Edited by CLIVE FULLAGARand ANTONELLA DELLE FAVE

Measurement and Implications

FlowatWork

ma.;:a.O"'<Or

FlOWATWORK

Flow can be defin ed as the exper ience of bein g fully engage d w ith the task at hand ,unburdened by outside concerns or worries. Flow is an enjoyable state of effort-

less attentio n, complete absorp tion, and focused energy. T he pivo tal role of flow in

foster ing goo d performance and high productivi ty has led psycho log ists to study

the features and outcomes of thi s exper ience in the wo rkplace, in order to ascer tain

the impact of flow on individual an d organizatio nal well-be ing, and to ide ntifystra tegies to increase th e workers' oppo rtunities for flow in job tasks.

T his gro und- breaking new collection is th e first book to provide a compre-

hensive understanding of flow in th e workplace th at inc1udes a contribu tion from

the founding fathe r of flow research , M ihaly Csikszen tmihalyi. O n a conce p tual

level , thi s book c1arifies the featu res and structure of flow experience, and provides

research-based evidence of how flow can be measured in th e workplace on an

empir ical level, as well as exploring how it impacts on motivation , productivi ty, and

well-being . By vir tue of its rigorous but also practical approach , the book represen ts

a useful tool for both scien tists and pr actitioners. T he collectio n addresses a number

of key issues, inc1uding:

Core components of how th e idea of flow differs from experience in th e work

contex t

Organizational and task-related conditions foster ing flow at work

H ow flow can be measured in the wo rkplace

The organizatibnal and personal implications of flow

The relations hip between task features and flow opportu nities at work

Featuring contributions from sorne of th e most active researchers in th e field , Flowat UIork: Measurement and Implications is an important book in an emerging field ofstu dy. The concept of flow has eno rmous implications for organiza tions as well as

the individual, and thi s volume w ill be of interest to all stu dents and research ers in

organizationalloccupa tional psychology an d positive psychology, as well as prac-

titioners and cons ultan ts w ith an interest in employee mot ivation and well- bei ng.

Clive Fullagar is a professor at Kansas State U niversity, USA .

Antonella Delle Fave is a professor of psychology at the University ofM ilano, Italy.

Current Issues in Work and Organizational Psychology

Series Editor: Arnold B. Bakker

Current Issues in Work and 0 1;ganiz ational Psychology is a series of edited books thatref1ect the state-of-the -a rt areas of cur rent and emerging interest in the psychologi-

cal study of employees, wo rkplaces, and organizations.Each volume is tightl y focused on a parti cular topic and cons ists of seven to ten

chapters contributed by int ernational experts. The editors of indi vidual volumes are

leading figure s in their areas and provid e an introductory overview.Example topi cs inelude: digital media at work, work and the family, workahol-

ism , modern job design , positive oc cupational health , and individualized deals.

Tow ards Inclusive OrganizationsD eterminants of successful diversity management at work

Edited by Sabine Otten, Karen Ván Del' Z ee, and Marilynn Brewer

Well -being and Performance at WorkThe role of contex tEdited by Marc vanVeldhoven and Riccardo Peccei

Em ployee Recruitment, Selection, and As sessmentContemporary Issues for T heory and Practice

Edited by Ioannis N ikolaou and jann eke K . Oostrom

Idiosyncratic Deals between Em ployees and OrganizationsConceptual issues, applications, and the role of coworkers

Edited by Matthijs Bal and Denise Rousseau

T he P sychology of Humor at WorkEdited by Christopher Roben

FlOWATWORK

Measurement and Implications

Edited by Clive Fullagar andAntonella Delle Fave

I~ ~~o~;l~n~s~~upLONDON AND NEW YORK

First publi shed 2017by Routledge2 Park Square, Mil ton Park , Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge711 T hird Avenu e, N ew York, NY 10017

ROl/tledge is an imprint of (he Taylor & Francis C roup, an il1forma business

© 2017 selection and editorial matter, Clive Fullagar and Antonella DelleFave; ind ividu al chapters, the contributors

The right of the editors to be iden tified as the author of the editorialmateri al, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been assert edin accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Co pyright, Designs andPatents Act 1988.

AlI rights reserved. N o part of this book m ay be reprinted or reproduced orutilised in any for m or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, nowknown or hereafter invent ed, including photocopying and recording , or inany infor mation storage or retrieval system , wi tho ut permi ssion in writingfrom the publishers.

Tiademarie notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks orregiste red trademarks, and are used only for ident ification and explanationwitho ut intent to infringe.

British Librar)' Cataloguing-ín-Publícation DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the Briti sh Library

Librar)' qf Congress Cataloging-il1-Pl/blication DataA catalog record for this title has been requ ested

ISBN : 978- 1-84872-277-4 (hbk)ISBN : 978-1 -84872-278-1 (pbk)ISBN: 978- 1-31 587- 158- 5 (ebk)

Typeset in Bemb oby Apex CoVantage, LLC

CONTENTS

Prejace Vll

1 Flow at work: the evolution of a construct 1Clíve Fullacar, A ntonella Delle Faue, and Steve Ván Krevelen

2 Measuring flow at work 28Anja Schiepe-Tiska and Stejan Engeser

3 Capturing within-person changes in flow at work:theoretical importance and research methodologies 50Despoina X anthopoulou

4 What predicts flow at work?: the oretic al and empiricalperspectives 66Evangelia Demerouti and Anne Makikangas

5 Redefining flow at work 81Lucia Ceja and Jose N avarro

6 The consequences of flow 106Susana Llorens and Marisa Salanova

7 Applications of flow to work 119Giovanni B. M oneta

SusanaResaltado

vi Contents

8 Flow in the context of industrial and organizationalpsyc hology: the case of wo rk motivationPatríck Kníght and Christopher VVaples

9 Wo rk, cultures, and the culture of work: flow acrosscountries and professionsA ntonella Delle Fave and Marta Bassí

10 W ill wo rk ever be fun again?Sam Spuriin and M íhaly Csíkszentmíhalyí

Index

140

157

176

190

PREFACE

The chapters in th is book are examp les of academíc debates regarding flow and

research that attempts to address sorne of these issues. There are many qu estions that

still need to be addressed if flow is to find its way into the pan theo n of var iablesthat are at the cente r of the work experience. None theless, we feel that thi s bookconstitu tes a goo d start.

In C hapter 1, Clive Fullagar, An tone lla Delle Fave, and Steve Van Krevelen out-

line the history, definition, and development of the constru ct of flow. We place theconceptualization of flow into th e psych ological context of the time , pointing out

how flow shifted the focus of academic scrut iny away from tryin g to understand

why we en gage in activities toward an analysis of the actual experience of absor p-tion. The chapter describes how academ ic research has applied the construct of flow

to an understand in g of in tense and positive involvement in work. T he chapter out-

lines cong ruent theoretical fram eworks tha t br oaden our un derstanding of flow in

the wo rkplace and ident ifies organizational and individual predictors and outcomes

of the experience . We proceed to outline sorne questions that remain and need to

be addressed if flow is to establish itself as a central constru ct in the literature on thepsycho logy of work.

C hapter 2, by Anja Schiepe-T iska an d Stefa n Engeser, addresses the issue of mea-

sur ing flow. These autho rs star t by discussin g th e many-faceted complexity of flow

that raises the issue of w he ther flow should be measured as a multi- or unidimen-

sional construc to Fur thermore, there seems to be sorne confusion in distinguishin g

bet ween the pre conditions , components, and ou tcom es of the flow experience. The

chapter considers the strengths and weaknesses of a variety of methodologies that

have been used to assess flow, including decl arative (interviews, sur veys, and experi-

ence sampling method s) and nondeclarative (ne ural and psychophysiological) me a-

sures. The authors point out how th ese m ethodologies have produced evidence that

both supports and refutes the oreti cal co ncep tualizations of flow. Spec ific examples

6THE CONSEQUENCES OF FlOW

Susana Llorens and Marisa Salanova

Introduction

T he concep t of flow in organizational settings is receiving an increasing amoun t of

attention from researchers , most of their studies being foc used on modern organi-

zations. One of the reasons for thi s growing interest is the driving force of po sitive

psychology, w hich can be defined as the scientific stu dy of optima l human func-

tioning, the aim of w hich is to build positive qualities - that is, virtu es and strengths

(Seligman & Csikszen tm ihalyi, 2000 , p. 5). Specifically in the work context , posi-tive organiza tional psychology (POP) is conceptualized as the scien tific study of the

healthy and optimal functioning of persons and gro ups in the or ganizations , as well as

the effective management of psychosocial well-bein g at work and the development

of healthy organiz ations. Its objective is to describe, explain, and predict the opti-

mal fun ctioning in these contexts and to am plify and potentiate the psych osocial

well-bein g and the quality of job and organizational life (Salanova, M artínez, & Llo-

ren s, 2005 , 2014). This po sitive approa ch has yielded interesting findings abo ut pos-itive psychosocial emotions and experiences, suc h as flow, in work contex ts (Bakker,

2005; Llorens , Salanova, & Rodríguez, 2013; Salanova, Bakker, & Llorens, 2006).Previo us research on flow at work has made it possible to identify different key

aspec ts related to the concept, theoreti cal models, an d me asurement. Accordingly,

research has identified: (1) th e dimensionality of flow exper iences at wo rk ; (2) th edistin ction between flow expe r iences and th eir prerequisites; and (3) th e diffe r-en ces in th e frequency of flow experien ce among occupa tio ns (see, e.g., Llorens

et aL, 2013).In this chap ter, we provide an over view of the main researc h th at h as inve s-

tigated the organiz ational and individ ual consequences of flow at work. In par-

ticul ar, we will discuss the impact of flow on well-being, o the r personal and job

resources, and job performan ce. We w ill also ou tline research that has investigated

The consequences of f low 107

the rela tions hip between flow and well-being and th e contribution tha t flow at

work can make to the eme rg ing field of positive orga nizatio nal behavior.

What is flow at work?

About the concept of tlow at work

Traditionally, flow has been described as an experi ence occurr ing w hile perform-

ing any activity th at makes peopl e feel good and motivated because they are doing

someth ing wor thwhile for its own sake. H owever, thi s concep t has been improved

so as to adapt it to ot her con tex ts, such as art , spo rts, daily activities, leisure, or stu dy

(e.g., Csiksze ntm ihalyi, 2003; Cs ikszentm ihalyi & LeFevre, 1989;D elle Fave & Bassi,2000; Delle Fave & Massim ini, 2005). Adapted to th ese co n tex ts, flow " tends tooc cur w he n a pe rson 's skills are fully involved in overcoming a challeng e th at is

j ust about m anageable. Optimal exper iences usually involve a fine balance between

one's abili ty to act and the available opp ortunities for action" (C sikszentmihalyi ,

1997, p. 30).T he app lication of the concept to work settings reveals that, of course, flow co uld

be exp erien ced there in a sim ilar manner. In wo rk sett ings, flow is concep tualized

as an optimal experie nce th at is charac ter ized by three stru ctura l dimensions: enjoy-

ment (i.e., th e emotional component) , abso rption (i.e., the cognitive com pone n t),

and in trinsic interest (i.e., the moti vational com po nen t).

Focused on work, enjoyment refers to a positive judgment abo ut (Bakker, 2008)the quality o f working life (see also Veenhoven , 1984). The state ofbeing fully con-cen trated an d engrossed in one's work , w hereby time passes quickly and one has dif-

ficu lties de tach ing onese lf from wo rk, characterizes absorption (Ghani & Deshpande,

1994; Lutz & Guiry, 1994; M o ne ta & Csikszen tmi halyi, 1996). Intrinsic interest refersto the need to perform a cert ain work- related act ivity w ith the aim of expe riencing

inheren t pleasure and satisfac tion in it (cf Deci & Ryan , 1985; Mone ta & Cs ik-szen tm ihalyi, 1996;Trevino & Webster, 1992). Intrinsically motivated em ployees arecontinuously interested in the work they are involved in (Harackiewicz & Elliot ,

1998) , and they want to con tinue their work and are fascinated by the tasks theyperform (C sikszentmihalyi , 1997) (for a recent review see Llorens et al., 2013).

A great deal of em pirical research has found this three-dimensional structure cifflow at work, w hich is character ized by enjoyme nt, absorption, and intrinsic inter-est, in different samples of wo rkers, suc h as teach ers (Bakker, 2005; Salanova et al. ,2006), employees of small and medium-sized companies (De me ro uti, 2006), andline managers (N ielsen & Cleal, 2010), as well as information and com m unicatio ntechnology users (students and workers; Ro drí guez, Sch aufeli , Salano va, & C ifre,

2008) . De spite th is consistence, research has pointed to the ex istence of just two(enjoyment and abso rp tion) rather than thre e dimensions of the flow exper ien ce

at work (Gha ni & D eshp ande, 1994; Rodrígue z, Cifre, Salanova, & Ábo rg, 2008;Skadberg & Kimmel, 2004). For exam ple, multigro up confirma tory fac to r analyses

SusanaResaltado

SusanaResaltado

108 Susana l.lorens and Marisa Salanova

(MCFA) provided evid ence that flow experience is composed of only two related

but different dimensions - namely, enjoymen t and absorption - in different work

settings (tile workers and secondary school teachers, Llorens et a1. , 2013) , tested by

the WOLF Inventory (Bakker, 2001) . The two-dimensional model fitted the data

better th an the three-dimensional one.

A model of flow at work

If there is sorne mismatch as regard s the dimensionality of flow in work contexts,another relevant que stion refers to the conditions needed to promote flow at work.Although originally there was sorne confusion about the experience of flow and its

prerequisites (Csikszentmihalyi , 1975 , 1990, 1997), researchers are now aware of the

need to distinguish the flow experience itself from its prerequisites and its cense-

quences (Bassi & Delle Fave, 2012b; Chen, Wigand, & Nilan, 1999 ; Guo & Poole,

2009; Kawabata & Mallett, 2011; Keller & Bless, 2008 ; Keller & Blomann, 2008;

Mesurado, 2009; Pearce, Ainley, & Howard, 2005). Applied to work contexts, the

model offlow at work emerges as an alternative allowing us to differentiate betweenthe experience and the antecedents of flow at work (Llorens et a1. , 2013) .

Based on the flow channel model (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) and the experiencefluctuation model (EFM) developed in previous studies (e.g. , Csikszentmihalyi &Csikszentmihalyi, 1988 ; Delespaul, Reis , & de Vries , 2004; Delle Fave & Bassi,

2000; Delle Fave & Massimini, 2005 ;Eisenberger, Jones ,Stinglhamber, Shanock, &

Randall, 2005 ; Massimini, Csikszentmihalyi, & Carli, 1987) , thi s model of flow

in work settings assumes that employees would experience flow more frequently

when their job demands are perceived as highly challenging, but they also believe

that they have the skills to cope with the demands (Llorens et a1. , 2013). Specifically,

the model of flow at work assumes that the flow experience at work is a subjective

experience. The model replicates the EFM by identifying eight areas (" channels")

which represent eight experiences (i.e., arousal, control , relaxation, boredom, apa-

thy, worry, anxiety, and f1ow). Like in the EFM, in thi s model flow is characterized

by the perception of high challenges and high skills in terms of intensity. In line

with the previous models, in this model of flow at work, high levels of perceived

skills and high levels of perceived challenges are necessary prerequisites to experi-

ence flow (Salanova et a1., 2006) . Thus workers who, regardless of their occupa-

tion, perceive a balance between high levels of challenge and skills in their jobs,

experience flow more frequently than others who perceive different combinations

between challenge and skills (for more detail s, see Llorens et a1., 2013) .

The measurement of flow at work

The study of flow at work has an important tradition. Sorne studies have inves-

tigated flow at work by evaluating the intensity of antecedents and experiential

components using the experience sampling method (ESM ; Csikszentmihalyi &

LeFevre , 1989; Delle Fave & Massimini , 2005) and the Flow Questionnaire

The conse quences of flow 109

(Bassi & De lle Fave, 2012 a). Ano ther appro ach is based on sing le-administration

retrospective instruments, which test frequency rather than intensity of flow and

its prerequisites (see Bakker, 2001 ,2008; M ákikangas, Bakker, Aunola, & Demer-

outi, 2010; Salanova et a1., 2006) .To this purpose,Bakker developed an instrument to assess the experience of flow

at work, the so- called WO rk- reLated Flow inventory (WOLF; Bakker, 2001 , 2008).

T his single-administration retrospective instrument allows for assessing the fre-

quency of the flow experience ayer the last six months on a seven-point scale from

O ("never") to 6 (" every day") . The sixteen items test the three dimensions of the

flow experience at work, -- that is, enjoyment (four items), absorption (six items),

and intrinsic interest (six items). Lately, a short form ofWOLF was developed, with

ten items referring to the dimensions of enjoyment (four items) , and absorption (six

items) (see Llorens et a1., 2013) .

Consequences of flow at work

In addition to the experience, prerequisites, and me asurement of flow at work, there

is also empirical evidence regarding the consequences of flow at work. Although

fewer studies were conducted on this aspect , in the following pages we outline the

most significant consequences of flow at work, which we have c1assified into three

main categories: well-being, resources , and job performance.

How does ilow enhance well-being at work?

Different research studies have highlighted the relevan ce of flow in the development

of well-being at work. Generally speaking, results give evidence for the direct and

positive impact of flow on subjective well-being "by fostering the experience of happi-ness in the here and now" from a hedonic perspective (Moneta, 2004, p. 116). We con-sistently found that flow is positively related to subjective well-being and positive

emotions (Bloch, 2002) , positive mood (Fullagar & Kelloway, 2009) , active coping

and commitment (Salanova, Martínez, Cifre, & Schaufeli, 2005) , less burnout (Lavi-

gne , Forest , & Crevier-Braud, 2012) , task engagement (Ainley, Enger, & Kennedy,

200S) ,job satisfaction (Maeran & Cangiano, 2013) , and high energy levels (Demer-

outi, Bakker, Sonnentag, & Fullagar, 2012).Specifically, a phenomenological analysis of interviews carried out on a sample

of thirry-six employees of a public organization highlighted that f10w experiences

are associated with a good quality of life in modern everyday existence (Bloch,

2002). Accordingly, flow "appeared as pervasive states coloring the intervieu/ees ' world ofaction,feeling and thinking. These states were characterized by specific experience of reality, ofself and of time" (p. 120). In thi s context flow plays the role of a framework for thedevelopment of more po sitive and specific emotions and feelings, such as joy, ecstasy,

excitement, happiness , and pride.Similarly, in a longitudinal study aimed at investigating the experience of forty

architecture students by means ofESM ayer a semester, hierarchicallinear modeling

--- _.- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

110 Susana l.lorens and Marisa Salanova

showed that flow is related to subjective well-being and positive mood (Fullagar &

Kelloway, 2009). More specifically, students who experienced higher values of flow

in terms of intensity reported being momentarily in a more positive mood in terms

of hedonic well-being.In another study conducted on 770 workers from different occupational sectors

(education, production sectors), higher frequency of the dimensions of flow (higher

perceived competence, absorption, and intrinsic satisfaction) was related to the

perception of a more positive environment, psychosocial well-being, and reduced

ill-being. More specifically, flow at work was positively related to the perception

of more job resources at work (i.e., autonomy, feedback, and task variety) and psy-

chosocial well-being in terms of active coping and organizational commitment, but

negatively related to burnout (exhaustion and cynicism) and anxiety. Workers who

experience flow at work more frequently therefore seem to perceive a better job

context with more job resources and experience better well-being - that is, a greater

frequency of active coping behaviors, more commitment to the organization, and

lower levels of burnout and anxiety related to the task (Salanova, Martínez, Cifre,

et al. , 2005).Flow has also been negatively related to burnout in two independent studies on

Canadian workers (Lavigne et al. , 2012) . In Study 1, a cross-sectional design and

path analysis were used with 113 young workers to show the mediating role of flow

at work between harmonious passion and burnout, especially in the dimensions

of inefficacy and cynicism. Results suggested that the more harmonious passion is

reported at work, the higher frequency of flow is experienced. As a consequence,

less burnout (i.e., cynicism and inefficacy) is observed. In the second longitudi-

nal study with 325 participants working for the Quebec government, harmonious

passion for work was positively related to flow experiences at work as reported

six months later and after controlling for Time 1's flow experiences (in terms of

concentration, control, and autotelic experiences intensity) . Thus, flow experiences

at work at Time 2 were negatively related to inefficacy, cynicism, and emotional

exhaustion at work at Time 2. That is, the more flow is experienced in terms of

intensity, the less burnout is found.

Applied to the learning context, a study with a preprofessional sample of

secondary school students aged between fifteen and eighteen years showed that

higher ratings of challenge and skill are positively related to another indicator

of well-being: task engagement (Ainley et al., 2008) . Results showed that flow

groups experienced, as a consequence, more engagement and focusing through-

out the task compared to the non-flow groups working on a short learning

activity - that is, a writing task using an interactive computer program called

"Between the Lines."

Satisfaction at work (as a measure of well-being) has also been claimed to be a

consequence of flow at work. Maeran and Cangiano (2013) developed a model of

flow where this psychological state was considered critical in redesigning interven-

tions in the workplace in order to promote job satisfaction. Their results showed the

strong impact of flow as a key predictor of job satisfaction.

The consequences of flow 111

Another diary study examined the moderating role ofboth recovery efforts at work

(i.e. , a process that repairs the negative effects of strain) and detachment from work

in the relationship between flow experience at work and energy perceived when the

work is finished (Demerouti et al. , 2012) . In a sample of eighty-three participants,

multilevel analyses revealed the benefits of flow for (1) increasing the energy after

work when employees failed to recover during work breaks, and (2) increasing the

levels of vigor in the employees at the end of the day when they left the workplace.

Generally speaking, flow is a positive experience that produces benefits for employ-

ces ' well-being. The impact of flow is a key element for employees ' levels of energy

after work and at the end of the day when at home, particularly the dimensions of

enjoyment and absorption (Demerouti et al. , 2012).

To sum up, taking into account research about the positive effects of flow on

well-being and following the 'broaden-and-build theory' (Fredrickson, 2001), we

suggest, by analogy with positive emotions, that flow produces this positive effect

since (1) it allows people to broaden their momentary thought-action repertories

and build resilience (Fredrickson, 1998,2001; Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005) , and

(2) in a similar way to positive emotions, flow could regulate negative emotions

(Fredrickson, Mancuso, Branigan, & Tugade, 2000) and foster positive spirals of

well-being (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002).

F10w and other personal and job resources

Further expanding the analogy with Fredrickson's broaden-and-build theory,

flow states could generate more positive resources at work (i.e. , personal and job

resources) through different kinds of positive spirals, such as the emotional conta-

gion of flow (Bakker, 2005), organizational climate and efficacy beliefs (Salanova

et al., 2006), social support, opportunities for professional development, supervisory

coaching (Makikangas et al., 2010), and finally flow prerequisites - that is, challenge

and skills ayer time (Rodríguez, Salanova, Cifre, & Schaufeli, 2011) .

In a similar line, a study on a sample of music teachers and their students (Bakker,

2005) provided evidence in favor of the emotional contagion of the flow experi-

ence. Specifically, a 'positive relationship between the frequency of music teachers'

flow experiences and the frequency of flow among their students was detected. It

seems that "this flow contagion occurs because of the automatic imitation of cheer-

ful and happy teachers, but also the more conscious crossover of teachers ' dedication

to their work." Hence, one of the consequences of flow is that flow causes flow

(Bakker, 2005, p. 38).

Furthermore, there is a large body of research that shows reciprocal effects

between job and personal resources and flow, thereby suggesting the development

ofpositive cycles 01' spirals. In fact , these studies offer evidence in favor of the notion

that job resources and flow mutually influence each other: resources enhance flow,

but flow also promotes job resources. The positive relationships of flow with orga-

nizational and personal resources at work emerged in a longitudinal study with

secondary school teachers (Salanova et al., 2006) . More specifically, results showed

112 Susana Llorensand Marisa Salanova

a reciprocal influenc e between the flow experience and organizational resource s

(in terms of elima te orientation indicators, such as social support, innovation, rules,

and goals) and personal resources (i.e., efficacy beliefs) over time . That is, orga niza-

tional an d personal resources tested at the beginning of the academic year (Time 1)

facilitated work-related flow at work eight months later, at the end of the acadernic

year (T ime 2). Findings also showed that the frequency of flow (i.e., frequency in

absorption, enjoyment, and intrinsic work mo tivation) at work tested at Time 1

had a positive influence on perso nal and organizational resources at T ime 2. In fact,thi s study showed that flow develop s over time whe n personal and organizationalresources are available, and also that the experience of flow in the present influen ces

the gaining of organizational and personal resources in the future by generating a

positive spiral over time.

Similarly, a longitudi nal study conduc ted over th ree months on 335 employ-ees from an employment agency based on latent growth curve and mixe d model

analyses showed that job resources (i.e. , social support, opportunities for pro fes-

siona l develop ment , and supe rvisory coaching) were posi tively related to flow at

work. Thus, these findings suggest that: (1) the frequency ofjob resources and flow

are positively related to each other over time, and (2) the ir changes over time againprovide evidence for mutual cyeles of change (M akikangas et aL, 2010).

These reciprocal relationships were also detec ted be tween flow an d its

prerequisites - tha t is, challenge and skills - over time. In a two-wave longitudinalstudy conducted among 258 secondary school teachers, results showed that theflow experience was a consequence and also an antecedent of perceived challenge

and skills (Ro dríguez et al., 2011). More specifically, the higher the frequency ofprerequisites (pe rceived high challenge and skills) of flow at T ime 1, the higher the

frequency of flow over time, which in turn increases the frequency of the prerequi-

sites (hig h challenge and skills) in a positive cyele.

Flow as a driver of performance

The fact that flow plays a key role across life domains (for a review see De lle Fave,

Massimini, & Bassi, 2011; Massimini & De lle Fave, 2000) and in the development ofwell-being and resources is elear, but there is also empirical evidence that flow could

enhance positive results in terms of performance, such as organizational spontaneity

(Eisenberger et al. , 2005) , in- and extra-role performance (Bakker, 2008), creativeperformance (MacDonald , Byrne , & Carlton, 2006; Yan, Davison, & Mo, '2013),service qu ality (Kuo & H o, 2010), and gro up perfor mance from a collective po int ofview (Admiraal, Huizenga, Akker man, & Dam, 2011; Aubé, Bru nelle, & Roussea u,2014; Bakker, Oerlemans, Deme ro uti, Slot, & Ali, 2011).

However, sorne studies suggested that the association of flow with grea ter posi-

tive mood and higher performance speci fically eme rged amo ng workers repo rting

a high need for achieveme nt (Eisenberger et aL, 2005). A study conduc ted amo ngsales employees and sales support emp loyees revealed that emp loyees in the flow

contex t (high values ofboth skills and challenges) experience greater posi tive mood

The consequences of flow 113

(e.g., the ex tent to which workers felt happy at work) and organizational spontane-

ity (e.g., the extent to which employees looked for ways to improve the effectiveness

of their work) than other combinations of skill and challenge only when employees

have a high need for achievement (i.e., achievement orientation, such as working to

imp rove ones skills and desiring frequ ent feedback).

On the other hand, in a study of 1,346 employees distribu ted in seven samplesfrom different occupational gro ups and companies , flow experience was related to

job satisfaction , and to job performance in its two dimensions: in-role (i.e. , formal

work perfor mance) as well as ex tra-role (i.e., beh avior that exceeds normal task ful-

fillment by going the extra mile) performance. In th is respec t, it seems that happyemployees who get " in to the flow " at work are also more satisfied and perform

bette r in their role and extra-role behaviors (Bakker, 2008) .Flow has also been connec ted to a specific type of performance, namely creative

performance. Flow is an experience of an activity as bein g intrinsically rewarding,

un der which " individuals tend to be curious, cognitively flexib le, w illing to take

risks , and per sistent in the face of barr iers - charac teris tics that should facilitate the

development of new and potentially useful ideas" (Baera , Oldhama, & C ummings,

2003 , p. 571). To evaluate these aspects, a study was carried out among forty-fiveuniversity students who worked on a group composition task during three meetings

(MacDonald et aL, 2006). T he completed compositions were recorded and rated forquality and creativ ity by the participants and by a group of twenty-fo ur specialists

in music education. U sing an Experience Samp ling Form (ESF; Csikszentmiha lyi &

Csikszentmihalyi, 1988) the results showed that as gro up flow increase d, so did theratin g for creativity given by the spec ialists. Also, spec ialists rated the compositionsof thos e gro ups that exper ienced higher values of flow more positively than those

provided by the gro ups w ho experience d lower values of flow.

D ata collected from 232 users ofWeb 2.0 virtua l communities were used to testa mod el w here the flow exper ience (i.e., perceived enjoyment and atten tion focus)

me diates the relationship between knowledge sharing behavior (i.e., kn owledge

seeking and knowledge contri bu ting) and employee creat ivity at work (Yan et al. ,

2013). Findings showed tha t both types of knowledge behaviors can lead to a stateof flow and can further result in creativity at work.

Gro up flow and gro up performance have also been studied, and the results

are consistent with those obtained for individual contexts. In a study involvingeighty-five teams of college students who par ticipated in a project management

simulation, flow predicted 12% of the variance in team performance, an d th is rela-tionship was fully mediated by memb ers' commitme nt to team goals (Aubé et al. ,

2014). Furthermore, the exchange of information among the members played acrucial role in increasing team performances. Specifically, the more team members

comm unicated while doing their wo rk, the stronge r the relationship between flow

and team performance.

In ano ther study on collective measures, results from struc tura l equation model-ing in a two -wave longitudinallab on 250 par ticipants working in fifty- two groupsshowed that collective efficacy beliefs predict collective flow (tested in terms of

114 Susana l.lorens and Marisa Salanova

frequency) over tim e in a reciprocal relationship. These results highlighted the roleof collec tive flow in inc reasing collective efficacy beliefs in a gain cycle over time(Salanova, Ro dríguez, Schaufeli, & C ifre, 2014).

Ano ther study, combining survey and experimental methods w here par ticipantsplayed a paddleball game, gave evidence for the im pac t of collective flow. Resultsshowed that social flow experiences were perceived as more enjoyable compare d to

solitary flow experiences. Specifically, par ticipants w ho played in in terdependent

teams reported more joy in flow than in dividua ls performing less interdependentlyor alone (Walker, 20 10) .

Finally, a posi tive relationship between team flow and team performa nce was

de tec ted amo ng soccer team s (Bakker et a1., 2011). M ultilevel analyses revealed

th at env ironmental resources (au tonomy, socia l support fro m the coach, and per-

for mance feedback) were pos itively related to flow, whic h in turn was posi tively

relate d to the performance of each player in th e team during the match . T hese

findings suggest th at cer tain characteris tics of flow at the team level (in terms of

transform ation of tim e, clear goa ls, auto telic experience) appear w hen th e ma tch

results in a draw or is wo n than w hen th e match is lost. Fur thermore, result s showed

th at performa nce feedb ack an d support fro m th e coach predicte d flow durin g th e

soccer game , w hic h in turn was positively related to self- and coac h-ratings ofperform an ce.

Conclusions

T he mai n aim of thi s chap ter was to provide an overview of the research investigat-ing th e organizatio nal an d in dividual conse quences of flow at work. Specifically, the

chapter discussed the impact of flow on well-being, resources, and job performance.

T he relations hip between flow and well-be ing and th e contribution th at flow at

wo rk can make to th e emerging field of positive organizatio nal behavior were alsoaddressed. T hro ugho ut the chapter we have summarized th e state of the art of the

concep t, mod els, and meas urement of flow at wo rk according to rece nt researc h

in th e field . T here is empirical evidence in favor of the idea that investin g orga-

nization al and job resources is th e key to enhance flow at work an d consequently

to achieve hi gher well-being , more resources, and better perfor ma nce . Differen t

pos itive consequences of flow have been shown to be m ainly orien ted toward th eseth ree aspec ts.

T he mai n concl usions of th e chap ter are the following: (1) the conce p t offlow

as an opt ima l experience can be transposed in th e work contex ts, w ithin th e th eo-

retica l fram ework of positive psychology at wo rk; (2) the m odel of flow at work,

w hich assumes th at flow is experie nce d w hen both high cha llenges and skills are

perceived, cons titu tes a reliable way to differe n tiate between the experience and

th e an tece den ts of flow at wo rk; (3) the WOLF inventory is one way to test flow

at work w here freq uency rather th an in tens ity of flow is tested to capture th e

essence of flow at work; (4) flow is positively related to subjec tive well- bei ng and

pos itive emotions , pos itive mood, active coping , commitment, task engagemen t,

The consequences of flow 115

j ob satisfaction, energy levels, and the good life in modern everyday existe nce ;

(5) th rough positive cycles, spirals, or emotional contagion, the flow experience

also enhances the percep tion of more positive (personal and job-re lated) resources

at wo rk ; particularly, flow is positively related to organizational climate, task an d

social resources , efficacy beliefs, and also more flow (flow causes flow); (6) flow is

also respo nsible for the develop men t of performance in terms of organizational

spontane ity, in- and extra-role perfor mance, creative performance, service quali ty,

and gro up performance, and (7) fina lly, recen t research gives evidence in favor of the

relevance of social (or collective) flow.

These are th e main contri butions of this chap ter dealing with the consequences

of flow in work settings . We plan to fur ther expand our research , focusing on ways

to promote job environments that allow employees to experience positive experi-

ences such as flow. T his positive experience wi ll foster other positive consequences

at work - th at is, em ployees' well-being , bett er perceptions of job and personalresources in the work contexts, and bett er performance in a general way.

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7APPllCATIONS OF FlOWTOWORK

Giovanni B. Maneta

In the early 1970s, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi interviewed surge ons, rock climb-

ers, composers, danc ers, chess players, and athletes, asking them to report their

experience when they engaged in the mo st challenging ph ases of their preferred

endeavors, and he reported the findings in the seminal book Beyond Boredom andAnxíety (1975 /2000). T he in terviews produced a wealth of textual descriptionsthat , altho ugh coming from persons with different backgrounds and working in

differen t domains, shared six main themes: (1) focu sed concentration on the presentactivity, wi th cen tering of atten tion on a narrow stimulus field (e.g., "Whe n 1 start,

1 really do shut out the wo rld "), (2) mergíng ofactíon and awareness ("1 am so involvedin what 1 am doing .. . 1 dori 't see myself as separate from w hat 1 am doing") , (3) 10 55

of self-consciousness (e.g. , "1 am less aware of myself and my problems" , (4) sense ofcontrol over one 's own actions (e.g., "1 feel immensely strong" ), (5) unambíguousf eedback from the activity (e.g., "You dori 't feel you have all sor ts of different kindsof demands, oft en conflicting, upon you"), and (6) autotelic experíence - that is, thesense that the activity is an end in itself, and hence runs independently of external

rewards (e.g., "T he act ofwriting justifies poetry"). Csikszentmihalyi namedflow

the simultaneous enactment of these six themes, and set out to search for its origins

and cons equences. In the early 1990s, Csikszentmihalyi (1996) investigated through

interviews the experiences that nin ety-one outstanding individuals had prior to

conceiving novel ideas and seeing them recognized by peers as innovations. Intense

and recurrent flow at work emerged as the main theme underlying each innovationacross the domains of science , art , and business.

In the past two decades, researchers in the fields of organizational psycho logyand management have increas ingly foc used on the occurrence of flow in the work

con text across a wide range of occupations and orga nizational contexts, incl uding

scient ists (Quinn, 2005) , medical do ctors (Delle Fave & Massimini, 2003) , software

engineers (Debus, Sonnentag, Deutsch, & N ussbeck, 2014) , and school teachers

flow at work.pdfflow at work 2.pdf