upon contact

with improperly washed or sanitized

equipment, from external contamination,

and is made worse by improper cooling.

Infection of cows should not be considered

as a source of high bacteria counts until all

other causes have been eliminated. Off-

flavors caused by the growth of bacteria in

milk are not detectable until large numbers

of bacteria are present, usually millions per

milliliter. Hence, the milk would not meet

legal standards for bacterial quality.

However, defects caused by bacteria are

encountered from time to time, and it is

important to know their characteristics and

conditions under which they develop.

Milk is such a good food for

bacteria, as it is for man, that it is very

subject to spoilage. It must be rigorously

protected from bacterial contamination,

and kept cold to minimize growth of

bacteria that are present. If flavors of

bacterial origin develop in raw milk, this

indicates that sanitary practices have been

inadequate, or that the milk has been held

at too high a temperature, or too long.

Acid flavor

Milk that has developed some

acidity as a result of bacterial growth

(generally Streptococcus lactis) will have a

detectable acid flavor long before it may

be classified as sour. Milk may have an

acid flavor when only a small part of high

acid milk is mixed with milk of lower

acidity; yet the total acidity on the entire

lot may be within normal range. Spoilage

is due to bacterial action on lactose (milk

sugar).

Malty flavor

This is not a common flavor but

may be encountered in milk not properly

cooled. Certain bacteria from improperly

cleaned equipment, especially milking

machines, may contaminate the milk and

cause the objectionable malty flavor. The

cause is Streptococcus lactis in poorly

cooled milk. Malty flavor is generally a

forerunner of a high acid flavor. It rarely

develops in pasteurized milk. However,

49



the characteristic flavor will remain after

processing, although the flavor developed

in raw milk. If not stopped by

pasteurization, a malty flavor will later

become high acid.

Fruity flavor

Fruity off-flavor results from

lipolysis of short-chain fatty acids by

Pseudomonas fragi followed by

esterification with alcohols. At lower

temperatures, the flavors that develop are

usually caused by psychrophilic bacteria

and are described as fruity.

Putrid flavor

Psychrotrophs cause flavors that

are often described as stale, bitter,

fermented or putrid. Frequently the

titratable acidity may be near normal.

Putrid flavors are the result of bacterial

contamination, storage temperature above

40°F, and age. Spoilage of the milk is by

bacterial action on the protein rather than

on the lactose. Putrid milk will curdle,

separate, and may smell rotten if left for a

few days.

Chemical milk flavor defects Chemical defects can occur both before

and after milking. The cowy or ketone

flavor is the result of the animal suffering

from ketosis. A foreign flavor can be

caused by medications, a reaction to

pesticides, disinfectants, or any number of

contaminants. Rancidity and oxidation

result from the degradation of milkfat.

Cowy (ketosis) flavor

Metabolic disturbances of the cow

may also result in cowy and other unclean

flavors. Ketosis is frequently accompanied

by cowy flavor. Cows with the disease

have a high concentration of acetone

bodies in their blood. These compounds

appear in the milk and are at least partly

responsible for the cowy flavor. Other

conditions that upset the cow's d digestive

processes have also been associated with

cowy and other undesirable flavors.

Rancid flavor

The term 'rancid', when applied to

milk and other dairy foods, refers to a

flavor defect caused by hydrolysis of fat,

rather than by oxidation of fat. Milk

always contains an enzyme (or a group of

enzymes) known as lipase, which is able

under certain conditions to hydrolyze fat,

splitting off fatty acids that are responsible

for the rancid flavor. Freshly drawn milk

from healthy cows is never rancid.

Depending on conditions, rancidity may

develop on aging of raw milk.

Pasteurization destroys lipase, so properly

pasteurized milk will not go rancid. In

most milks, the so-called 'membrane'

around the fat globules appears to protect

the fat from attack by lipase. Certain

treatments, known as activating treatments,

change the fat globule surface sufficiently

to permit the lipase to act on the milk

lipids and produce rancid flavor. Three

activating treatments that may be

encountered in milk production and

processing are (1) agitation of warm milk,

particularly under conditions that produce

foam; (2) homogenization of raw milk (or

mixing raw and homogenized milk); and

(3) temperature fluctuations such as

cooling milk, warming it to about 86°F

and then cooling it again.

As the number of cows per herd

had increased, farmers could no longer

supply enough pasture or silage for the

cows. Hay and grain concentrate mixtures

provided increasing proportions of the

nutrients for milk production, and these

dry feeds yielded milk with greater

susceptibility to rancidity. As noted above,

pasteurization, by inactivating the lipase,

provides the processor with a very

effective method of controlling rancidity.

High susceptibility of milk to rancidity

may limit flexibility of operations in a

processing plant by necessitating prompt

pasteurization to prevent development of

rancidity. In properly pasteurized milk,

rancid flavor should not be a problem.

Oxidized flavor

Oxidized flavor is a troublesome

defect of non-homogenized milk, skim

milk, cream, and certain other dairy

products. The flavor is described by terms

so various as metallic, papery, cardboardy,

oily, and tallowy, indicating the great

variability of the predominant flavor

50



characteristic. The defect is caused by the

oxidation of fatty constituents in the

product. The compounds responsible for

the flavor are produced by oxidation of

unsaturated fatty acids in the

phospholipids in the membrane

surrounding the fat globules. One of the

most important factors influencing the

oxidative stability of milk is the cows'

feed. Pasture and other succulent feeds

generally yield milk that is very resistant

to oxidized flavor. The defect is

encountered most frequently with dry

feeds. Changes in some feeding practices

in order to increase production per cow

appear to be increasing the susceptibility

of milk to oxidized flavor.

Another serious cause of oxidized

flavor is exposure of milk to light,

particularly during distribution in clear

glass bottles. This may induce either

oxidized flavor, or a light-activated flavor,

or both. The two defects differ chemically,

but in many respects the effects are

similar. Pasteurization slightly increases

the susceptibility of milk to oxidized

flavor. Milk pasteurized at temperature-

time combinations that do not seriously

impair creaming properties usually

develops oxidized flavor more rapidly than

non-pasteurized milk. Many anti-oxidants

effectively prevent oxidized flavor when

added to milk, but in most countries their

use is not permitted.

Sunlight induced flavor

Light-activated flavor results from

chemical changes in protein when milk is

exposed to light. Other names by which

the defect has been identified include

sunshine, sunlight, and solar activated.

Terms used to describe the flavor are

cabbage, burnt, burnt feather, burnt

protein, and mushroom. Homogenized

milk is susceptible to light-activated

flavor, but resistant to oxidized flavor.

Light-activated flavor increases with

intensity and duration of exposure, and the

predominant flavor characteristic changes

during exposure and subsequent storage.

The cows' feed influences light activated

flavor as it does oxidized flavor. Green

feeds appear to yield milks with greatest

resistance to the defect. Hence, as for

oxidized flavor, the susceptibility of milk

to light activated flavor varies seasonally

and is greatest during the winter.

Medicinal flavor It is caused by the exposer of cows

to the medication, disinfectants and

sanitizers, fly sprays or any other

compounds used in the farm and dairy

processing plant. The materials can enter

into the milk either directly as from

medication or through or improperly

rinsed sanitizing utensils.

Salty flavor

This term is referred to the

excessive saltiness of milk and other dairy

products. In milk it is most commonly

found from the cows in late lactation and

occasionally from cows suffering from

mastitis.

Ways to troubleshoot milk flavor defects

If an off-flavor is found in a milk

sample, a systematic approach helps in

identifying the defect and its cause. An

experienced individual will identify the

most common off-flavors of milk by taste,

and will be able to proceed immediately to

determine the most probable cause. A

beginner in flavor quality control work

will be guided in his identification of off-

flavors by comparing defective samples

with samples having known off-flavors.

Changes in intensity of a defect during

storage provide helpful evidence regarding

its identity. Hence, samples should be

tasted fresh and again after storage in a

refrigerator for at least 48 hrs.

Raw Milk

To pin-point possible causes of off-

flavors in raw milk, it is helpful to collect

milk samples at different steps. Samples

might be collected from individual cows,

at the discharge from the pipeline milker,

from individual cans or the bulk tank, from

the tank after only one milking and later at

the time the milk is collected, or from

morning and evening milkings separately.

If an off-flavor is present in a fresh sample

collected from pooled raw milk, it is

usually attributable to feed. In some cases,

51



there may be a marked difference between

morning and evening milk in intensity of

the off-flavor. Examining the feeds for

known troublesome materials may

substantiate suspicions regarding possible

causes. Recommendations for corrective

measures include:

Use only feeds that cause little or

no feed flavor. Eliminate weeds

from pastures and from crops to be

used for hay or concentrates.

Arrange feeding schedule to:

Prevent the cows from eating

feeds that may cause off-flavors

during the 4-5 hr. before

milking.

Provide an environment where

the cow can breathe fresh air

free of feedy, cowy or barny

odors.

Individual cows in a herd may

produce milk with an off-flavor when it is

drawn, such as a salty taste attributable to

mastitis or advanced lactation, or a cowy

flavor caused by ketosis. It is rare that such

defects can be identified in the mixed milk

from the entire herd, but they make the

pooled supply less palatable. Therefore,

milk from such cows should be withheld

from the pooled milk.In some instances,

the cow may appear to be responsible for

off-flavors that are actually caused by

equipment, or treatment of the cow or

equipment. Examples are a medicinal

flavor from ointments used on the teats or

udder, or chlorophenol flavor from plastic

or rubber parts of the milking equipment.

If an off-flavor is not present in

fresh milk, but develops during storage,

possible identities are light activated,

oxidized, rancid and microbial flavors.

Light-activated is the least likely in raw

milk, and in any case its cause and

correction would be immediately apparent.

Comparison with reference samples aids in

differentiating between oxidized and

rancid flavors. Also, pasteurization of the

fresh sample prevents development of

rancid and bacterial flavors but not

oxidized flavor. Some microbial flavors

caused by psychrophilic bacteria are

difficult to differentiate from rancid flavor

because the bacteria produce lipolytic

enzymes that release fatty acids, and also

proteolytic enzymes that yield degradation

products from protein with similar flavors.

Information from bacterial counts of the

milk, inspection of equipment, and

checking on sanitizing procedures and

cooling practices indicates whether

bacterial flavors may be involved. If the

defect appears to be rancid flavor, a

chemical test for free fatty acids could be

used for confirmation.

Rancidity that occurs in raw milk

supplies usually is induced by an

activating treatment: either excessive

agitation of warm milk or temperature

fluctuations between 50 or 86°F.

Eliminating the activating condition

usually prevents development of the

defect. Determining the susceptibility of

milk from individual cows is also helpful.

Cows that produce the most susceptible

milk are usually in advanced lactation, and

there is little loss in production resulting

from drying them off. In correcting

problems with oxidized flavor. If samples

taken from individual cows indicate that a

high proportion of the cows in the herd are

producing milk in which the defect

develops without metal contamination, the

most practical control would be through

the herd ration.

Pasteurized Milk

In 'trouble-shooting' causes of

defects in processed milk, samples should

be collected from the raw milk storage

tanks and at every step in processing

where feasible. A good practice is to

compare 'first-off' samples with samples

collected near the end of a processing run.

If product from one processing line feeds

several fillers, samples should be taken

from each filler. As for raw milk, the

samples should be tasted fresh and after

storage.Limited shelf-life resulting from

bacterial growth is usually caused by post-

pasteurization contamination. Phosphatase

tests may be run on freshly pasteurized

products to check on adequacy of

pasteurization. The unclean, fruity, bitter

52



and putrid flavors that develop in

pasteurized milk are usually attributable to

growth of psychrophilic bacteria that do

not survive pasteurization. Hence, critical

evaluation of cleaning and sanitizing

procedures is necessary in order to detect

sources of post-pasteurization

contamination. Checks on temperature and

time of storage, and rotation of stock

should also be included.

Rancid flavor should not develop

in a properly pasteurized product, but

activating treatments at some stage of

processing may induce its development

before pasteurization. Possible causes

include mixing pasteurized homogenized

products with raw milk, warming cooled

milk to about 85°F and re-cooling, and

excessive agitation and foaming of raw

milk. If the intensity of the flavor increases

during storage, the possibility that the milk

was improperly pasteurized or was

contaminated by raw milk should be

checked by use of the phosphatase test.

Problems with oxidized flavor may be

caused primarily by low oxidative stability

of the milk as produced, but are aggravated

by abuse at any stage of processing and

distribution. Use of higher pasteurizing

temperatures may be helpful if the more

severe heat treatment does not produce

objectionable heated flavors. Milk that is

susceptible to oxidized flavor may be

directed into homogenized products, as

homogenization inhibits oxidized flavor.

Conclusion

Flavor of milk and milk products is

the most important factor in determining

the acceptability of dairy products by

consumers. The presence of off flavors in

milk reduces the confidence of consumers.

If proper attention is practiced in feeding

and management of milch animals, it can

improve the flavor of raw milk

significantly. Moreover, if raw milk is

collected and stored under good hygienic

conditions, it could prevent absorption and

development of off flavors in milk. Such

good flavored milk is when pasteurized

and converted into various milk products

the palatability of milk products could be

improved considerably.

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLA): its implications for animal production

and human health

S.S. Patil, D.D. Garg, and H.H. Savsani

Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary Science & A. H.




Introduction

As people’s awareness over

nutrition and health has been on ever

increasing trend leads to research and

development of concepts like “functional

foods” along with conventional research

work in nutrition. Conjugated linoleic acid

(CLA) falls in such category with positive

effects on human health and disease

prevention along with its conventional

nutritive value. Conjugated linoleic acid

(CLA) is a mixture of positional and

geometrical isomers of linoleic acid

(C18:2, cis-9, cis-12), an essential fatty

acid for human and animals, and involves

a double bond at positions 8 and 10, 9 and

11, and 10 and 12 or 11 and 13 (Eulitz et

al., 1999).They are present in dairy

products and other foods derived from

ruminant animals have anticarcinogenic

effect. In addition to anticarcinogenic

effects, CLA was also reported to inhibit

atherosclerotic lesions, to increase immune

function, to decrease body fat, and to

increase lean body mass in several animal

models.

Dietary Sources

Of all foods, kangaroo meat may

have the highest concentration of CLA,

with kangaroos from areas that had fresh

pasture showing higher concentration of it.

Food products (e.g. mutton and beef) from

grass-fed ruminants are good sources of

CLA, and contain much more of it than

those from grain-fed animals. Eggs are

also rich in CLA, and it has been shown

that CLA in eggs survives the temperatures

encountered during frying.

CLA concentration in meat and milk

Food Total CLA

(mg/g)

Homogenized milk 5.50

Butter 4.70

Ice cream 3.60

Fresh beef 4.30

Veal 2.70

Lamb 5.60

Pork 0.90

Chin et al., (1992)

Biosynthesis of Conjugated Linoleic

Acid

The major contributors to the

formation of CLA in the foods are due to

microbial enzymatic reactions involving

long chain fatty acids (mainly linoleic or

linolenic acids) in the rumen. Some reports

suggest that heat treatment of animal

product like beef also increase its CLA

content.In the rumen, sequential reduction

steps convert linoleic acid (C18:2 c-9, c-

12) to the c-9, t-11 CLA, then to vaccenic

acid (C18:1, t-11) and eventually to stearic

acid. CLA in the milk or meat from

ruminant animals is derived from either

CLA escaping from complete rumen

biohydrogenation or from absorbed C18:1,

t-11, which is acted on by stearoyl-CoA

reductase and converted to the c-9, t-11

CLA .

Applications of CLA on health

Antitumour effect

CLA has been found to be showing

anticancer activity in a variety of cancer in

different animal models like leukemia,

malignant melanoma, lung carcinoma,

prostate cancer, ovarian and liver cancer.

CLA may modulate carcinogenesis by

mechanisms affecting the separate stages

of cancer development known as initiation,

through antioxidant mechanisms or act by

inhibiting nucleotide synthesis or

inhibiting both DNA-adduct formation and

carcinogen activation. Some researchers

proposed that the mechanism of tumor

inhibition by dietary CLA might be related

to its ability to regulate lipoxygenase and

cyclooxygenase lipid mediators.

Antiatherogenic Effect

Different studies showed that

dietary CLA resulted in a marked decline

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo_meat

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruminant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_(food)

54



in the levels of total plasma cholesterol,

triacylglycerol, and the ratio of LDL to

HDL cholesterol. In addition, less

atherosclerosis was detected in the aortas

of the rabbits fed CLA relative to the

control. Similar results on cholesterol

metabolism were reported in hamsters fed

CLA. The hamsters fed CLA had lower

levels of total plasma cholesterol, non-

HDL cholesterol (very low and LDL

included), and triacylglycerol compared to

control-fed hamsters (Lee, 1994).

Role of CLA in Immune Function

Growth suppression occurs as a

result of induction of immunity has been

reduced by CLA. Ordinarily Stimulation

of the immune system produces cytokines

which can cause breakdown of muscle

cells. CLA can modulate (decrease) the

production of cytokines and thus prevent

muscle degradation. Experiments in

chicks, rats, and mice show that CLA

increases feed efficiency and counteracts

immune-induced cachexia or malnutrition.

Reduction of fat metabolism

Generally, fatty acids containing

trans double bonds have a negative impact

on lipid metabolism and depress the

amount of milk fat (Wonsil et al.,

1994).CLA appears to be its influence on

body fat levels and the proportion of lean

to fat, especially in young growing

animals. CLA induces a relative decrease

in body fat levels and an increase in lean

muscle. This observation has been noted in

several studies with mice, rats, chicks and

pigs.

Factors Affecting CLA content in milk

Feeding of Oil and oil seeds

One of the basic and proven way to

increasing milk CLA is to increase the

dietary intake of 18- carbon PUFAs, as a

substrate for rumen biohydrogenation. The

number of plant oils have been

investigated and shown to be effective in

increasing the level of CLA in milk fat.

Oils or the seeds of soybean, sunflower,

safflower, solin, and cottonseed would

increase the CLA content of cows’ milk fat

when fed in Total Mixed Rations. When

the effect of different oil treatments

(peanut oil, sunflower oil, and linseed oil,

seeds/oil which are high in oleic acid, LA,

and LNA, respectively) on CLA, were

compared, the greatest response was to

sunflower oil (Chilliard et al., 2003) .

Physical and chemical treatment of feeds

These treatments increase the

accessibility of rumen microbes to their

substrate resulting in more production of

CLA. Chouinard et al. (1997) fed cows

with soybeans processed by grinding,

micronizing or roasting. It was found that

milk fat TVA was highest for the cows fed

extruded soybeans and lowest for ground

soybeans. Extruding, micronizing, or

roasting of soybeans resulted in two or

three fold increases in milk CLA contents

compared with a control diet containing

ground soybeans

Salt derivatives of plant oil

The use of calcium salts of fatty

acids derived from plant oils has also been

investigated because of the partial

protection that the calcium-fatty acid

complex offers from rumen

biohydrogenation .Feeding of calcium salts

of fatty acids derived from rape, soybean

and linseed oils; all three increased the

CLA content of milk fat, with the largest

increases occurring in soybean and linseed

oils Chouinard et al. (2001)

Fish oil

The mechanism by which fish oil

supplementation increases concentration of

milk fat CLA and TVA is not clear. It has

been proposed that the longer chain poly-

unsaturated FA from fish oil inhibit the

complete biohydrogenation of LA in the

rumen by inhibiting the growth of bacteria

responsible for hydrogenating TVA

through the inhibition of their

hydrogenases (Griinari -Bauman, 1999)

leading to an increased escape of TVA

from the rumen. Even if the hypothesis is

still uncertain, it is possible that an

uncompleted hydrogenation of these two

acids may occur within the rumen,

preferably of EPA, so losing a great part of

them. Fish oil has been found equally or

even more effective than plant oils or oil

seeds in increasing milk fat CLA content

from cows fed conventional TMR diets

55



(Whitlock et al., 2002). The highest

concentration of milk fat CLA (2.2 to

2.5% of the milk fat) with fish oil

supplementation been achieved when it

was included at 2% of the diet DM with no

further increase when included at 3% of

the diet DM .

Ruminal pH

Rumen pH has an important role in

maintaining a viable rumen environment

suitable for B. fibrisolvens involved in the

biohydrogenation of Linoleic and

Linileneic acid. It has been shown that

ruminal pH at 6.0 or above has a positive

effect on TVA and CLA contents in rumen

cultures (Troegeler and Meynadir et al.,

2003). It is of higher importance in high

yielding dairy and beef animal diets where

large amounts of grain are included in the

diet and thus decrease the rumen pH below

6.0.

Pasture

The most effective dietary

treatments for increasing the CLA content

of milk fat are those that both increase the

supply of 18-carbon PUFAs and modify

the rumen environment. The most widely

studied of these is the use of fresh pasture,

with numerous studies indicating that fresh

pasture results in a 2-fold to 3-fold

increase in the CLA content of milk fat

(Dhiman et al., 1999).The green forages of

temperate regions contain about 1-3% fatty

acids, maximally in Spring and Autumn.

More than a half of such acids are

represented by γ LA. In the tropical

forages the percentage of LNA represents

15-40% of total FA (Chilliard et al., 2001).

Processing of milk and milk products

Vatious processing methods like

curd preparation ,cheddar production from

milk shows variation in cla concentration

but all depends on original amount of CLA

in milk. Startercultures used for making

other dairy products from milk would

contain enzymes that can isomerize LA

into CLA, and thereby increase their CLA

content. Several species of bacteria such as

Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. Casei, L.

delbruckii, and Propionibacterium

frudenbruckii that are routinely used for

making cheese, yogurt, or other fermented

milk products have been shown to convert

free LA into CLA. Lin (2000) studied

three cultures of Lactobaciallus sp., two of

Lactococcus sp. and one of Streptococcus

sp. for the effects of sucrose, fructose,

lactose, and NaCl added to skim milk and

found that L. acidophilus produced the

highest CLA content.

Animal related factors

Of all the animal related factors,

CLA concentration of milk also depends

on whether animal is ruminant or

monogastric as ruminant stomach is nature

made anaerobic chamber needed for

biohydrogenation for CLA. It also depends

on presence of desaturase enzyme activity

in mammary gland, adipose tissues, and

intestinal epithelium of different group of

animals (Bauman et al., 2003). Breed

difference also exist shown by experiment

in which given the same diet Holsteins

produce higher CLA in milk fat than do

Jerseys or Normandes (White et al., 2001).

Conclusion:

Conjugated Linoleic acid (CLA)

has many potent health promoting effects.

Many researchers has proven that we can

alter the CLA concentration in milk and

milk products through manipulation of the

dairy ration demonstrates the feasibility of

producing CLA enriched dairy products.

As people’s awareness over nutrition and

health has been on ever increasing, milk

designed to have enhanced levels of CLA

may provide new health opportunities for

them and marketing opportunities for

livestock owners for milk and milk

products rich in CLA.

Therapeutic nutritional strategies for feeding dairy cattle

A.R. Bhadaniya, H.H. Savsani, M.R. Chavda, S.S. Patil and D.D. Garg

Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary science & A. H.




Disease is not always caused by

bacteria, viruses or parasites. Disease can

also result from nutritional deficiency. A

lack of the necessary minerals, vitamins

and other nutrients may also inhibit the

body's immune response - increasing

chances of infection and decreasing the

body's ability to combat infection. The

high yielding animals need special care in

feeding and management. Certain diseases

occur due to faulty feeding management

practices. Sudden portioning of nutrients

in excess than supply also causes certain

metabolic disorders. The direct effects of

animal diseases on livestock productivity

are significant and include reduced feed

intake, changes in digestion and

metabolism, increased morbidity and

mortality and decreased rates of

reproduction, weight gain and milk

production.

The metabolic disorders often

encountered are related to production

especially in high yielding animals and

thus are also called production diseases.

The nutritional and metabolic disorders in

cattle and buffaloes include Indigestion,

Acidosis, Tympany, Milk fever, Ketosis,

Hypomagnesaemic tetany, Pica,

Haemoglobinurea, etc.

The interactions between disease,

nutrition and genetic selection emphasize

the need to control the effects of both

epidemic and endemic diseases before

programs introducing enhanced livestock

nutrition and improved breeds can make an

impact. However, productivity and

economic gains will not necessarily be

achieved by disease control alone and an

integrated approach is required.

On the other hand it is now widely

understood that improved feeding and

nutrition with careful attention to the

animals' seasonal requirements - has an

important role to play in the control of

diseases. Simply put, an animal with an

adequate diet is more likely to be healthy

than one with a poor diet.

It is important to recognize that

better feeding of livestock covers:

· Quality or types of foods supplied, or

given access to,

· Quantity of food,

· as well as adjusting for seasonal

requirements

Some diseases that an animal can

develop are entirely due to poor diet (rather

than infection by bacteria or viruses). This

may be because the feed contains a toxin

that harms the animal directly, or it may be

because the diet is deficient in a particular

nutrient (energy, vitamin or mineral) and

the animal then develops a "deficiency

disease".

The development of infectious

diseases can also be affected by the animal's

diet, as the proper functioning of the

animal's immune system (the system that

fights off infectious disease) needs an

adequate supply of protein, vitamins and

minerals. Nutrition therefore also plays a

key role in the balance of health and

disease, which will decide whether an

animal (when exposed to a disease-causing

bacterium or virus) stays healthy or

succumbs to disease.

There are several indicators that a

possible nutritional problem exits.

Consider the following when evaluating a

herd.

1. Abnormally high incidence of

metabolic disorders. Usually an

incidence greater than 10 to 15% in a

herd is considered a problem.

2. Increased incidence of infectious

disease and poor response of animals to

vaccinations.

3. Higher than normal occurrence of weak

or silent heats and low conception rate.

4. Milk fat content that deviates more or

less than 0.3% from breed average for

the season of year.

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5. Milk protein content that deviates more

or less than 0.2% from breed average

for the season of year.

6. High incidence of off-flavors in milk,

especially rancidity, oxidized or

cardboardy milk, and malty or unclean

tastes.

7. Excessive decline in milk production,

failure to achieve high milk yields

during peak lactation, and generally

lower production than what nutrition or

genetics would warrant.

8. Greater than 10% of the herd is

classified in the extreme categories of

body condition. This would be based

on the five point scale of 1=very thin

and 5=obese.

9. Depressed dry matter intakes for the

whole herd or within certain milking

groups.

Off-Feed Problems

Supportive clinical tests

1. Ketone levels can be checked on

individual animals. It is recommended

to check milk ketone levels rather than

urine ketone levels. The urine test is

somewhat overly sensitive for

diagnosis. The milk test is more

conservative but more accurate in

indicating when there may be a

problem.

2. All ensiled feed and water should be

tested for pH. Water should also be

tested for total bacteria and total

coliform counts.

3. Mycotoxin screens should be conducted

on individual feeds or on the total

mixed ration, especially when cows are

experiencing hemmorragic diarrheas,

irregular estrus cycles, and low

conception rates.

4. Carefully examine animals that are off-

feed for signs of bovine respiratory

disease. In adult dairy cows, signs may

be limited to moderate increases in

temperature and respiratory rate.

Consider serology for IBR, BVD,

BRSV, PI3 and/or a tracheal washing

for bacterial culture.

5. If it is a herd problem, a metabolic

profile may be warranted. A

representative group of early and close-

up dry cows and cows fresh greater than

three weeks is suggested. Tests to include

would be a differential white blood cell

count, blood urea nitrogen, serum

minerals, fibrinogen, and in chronic

cases, arginase (possible indication of

liver damage). High white blood cell

counts are often associated with chronic

infections or leukosis. Abnormally low

white blood cell counts are sometimes

found in animals with an acute infection

and viral diseases. Fibrinogen generally

is elevated in animals with an

inflammation from abscesses, neoplasia,

peritonitis, salmonellosis, or fractures.

Supportive treatment

1. There are several feed additives that can

be administered. They include B-

complex boluses, or two to four ounces

daily of dried brewer’s yeast, or four

ounces of live cell yeast for 5 to 10 days,

or three to six grams daily of aspergillus

oryzae for 5 to 10 days, or feeding

sodium bicarbonate.

2. Encourage intake by feeding unusual

feedstuffs to those animals that are

severely off-feed for several days. Items

could include different forages like grass

hay or straw, calf starter, or cereal grains.

If at all possible, encourage forage intake

over concentrates.

3. Try sources of rumen bypassable or

protected amino acids.

4. Look for complicating infections or

inflammations.

5. Consider additional supportive

treatments for ketosis (see next section).

Prevention

1. Balance rations with an emphasis on

crude protein, soluble intake protein,

undegradable intake protein, forage and

total neutral detergent fiber, calcium,

magnesium, sodium, and chloride intakes

for both dry and lactating cows. Maintain

the proper mineral balance during the dry

period.

2. Avoid overfeeding concentrates to dry

cows and recently fresh cows. Close-up

dry cows should not receive over 30% of

the total dry matter intake as concentrate.

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58



In conventionally fed herds, gradually

increase grain from 1.0% of body weight

after calving. In herds feeding a total

mixed ration, recently fresh cows should

not receive greater than 50 to 55%

concentrate dry matter.

3. Keep sodium bicarbonate in the

lactating cow ration, especially for just

recently fresh animals.

4. Full feed good quality forage for the

first one to two weeks after calving.

Avoid or feed reduced amounts of

abnormally fermented feeds for two

weeks prior to and six to eight weeks

after freshening. Upgrade forage quality

two to four weeks prior to calving if a

low digestible forage(s) is being fed

during the early dry period. Check and

monitor forage intake and particle size of

the diet.

5. Administer high-calcium boluses (75g

calcium carbonate total) as soon as

possible after freshening and within eight

hours of parturition.

6. Sample and analyze total mixed rations

for the dry cows and post fresh groups

and compare to the programmed

specifications. Check feeding rates on a

routine basis.

7. Test drinking water for heavy bacterial

contamination, pH, and nitrates.

8. Check that cows do not have access to

excessive amounts of acorns, apples,

green-chopped corn silage, toxic weeds,

and heating forages.

Ketosis


Supportive clinical tests would be the

same as those listed under the section on

off-feed problems. Herds with a high

incidence of ketosis may also be

complicated by infectious involvement.

There is also evidence of either too low or

high protein intakes with these particular

herd problems.


Supportive treatment would be very

similar to those listed under the section on

off-feed conditions. There are some

additional treatments that can be

administered. These include:

1. Provide 8 to 12 ounces of

propylene glycol orally per day for several

days.

2. Administer orally 12 grams of

niacin daily for one to two weeks.

3. Administer parentally one to six

milligrams of vitamin B12.

Milk Fever


1. It is recommended to sample blood

from four to seven dry cows and any

clinical cases prior to treatment. Important

parameters to include in the profile are

serum minerals, packed cell volume, white

blood cell count (plus differential) and

blood urea nitrogen. In a herd wide

problem, consider selenium and vitamin E.

It is important to determine if milk fever is

being complicated by a low magnesium

status. In typical milk fevers, magnesium

is elevated.

2. If a cow does not respond to milk

fever therapy culture milk samples from all

four quarters.

3. If a downer cow is necropsied, look

for white muscle disease and cardiac

calcification, multiple leg fractures in bred

heifers, and spinal cord compression or

injury.

Supportive treatment (use one of the

following)

1. Use plain calcium borogluconate

for the first treatment to minimize

incidence of refractory cases.

2. Administer high calcium boluses

(about 75 grams of calcium carbonate) as

soon as possible after calving and within

eight hours of freshening; or administer

calcium paste paying close attention to the

manufacturers recommendations and

directions.

3. For downer cows not responding to

treatment, give a drench of two pounds of

Epsom salts in one gallon of water. This

will sometimes remove toxins in the lower

gastrointestinal tract and enable cows to

stand within two to four hours.

4. Inject intramuscularly 10 million units

of vitamin D3 in a water-soluble, highly

crystalline form within 24 to 48 hours of

expected freshening. Do not repeat dose

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for at least 10 days if cow doesn’t

freshen. Use three million units in a

repeat dose.

Grass Tetany


1. A blood profile should include serum

minerals. If sudden deaths occur,

selenium and vitamin E should be added.

2. Check for white muscle disease and

multiple leg fractures in downer young

stock if an animal is necropsied.


1. Two ounces of magnesium oxide can be

given orally per cow daily.

2. Epsom salts can be given orally at two

pounds per gallon of water.

Mastitis


1. Culture all quarters of cows with

clinical cases or somatic cell counts over

500,000 when pathogens in a herd are not

known. For meaningful test results, all

milk samples should be taken in a way

that avoids environmental contamination.

The teat ends should be washed, dried,

and wiped with an alcohol swab prior to

sampling.

2. A sensitivity test can be performed to

determine which antibiotics is likely

effective against the bacteria.

3. Measuring leukocytes is one way to

evaluate an individual animal’s or herd’s

mastitis status. There are several methods

that can be used. They include the

following: Direct Microscopic Somatic

Cell Count; Somatic Cell Count;

California Mastitis Test.

4. A metabolic profile on dry and

fresh cows should include white blood

cell count with differential, selenium,

zinc, copper, blood urea nitrogen,

vitamins A and E, and beta-carotene.

5. Screen any suspicious forages or

grains for mycotoxins.

6. Test water used for both sanitation and

drinking, for coliform and pseudomonas

if these organisms are involved in the

mastitis problem.


1. Treatment protocols should be

developed with the assistance of the herd

veterinarian.

2. Administering a dry-cow treatment

when cows are dried off will help reduce

new infections. Approximately 40% of

new udder infections occur during the

dry period and within a few days after

calving.

3. Treatment regimens depend on the type

of bacteria found. Some bacteria,

depending on whether they are

contagious or environmental, respond to

antibiotic therapy better than others do.

All treatments should be done under the

close supervision of a veterinarian.

Role and importance of green fodder in the diet of dairy animals and drawing

strategies for round the year supply of green fodder

P.S.Dalal, M. D. Odedra, A.R. Ahlawat, D.D. Garg and S.Marandi

Department of Livestock Production and management, College of Veterinary Science & A. H.




Nothing can compete nutrients

supply to the dairy animals except green

fodder. The green fodder is the only the

key to furnish fresh nutrients Green fodder

is the second largest feed resource for the

country. It is the first choice for economic

milk production. The profitability of

livestock rearing is dependent on the

sources of feed and fodder, as 65-70% of

the total cost is attributed to feed. Any

saving in feeding cost would directly

contribute to increase in profitability.

Green fodder is the essential component of

feeding high-yielding milch animals to

improve the milk production.

Role and importance of green fodder:

The benefits of balanced feeding of

milch animals can be appreciated within a

short span of time, in the form of improved

milk production. By using good-quality

forage, particularly leguminous fodder,

feeding of concentrate can be reduced

significantly. The salient features of green

fodder ( Legume and cereal crops ) to

expedite the improvement of milk

production and various body functions in

the dairy animals are ;

1. Green fodder is the only source of

Vitamin A for lactation and reproduction

2. Vit. A is necessary for the function of

gastrointestinal tract, shedding of

placenta and laxative in action.

3. It is also source of carbohydrates,

proteins, water, minerals and base for

synthesis of several water soluble and fat

soluble vitamins.

4. It also provides essential amino acids

and essential fatty acids in the fresh

forms which enhance milk production

significantly.

5. Green fodder also boosts up the immunity

system through several enzymatic

actions.

6. Green fodder helps the animas in

thermoregulatory system particularly in

summer. So during summer at least 60%

succulent cereal fodder must be supplied.

Classification of green fodder

1. Legume crops

2. Non legume crops

Legume crops: belong to family

leguminasae. These crops fix the

atmospheric nitrogen and make

available it to other plants, and animals.

So they become major source of fresh

proteins. Some important species are:

A. True clovers Trifolium species.

Berseem_-trifolium alexandrinum

Shaftal -T.resupinatum

White clovers- T. repenns

Red clovers- T.pratense

B. Medics ;

Lucerne -Medicago sativa

Black Medic- M. lupiina

Bur clovers- M. hispida

C. Crotolaria species :

Sunhemp - Crotolaria junica.

Cow-pea- Vignna sinensis

Kudju-vine- Pueraris thunbergiana.

D. Others : Soya beans- Glycene soya

Non-legumes: They have lower level of

proteins, therefore somev protein eous

matter must be added to make the ration as

a balanced ration. They belong to grass

family (cereal crops) e. g. perennial

grasses, indigenous grasses, and

introduced grasses. Some important

cultivated members are: Maize_ Zea-

mays'Sorghum_ Sorghum vulgare,Bajra_

Pennisetum typhoides' Oats_ _ Avina

sativa and Teosinte _ Euchlaena maxicana

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Cultivated fodder grasses are :

Para grass__ Brachiana mutica

Guinea grass _ Penicum maximum

Napier grass purpureum

Hybrid napier : _ Napier X Bajra

Rhodes grass _Chloris gayana

Blue panic grass _ Pennicum antidactale

Sudan grass _ ssg -59 (sweet Sudan grass

) var. Sudanese

Indigenous grasses _

Anjana grass _ Kolukattain grass

Dhub grass – Cynnadon dactylon

Giant star grass __ Cynodon

plectistachyus

Marvel grass : _ Dicanthium annulatum

Sewan grass _ Elyonurus hirsatus

Intruced grasses:

Deena bandhu grass _ Pennisetum

pedicellatum

Orchard grass _ dactylus glomerata

Signal grass – Brachiana brizantha

Meadow fescue

These grasses are introduced from

Australia, South Africa, UK and USA.

Round the year green fodder production

and its conservation for intensive dairy

production

The area for fodder crops is declining in

various states adding to the problem of

being deficit green fodder availabity in the

country as shown in table below. Table 1. Area under fodder crops ('000

hectares)

State 2001 2011 AP 104 85 Gujarat 1103 821 Karnataka 46 35 Punjab 715 540

All India 8702 7769

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of

India

There is an urgent need to improve

the productivity of existing acreage under

fodder crops by improving cropping

intensity. For ensuring uninterrupted

supply of green fodder throughout the

year, it is essential to have proper

cropping plan with different fodder crops

in an overlapping system to obtain

economically viable maximum forage

yield. Selection of high-yielding perennial

grass like hybrid napier or guinea grass as

the main component of the system is ideal

to ensure continuous supply of green

fodder. Providing irrigation at regular

intervals after the cessation of rains will

ensure better biomass yields. A high

forage yielding legume like Berseem suits

well for states like Punjab, Haryana, U.P,

etc. for cultivation during rabi season. All

India coordinated research project on

forage crops conducted experiments on

different fodder cropping systems in

various parts of the country and suggested

suitable rotations. Some of the

recommended cropping systems for

various regions are given in Table 2.

62



Table 2. Year round fodder production

systems

Region/Centre Suitable Crop rotations

I. Northern region Pantnagar (U.P) - (Tarai region, red and yellow 1. Dinanath grass - Berseem - Maize + cowpea soils) 2. Napier bajra hybrid + Subabool Hissar ( Haryana) -(semi-arid, sandy soils) 1. Napier bajra hybrid + Berseem

2. Napier bajra hybrid + Lucerne

II. Central and Western regions

Jhansi (U.P) - (Semi-arid, red soils) 1. Napier bajra hybrid + Cowpea - Cowpea -Berseem.

2. Cowpea - sorghum + cowpea - Berseem.

1. Napier bajra hybrid + cowpea - Cowpea -Berseem.

Jabalpur (M.P) - (Sub-humid, black soils) 2. Sorghum + cowpea- Berseem + sarson -Jowar +

cowpea.

III. Eastern region

Kanke (Bihar) (sub-humid, red acid soils) 1. Bajra +cowpea - Maize + cowpea - Oats.

2. Maize + cowpea - Jowar + cowpea -

Berseem +

sarson. Kalyani (West Bengal) (Sub-humid, alluvial

soils) 1.Maize + cowpea - Deenanath grass oats.

2. Maize + rice bean - Berseem - Sarson.

IV. Southern region

Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) (Semi arid, black

soil) 1. Napier bajra hybrid + hedge lucerne.

2. Sorghum + cowpea- Maize +cowpea- Maize

+

Vellayani (Kerala) ( humid, red soils) cowpea.

1.Guinea grass 2.Congosignal grass in Coconut gardens

In Southern states, if land is limited and irrigation facilities are minimal; a small

farmer can opt for inter-cropping of cowpea both in kharif and rabi seasons (one or two rows)

in hybrid napier, bajra, spaced at 100 × 50 cm. In dry land areas, relying on crop production

alone is risky due to the vagaries of monsoon. A tree-cum-crop farming system is appropriate

for such situations. Alley cropping, a version of agro-forestry system, can meet the multiple

requirements like food, fodder and fertilizer. Alley cropping is a system in which food crops

are grown in alleys formed by hedge rows of trees/shrubs. The hedge rows are cut back at

planting and kept pruned during cropping to prevent shading and to competition with food

crops. Subabul or Gliricidia are ideal as the hedge rows. Drought-tolerant grain crops like

Sorghum or Bajra can be selected for cultivation in the alleys during the monsoon season. A

61



few important details like suitable soil, seed rate, green fodder yield, etc., for major fodder

crops are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Details of major fodder crops

Crop and important varieties

Suitable soils Seed rate

Harvesting time Green fodder

(kg/ha) and (days after yield (q/ha) spacing sowing)

Jowar - Sandy loam to 40 80-90 (late

300-400 (single

Pusa chari, MP chari, clay 30 × 15 cm maturing cut) Ksheerasagar, PC-6,9 and 23, varieties) 500-750 (multi HC-171 and 260, Co-27 and 65-75 (early cut)

CoFS -29 varieties)

Maize - Loam to silty 40 75-90 (late) 350-550

African tall, APFM-8, clay loam 30 × 15 cm 60-75 (early)

J-1006 and VL-54 Composites like Vijay, Moti and

Jawahar

Bajra - Sandy loam to 10 60-75 250-325

Giant bajra, Rajbajra chari-2, loamy sand 25 × 10 cm

BAIF Bajra-1, AVKB-19,

Deenabandhu & Co-8

Cowpea -

Sandy loam

to 25 60-80 150-200

BL-2, UPC-4200,5286

and loamy sand 30 x 15 cm

5287,IGFRI-450, Shweta,

Co-5

and CoFC-8

Lucerne - Loamy soils 15

First cut 75 to

90 700-750

Anand-2 and 3, Type-9,

RL-88 with good 25 cm-solid days after

and Co-1 drainage sowing sowing.

Subsequent cuts

at about 30

days

interval.

Napier-bajra hybrid -

Sandy loam

to 40,000 root

First cut at 65

to 1600-2000

62



Sampoorna, IGFRI- 3 and 6, clay loam

slips or stem 75 days.

RBN-1, PBN-83, Co-1,3

and 4, cuttings

Subsequent

cuts

BH-18 & PNB-233 50 x 50 cm

at about 40

days

interval.

Guinea grass - Loam to Seeds @ 2.5

First cut 75

days. 1100-1500

Riversdale, Macuenni,

Hamil, sandy loam kg/ha

Subsequent

cuts (Shade tolerant

PGG-19 and 101, Co-1

and 2, BG- or

at about 45

days and hence,

1 and 2 60,000 root interval. suitable for slips orchards and

agro-forestry

systems)

Para grass Loam to 40,000 root First cut after 80 700-900

sandy loam slips

days and

further (Performs well

50 x 50 cm cuts at 45 days even under

interval. waterlogged conditions)

Conservation of green fodder

Conserving the excess fodder produced during plush season is essential to

tide over the limited availability of green fodder during the lean periods.

Silage

It is a preservation of green fodder in its original form through anaerobic

fermentation. Fodders which have thick stem, and more sugar content like maize and

sorghum are well suited for silage making. The fresh fodder harvested during grain filling

stage with desired moisture content of 65-70% is best for ensiling. Adequate trampling is

required to remove oxygen for ensuring anaerobic fermentation. The upper portion should be

covered with about four inches thick straw layer followed by two inches thick soil and a

polythene sheet. Care must be taken to prevent the entry of water and air. The silage will be

ready in about five week's time. Good silage will have greenish-yellow colour with a vinegar

odour and a pH of 4.2 or less. Pit silos are suitable for the farmers having resources and

higher number of milch animals. The technique of silage making in poly bags and plastic bins

was tested under participatory technology development in the adopted villages under the

NAIP livelihood project in Chitradurga district. The small holders were receptive to this low-

cost technology and readily adopted this method as their need for silage was in limited

quantities to tide over the green fodder deficit during the lean months.

Documents

Fodder production through agro-forestry: A boon for ... · (CAFRI, 2015). Presently, in India, about 60% the cropped area is rainfed, which contribute about 44% food-grain production