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Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 11, No. 3 (2016) 362 - 382 © School of Engineering, Taylor’s University

362

FLOW-INDUCED VIBRATION IN PIPES: CHALLENGESS AND SOLUTIONS - A REVIEW

M. SIBA1,2, W. WANMAHMOOD

1, M. ZAKI NUAWI

1, R. RASANI

1,

M. NASSIR3,*

1Department Mechanical and Material, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment;

National University of Malaysia, Selangor, 43600 Bangi, Malaysia 2Institute of Technology-Baghdad, Foundation of Technical Education, Baghdad, Iraq

3Programe of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, Taylor’s University, Taylor's Lakeside Campus, No. 1 Jalan Taylor's, 47500, Subang Jaya, Selangor DE, Malaysia

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract

The Flow-induced vibration has recently been the topic of experimental,

numerical, and theoretical studies. It was intended to implement better

applications for controlling the flow using orifice technique. Having the flow under control, the orifice becomes an instrument for measuring the flow. The

flow of all fluid such as water, oil, gas and vapours through an orifice was

tested and mathematical models were developed adequately. The basic theme

for these enormous studies was the need for the very accurate flow

measurements through orifices. All experimental, theoretical, numerical, and

analytical studies have agreed that there is more than one avenue to develop, modify, and enhance such measurements. However, one factor that affects the

flow measurements is the vibration which was not treated as required until the

mid-20th century due to enormous discoveries that damages could be rooted to

vibration. Researchers have studied vibration and then proposed mathematical

models in conjunction with the pressure and velocity measurements of the

flowing fluids and then the effect of the vibration, induced or not induced, has been under continuous investigation. This paper is an attempt to review the

previous studies regarding understanding the nature of the vibration and the

possible effects of vibration on the flow and on the piping structure in order to

limit the damage caused by the vibration. This study shows that the need for

more experimental studies and more comprehensive analytical approaches are,

in particular, very essential to develop better results.

Keywords: Orifice, Vibration, CFD and Vibration, Numerical analysis,

Navier-Stokes theorem.

Flow-Induced Vibration in Pipes: Challenges and Solutions: A Review 363

Journal of Engineering Science and Technology March 2016, Vol. 11(3)

1. Introduction

Ashley and Haviland, 1950 [1] studied the flow-induced vibration of the trans-

Arabian pipeline. This introductory study was followed by a series of other

studies through which the nature of the vibration was deeply investigated [2] and

then analysed theoretically and analytically [3, 4]. It was until mid-twentieth

century when the nuclear technology has emerged beside other energy sources,

vibration was found to be one of the most important factors that cause damages to

some parts of these power plants. The damage and possible causes were

documented by researchers, governmental institutions, and private agencies [5-8].

Since then, vibration and vibration-induced damages were reportedly and heavily

studied. These studies have been focusing on three different areas: experimental

[9-13], investigation using numerical analysis [14-17], and investigation using

simulation techniques [18-20]. The heavily investigation in power plant accidents

has its own impact on governments to set rules and regulations to avoid such

increasing number of unfortunate accidents. The rules are listed and implemented

in all power plants, aircrafts, military and civil ships, automobile, and many more.

Another confirmation for setting and monitoring these rules and regulations came

from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Both non-governmental

agencies have issued a code to ensure safety measures [21, 22].

The vibration induced by flow through orifice has another impact on the flow

measurements which is considered as dangerous as the safety measures.

Traditionally, the orifice plate has been used as a device to control the flow rate in

piping systems. In industry, as well as in research, accurate measurements of the

flow rate are very crucial especially in pharmaceutical plants and refineries when

additives and/or catalysts are subjected to very sensitive measurements. To

successfully achieve precise flow measurements, the impact of the vibration

caused by pressure inside the pipes should be closely considered by studying its

impact experimentally, theoretically, and numerically. The vibration could cause

damages to the pipes or the pipe components [17]. Consequently, studying and

then analysing the vibration phenomena becomes an essential and important to

avoid such possible mishap [15, 17].

The fabrication, installation, and using the orifice plate for flow measurements

are very simple and inexpensive. Beside simple fabrication, orifices do not require

serious and lengthy maintenance which results in very low cost [16]. At this stage,

it is very important to mention that there are some, even limited, malfunctions

caused by orifice plate such as homogeneous fluid, turbulent flow (Re > 4000),

and causing vibrational resonance [3, 6, 7]. Figure 1 shows installation and

operation for a typical orifice plate.

Piping-induced vibration in industry represents the main drawback for the

simplicity of piping circuit establishment. Broken pipes, heavily continual

maintenance, and sudden erupted fire are the current challenges that are facing

pharmaceutical, refineries, and research labs. Within the last 30 years, the damage

due to inaccurate flow measurements, delay in production, and fire exceed

billions of dollars [8]. Avoiding such technical serious issues, the vibration, using

pressure techniques, should be tested and evaluated for precaution and possible

improvement. Having vibration determined, safety measures should be

implemented especially with excessive vibration by using enough support

364 M. Siba et al.


structure, span length, or using different suitable vibration absorbent materials.

All practical modifications to the current piping systems have to consider the

impact of resonance–the cornerstone in vibration.

Fig. 1. Orifice plate instalation and operation [23].

As mentioned earlier, installation of the orifice is technically simple, however

the conditions for fully developed and swirl/pulsation-free flow upstream of the

flow should be always considered. Secondly, since the orifice is an additional

fitting to the piping circuit, proposed mathematical models should always

consider the distortion in flow velocity before entering and after exiting the

orifice which means studying the associated velocity profiles with varying

degrees of swirl at the inlet of the meter. It is suggested by some researchers that

the error associated with the discrepancy of the flow measurement should not

exceed 2º swirl angle and within 5% ratio of axial velocity [24, 25].

The causes of the vibration are not limited to the bending of the pipe line [1, 26]

but also to differential pressure which is normally created across the orifice plate

[27]. This differential causes Newtonian force on the plate and, consequently, a

non-balanced force will develop on both sides of the orifice. This force causes

vibration on the wall of the pipe as well as on the orifice plate. Several studies have

emerged to study this phenomenon [10, 12]. The installation of orifice plate has

another vibrational impact on the structure [28]. In addition to this force, the

differential pressure across the orifice plate causes swirling and back stream which

are the main causes of vibration. The vibration affects both the orifice plate and the

pipe wall in the neighbouring area of the orifice plate. The vibration itself is not

always the main concern in damaging pipes, but, to a more extent, the vibration and

its associated resonance are the main factors in destroying the structure. It is well-

known that each structure, small as orifice plate or big size as a bridge, has a natural

frequency which depends on its physical and engineering settings. As the vibration

of the flow has same frequency, a severe impact on the structure will be carried out

which is accompanied by flowing big force (energy) to the structure. This force is

normally much bigger than the force which was caused by the differential pressure.

This is why fabricating an orifice plate requires forecasting such a force to avoid

any possible damage to the structure [7, 8].



Theoretically, the calculations of the velocity, pressure, vorticity, and the

mechanical properties should be conducted based on Navier-Stokes (N-S)

equations [15] and subsequent models. Researchers in the last three decades have

developed and/or enhanced variety of software to study some complex structures

such as the flow through the orifice plate. N-S equations were, in part, simplified

to fit certain requirements and boundary conditions. However, more general

solutions require more sophisticated software such as Fluid Structure Interaction

(FSI) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The flow-induced vibration is

studied using FSI technique while predicting the whistling of an orifice plate in a

flow duct was studied by CFD.

The flow-induced vibration is the core of this review. The study includes, but

not limited to, turbulence-induced vibration, vorticity shedding-induced vibration,

and the fluid elastic-stability. As many previous studies were considered laminar

flow (Re < 2300), this study focuses on turbulent flow for which Re > 4000.

Within the realm of turbulent flow, the study focuses on vibration, static pressure,

vorticity and then velocity profile of the fluid. Finally, the mechanical properties

(stress and strain) were reviewed exclusively.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Flow past Orifice Plate/Flow in Pipes

Orifice plate flow meters are simple and inexpensive device that contributes to

about 80% of the flow meters used in chemical industries [28]. As the fluid flow

passes through the orifice, a significant differential pressure is created between

the inlet and outlet or, more specifically, across the orifice plate which results in

high pressure loss. Thus, the flow requires high power pump to overcome this

loss and to maintain the velocity of the flow [12, 29]. The boundaries around the

orifice plate become source of a wide spectrum of frequencies [10]. Literatures

are rich in considering valves- and pumps-induced vibration but, to a lesser

extent, considering orifice-induced vibration [10]. This review focuses on orifice-

induced vibration as an attempt to shed the light on the important topic for more

studies and consideration.

Zanker’s orifice plate (Fig. 2) was used in studying five turbulence models

through which he determined the most suitable models to simulate such flow

problems [18]. The Zanker’s orifice plate is characterized by different thickness.

The Zanker’s study has shown the flow separation and recovery within the plate

holes as well as visualizing the swirl removal effect.

The aspect ratio or the ratio of orifice diameter, d, to the pipe diameter, D,

(β=d⁄D) is one of the parameters that has been used in orifice techniques to

control the flow. It was found that β has severe impact on the velocity distribution

in the pipe (velocity profile) and, consequently, the differential pressure in both

directions axial and radial. Smith et al. [16] has developed numerical solution

using CFD for three aspect ratios of 0.5, 0.6, and 0.8. In their study, the flow was

kept unchanged and by changing the aspect ratio they examined the turbulent

scheme by employing the standard k-ε turbulence model and compare the results

with the Reynolds Stress Mode (RSM). Figure 3 shows the velocity distribution

(velocity profile) of the flow through the orifice at different aspect ratios.

366 M. Siba et al.


(a)

(b)

Fig. 2. Zanker’s orifice plate: (a) fabrication and (b) properties [18].

(a) Re=5000, β=0.2.

(b) Re=5000, β=0.5



Fig. 3. Velocity distribution at aspect ratio (a) 0.2 and (b) 0.5 [30].

Fig. 4. Maximum axial velocity investigated at

Reynolds number of 5000, 10000, and 15000 [30].

In most studies, the shape of the orifice plate is circular but a rectangular

orifice plate was employed in some research [31]. The circular orifice plate itself

has few designs depending on the position of the orifice hole. Researchers were

not stopped at varying the aspect ratio but also changing the number of the holes

and their positions. In addition to these varieties of the orifice plate, a study by El-

Azm et al. [9] was performed using irregular orifice shape (normally known as

fractal-shaped orifices). El-Azm’s study has shown that the fractal shape orifice

has severe impact on the differential pressure across the plate. It was found that

the pressure drop in the fractal shape-orifice shape is lower than that of the

regular circular shape for the same employed area. The result suggests that the

fractal shape causes less pressure loss which has its own impact on the flow-

induced but no interpretation was suggested by the researchers. An extended

study conducted by Manshoor et al. [32] in which they designed irregular shape

orifice independent on flowing fluid unlike El-Azm’s approach where the flow

was fixed. The simulation results have shown that the device can be used as a part

of a flow metering package that will considerably reduce installation lengths. The

results of using a combination of the fractal flow conditioner and orifice plate for

non-standard flow conditions including swirling flow and asymmetric flow

showed that this package can preserve the accuracy of metering up to the level

required in the standards.

Arun [19] studied the discharge coefficient �� (the ratio of the actual

discharge to the theoretical discharge) that Arun [19] has used non-Newtonian

fluid at fixed aspect ratio of β = 0.4 for laminar and turbulent flow where

Reynolds number ranges between 1000 and 10000. Generally, investigating the

discharge coefficient is aimed to find the ideal nozzle (the orifice structure in this

study). It is shown that discharge coefficient decreases as the pipe diameter

368 M. Siba et al.


increases at constant β while �� increases with the increase in β ratio for the same

pipe diameter for all the fluids as shown in Fig. 5. The discharge coefficient

reaches its maximum values at Reynolds number between 800 and 1200, and then

slightly decreases before it becomes independent on Reynolds number of Re =

100,000 and higher. All results based on the CFD predictions were successfully

validated as they were compared with that of the literature available.

Fig. 5. Standard orifice plate discharge coefficient [33].

The structure of the flow in pipes containing orifice plate was studied and

numerically analysed by Sobey [24] who used the time dependent two-

dimensional Navier-Stokes equations. The study has shown that the flow could be

separated at sufficiently large Reynolds number. For instance, the study has

shown that there was a critical Reynolds number at which the separation could be

attained. In unsteady flow, for small Strouhal number the flow development

during acceleration occurs in a quasi-steady manner. In order to have a vortex

mixing, the peak Reynolds number must be sufficient to cause an equivalent

steady flow to separate. In a related study, Dennis and Dunwoody [34] presented

a solution to the flow up to five term truncation to approximate the solution for

laminar steady. Parameters such as drag coefficient, pressure coefficient, standing

eddy, length and stream lines patterns were compared with other experimental

and numerical solutions.

One of the features of the flow in pipes with orifice is the velocity profile of

the flow passed an orifice. The mechanism of decaying velocity (or the velocity

profile) in the laminar and turbulent flow was studied extensively by Uberoi

[14]. The study shows that the mechanism depends on estimating the swirl and

their corresponding trailing. The most important results of this study were

focused on the creation of the radial convection as a result of increasing

differences between the core trailing vortex and the velocity in the surrounding

region. The analytical analysis has shown clearly the disturbance in the flow

pattern passed the orifice plate.

It is well-known that all fittings distort the flow velocity. The size (impact) of

distortion depends on many factors such as the geometrical shape of the orifice,

viscosity, the material the fittings are made of, and whether the expansion



(contraction) is sudden or slow. Cherdron et al. [35] studied the effect of the

sudden expansion on the flow pattern by direct visualization using laser Doppler

anemometry. In a 2-D flow, the study examined a very accurate and detailed

description to the velocity profile. The shear layer, the study has shown, is the

main causes of the disturbances in unequal regions of flow recirculation. In

parallel study, Durst [13] studied the flow structure near the sudden contraction in

order to examine pressure losses in that region.

The 3-D studies were also conducted in order to get better insight of the

dynamics behaviour of the flow. As a typical example of these studies, Shintaro

and Masaki [36] who have shown the dynamics of a hanging tube with different

lengths carrying fluid. The experimental structure enabled them to study the static

buckling of the system.

Finally, the 3-D flow of unsteady viscous flow was examined by Mateeseu et

al. [37]. It was shown that central portion of the outer cylinder executes transverse

transitional oscillations in the longitudinal plane. The azimuthal Fourier

expansion was presented for numerical solution to solve the time dependent

incompressible Navier-stokes equations.

2.2. Vibration in Pipes

This part of the review focuses on orifice-induced vibration. As the flow passes

through the orifice, a differential pressure across the orifice and swirling take

place. The vibration caused by differential pressure and swirling could reach one

of the modes of the natural frequency of the structure which, in turn, results in

severe damage to the fittings and the wall of the pipe. In this study, the fluid is

flowing inside a pipe and the orifice plate could be treated as a contraction device

or an additive fitting. The existence of this device causes severe disturbance to the

flow regardless whether the flow is laminar or turbulent; steady or un-steady;

forced or natural, and, for all these cases, there will be always flow-induced

vibration. For small vibrations effect, there is possibility or chance of damage to

the pipe-orifice structure. The vibration could be very high and as normal mode of

flow-induced vibration reaches the normal mode of the pipe-orifice structure, the

damage becomes eminent. Studying this induced vibration is the subject of

enormous studies during the last seven decades. This section of the review

discusses the nature of each vibration and the analysis pertaining to it. The focus

in this review will be on steady-state vibration and dynamic transient vibration.

The second part is discussing the stability of the flow-induced vibrating systems.

2.3. Steady-State Vibration

The steady-state pipe vibration occurs for a long period of time. The main cause

for this vibration is the differential pressure (pressure loss) which occurs across

the orifice plate and causes, in turn, a force on the orifice plate [12, 38, 41]. Other

possible reason for this vibration is cavitation or flashing which is very normal

occurrence in the pressure-reducing valves [6]. The material fatigue is one

possible outcome of the steady-state vibration. The fatigue which is linked to the

stress could cause failure to the entire or specific parts of the structure [39].

370 M. Siba et al.


2.4. Dynamic transient vibration

Unlike the steady state vibration, the dynamic transient vibration can occur for

relatively short time by a pulsating system causing huge force across the orifice

plate which makes this vibration more dangerous and more dramatic [37]. The

occurrence of the dynamic transient vibration is not limited to the pulsating system

only, but also to a sudden opening or closing the gate valves or the safety valves.

The existing of a turbine in the piping circuit could be another reason for dynamic

transient vibration especially at certain time during starting or ending the turbine

[39]. The dynamic transient vibration is related to changes in the flow velocity

which is subjected to both the fluid viscosity and the geometrical setting of the

piping circuit which includes the number of fittings, bending in the pipes, fast

closing valves, fast safety/relief valves, and the sudden expansion or sudden

contraction [17, 47].

2.5. Stability versus vibration in pipes

Studying the stability and vibration of pipes conveying fluid is relatively new in

the field of structural dynamics. Serious effort was intensively concerning this

topic started in 1950 when Ashley and Haviland [1] studied the vibration of

Trans.-Arabian followed by a similar study by Housner [26]. The recent study by

Olson [17] shed the light on analysing the pipe vibration. The previous studies

were performed experimentally and theoretically aiming to generate a semi-

empirical solution to the effects of the vibration on the construction. The findings

suggest that the natural frequency (resonance) decreases as the fluid velocity

increases. The physical conditions of the pipe such as the size of the pipe, the

force at the supports, the distance between the supports, the materials the pipe

made of are related to the natural frequency.

Mao et al. [10] presented a theoretical approach to the hydraulic test for the

orifice induced pressure fluctuation (PSD) and vibration in pipeline. In this study

[10], the vibration was studied with the aid of fluctuating pressure and the

acceleration due to the structure of piping circuit. The natural frequency of the

whole structure was statistically evaluated based on the fluctuating pressure and

the acceleration. The study has shown how the orifice, as an additional fitting,

disturbs the pipe flow which results in increasing the fluctuating pressure. At this

level of fluctuating pressure-induced vibration, all other factors causing the

vibration have become secondary in their effect leaving the fluctuating pressure as

the main source of vibration. Numerically, Mao et al. [10] have shown that the

location of the highest fluctuating pressure is beyond the orifice at 1.7 orifice

diameter in the axial direction. The velocity and pressure distribution (profile) are

shown in Figs. 6(a) and (b) respectively.

The pressure and pressure drop across the orifice plate were extensively

investigated by researchers. Smith et al. [16] has investigated the effect of

temperature on pressure (Fig. 7) while Wang, et al. [49] have numerical analysis

show the variation of the flow discharge and the pressure, Figs. 8(a) and (b).



Fig. 6. The flow velocity (a) and pressure (b) along the axis of the tube [48].

Fig. 7. Comparison between measurements and predicted profiles

with different numerical schemes by k-� turbulence model [16].

372 M. Siba et al.


Fig. 8. The variation of flow rate with pressure at several aspect ratios

(a) and variation of flow rate with pressure drop coefficient [49].

Later Mao and Zhang [38] published their findings comparing the experimental

data to a numerical mathematical model through which the natural frequencies and

the strain response of the structure were considered. The numerical model is based

on dividing the vibration into three categories: turbulence induced vibration,

vorticity shedding induced vibration, and the fluid elastic instability.

The numerical modelling has been expanding by Matthew [39] who utilized

the Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) model to clarify the effect of the physical

characteristics of turbulent flow and the pipe wall vibration. The FSI software

used by Mathew [39] in this analysis was the commercial FSI software packages

which is based on Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) and another model

known as the Large Eddy Simulation (LES).



The accuracy of numerical modelling was tested by Shah et al. [50]. The peak

of the centreline velocity, Fig. 9(a) has shifted to the right as the number of cells

used in analysis increased. The effect of the increasing number of cells has shown

that the pressure decreased by about 10%, Fig. 9(b).

(a)

Fig. 9. Effect of grid size on (a) centreline axial velocity and

(b) centreline pressure profile with (1) 321,360 cells, (2) 1047,360 cells [50].

The two important factors (velocity and pressure) in the analysis of the flow

through an orifice plate were investigated by Smith et al. [16]. In this analysis

was examined for accuracy by comparing to experimental work. The analysis

has shown that there is a slight disagreement between the experimental work

and the CFD simulation analysis. The result of Smith et al. [16] and more recent

study by Shah et al. [50] suggest the need for more work in both directions:

experimental and numerical.

(b)

374 M. Siba et al.


Fig. 10. Dimensionless (a) centreline axial velocity and (b) wall pressure

profile for air at Reynolds number of 18,400, CFD simulation (―),

experimental data of Nail (○) [16].

The controlling of the resonance frequency of a system was studied by Yakut

and Canbazoslu [40] who employed attenuators such as volume addition, compliant

boundaries, and vortex generators. It is shown that the volume addition changes the

resonance frequency and reduces the amplitudes of the pressure fluctuations. The

resonance frequency has also shown changes when the compliant boundaries are

made from plastics material. Regarding the vortex generators, it has shown that the

manganese based alloy causes reduction in the resonance frequency.

A study carried out by Bagchi, et al. [41] has shown multiple effects of the

vibrating systems. The study, experimental in nature, has tested the effect of the

pipe oscillation on wall pressure. It is shown that there is a correlation between

frequencies of pressure oscillations in a non-oscillating pipe and the natural

frequencies of the structure. This result suggests that there is an influence of

structural properties on the flow scheme in fluid dynamics. The wall pressure is

subjected to both temporal and spatial oscillation if the pipe is forced to oscillate

periodically. The calculation of the mean pressure is affected by the type of

periodic oscillation. The study has shown analytically that about 7% variation for

forced oscillating pipes.

In a recent study, Song et al. [42] carried out a laboratory implantation tests on

vortex-induced vibration (VIV) in which the riser model has an external diameter

of 16 mm and a total length of 28.0 m. The experiment was carried out for

turbulent flow (4000 < Re < 10000). To measure the dynamic response in cross-

flow and in-line directions, fibre optic grating strain gages were used and the

results have shown that the number of modes in in-line direction is doubled from

6 to 12.

Long [43] was the first who studied the problem of vibration and stability of

cantilever pipe as well as simply supported pipe. The solution indicated a slight

decrease in frequency and no decaying vibration with an increase in flow rate that

can be attributed to the flowing fluid for simply supported, fixed, and fixed-

simple ends. The theory neglects internal damping of the tube and support

damping the effect of the fluid pressure was not included before Heinrich [27]

who was the first to show its effect on the vibration. Stein and Tobriner [43]

derived the equation of flow motion in a pipe with the effect of fluid pressure

being included. They studied the dynamical behaviour of a simply-simply,

clamped-clamped, and infinitely long pipe [44].



The vibration-induced internal flow of entirely supported pipe was examined

by Faal et al. [45]. In their analysis, a finite length pipe with clamped ends was

analysed by Euler-Bernoulli model which is also adopted in engineering

mechanics. The equation was solved to determine both transverse and axial

displacement. The goal for this study is to determine the natural frequency of

coupled pipe-fluid system. The study was extended to evaluate the effects of the

stiffness of elastic foundation and the velocity and density of inner fluid.

The dynamic behaviour of the flow through an orifice was extensively studied

by Kim [46]. In this study, Kim has utilized the irreversible energy loss which is

related to pressure loss for turbulent jet flow. Kim proposed two different models

to evaluate the pressure difference by instantaneous inertia model and the

frequency-dependent model.

The effect of harmonic fluctuation of the fluid flow was studied by Chen [47]

who presented a study of a simply supported tube containing pulsating flow. The

equation of motion was first derived to incorporate the unsteady flow. By

employing a mathematical method known as Galerkin's method in which a

continuous operator problem is converted to a discrete problem, the equation of

motion was reduced to a system of coupled equations with multi-harmonic

coefficients. Beam and shell theories were used to investigate the vibration and

stability of pipes [51]. The effects of the fluid properties and pipe geometry and

properties on the vibration and stability in-plane and curved pipes with different

end conditions were subjected to numerous studies, for instance, [52-54].

Beside the experimental evaluation and simulation studies, there is a study

conducted by Hellum, et al. [55] to determine the empirical parameters by the

numerical analysis. The study considered a system consists of cantilever pipes

conveying fluid. The goal of this study was to determine the best parameters for

stability of the structure.

Investigating unsteady hydraulic characteristics in a short-elbow piping,

Yamanoa et al. [56] tested a methodology for one of Japanese reactors. The

methodology in this study was experimented and the results were simulated. The

results suggest that the pressure fluctuations (not the differential pressure) have

less significant effect on the flow-induced vibration and the flow separation

region was slightly influenced by the swirl inflow.

In 2008, the forces of the vibration excitation were correlated to the dynamic

forces in a study conducted by Zhang et al. [57]. The two forces (excitation and

dynamic) have different nature; the excitation forces are developed through the

fluid and could be considered as internal forces while the dynamic forces are

those forces caused by the differential pressure. Zhang et al. [57] developed semi-

analytical models for correlating the two forces resulting in better understanding

to the nature of excitation forces.

The three following tables summarize the categories through which the flow

in a pipe containing an orifice plate. Table 1 shows typical experimental designs

and procedures. Table 2 shows the numerical analyses while Table 3 shows the

simulation procedures that were used by researchers.

376 M. Siba et al.


Table 1. Experimental: Designs and procedures.

Ref # Year Topic, area,

and interest

Investigated

Parameter Main Result

Applications of

their work

8 2011 Investigation

on fluid flow

characteristics

of the orifice

in nuclear

power plant.

��

�

Re

Investigating flow

near orifice plate

by using a

commercial

computational

fluid dynamics

code

characteristics,

and compared

with experimental.

Used flow

measurement

technique in

industrial

application

including

nuclear fields

such as

pharmaceutical

plants.

10 2006 Experimental

studies of

orifice

induced wall

pressure

fluctuation

and pipe

vibration

Flow rate

=15, 25, 40

m3/h.

�= 0.25,

0.30,0.335

Study orifice

induced random

wall pressure

fluctuation and

vibration in a

pipeline.

Engineering pipes

conveying fluid

often suffer from

flow induced

vibration and

structural

failures& nuclear

power plant.

11 2009 Effect of

orifice shape

in synthetic jet

impingement

cooling

�= 3-25 m/s

�� =50

mm

� �� =25

mm

Experiments are

carried out on the

effects of velocity

and orifice

spacing on the

frequency of

sound generated

by flow in a

pipeline

containing two

closely spaced

sharp-edged

orifice plates.

Orifice plates are

widely used as

convenient

pressure-reduction

and flow-

regulation devices

in a pipe flow.

41 2009 Experimental

study of the

decay pressure

fluctuations

and flow

perturbations

in air flow

through

vibrating

pipes

�� =

100mm,

�=10m.

Air flow

Re = 3 -

11*104.

Concerned with a

preliminary study

of the decay of

swirling turbulent

pipe flow and

effect on the

accuracy of orifice

plate flow meter.

The Algerian

petroleum natural

gas company



Table 2. Numerical analysis.

Table 3. Simulation Procedures

Ref # Year Topic, area, and

interest

Investigated

Parameter Main Result Applications of their work

15 1970 Numerical solutions

for steady past a

circular cylinder at

Reynold number up

to 100.

Re Steady-state and transient

heat transfer in a rectangular

duct with an orifice filled

with He II was investigated

both experimentally and

numerically.

Consider cooling of

magnets, it is important to

clarify heat flow in a duct

with a complicated orifice

like so as to resolve the

instability of the magnets

16 2008 Numerical

investigation of

turbulent flow

through a circular

orifice.

�= 0.5, 0.6,

0.8

Re = 18400

� = 25.4 mm

� = 9 �

� = 3.2 mm

�0 =

12.7 mm

Study the influence of

turbulence model on the

predicted results, the standard

k-ε turbulence model was

employed to compare with

the Reynolds Stress

Model (RSM).

Natural gas industry

27 2009 Orifice plate meter

wet gas flow

performance

ratio density

mass of water

mass of gas

Research into the wet gas

response of the horizontally

installed orifice plate meter is

discussed

Used to measure wet gas

flows.

378 M. Siba et al.


3. Conclusions

Investigating the flow emerging from or within the orifice has become

increasingly important due to many industrial and experimental applications. The

main purpose of these investigations is to create very accurate measurement

procedure for the discharge of the flow in pipes for economic and safety reasons.

The current review shows the chronical historical developments for orifice

techniques which include the geometry and the shape of the orifice plate,

experimental works, and analysis during the last six decades. The following

points could be drawn from this review.

• Fabricating of orifice plate has been developing from a single shape to about

ten different shapes.

• There are about five theoretical models were developed and utilized in order

to validate or simulate the experimental work.

• Disagreement between experimental results and their relevant theoretical

models and simulations has always been expected.

• For same theoretical model, changing parameters such as the mesh number or

achieving the convergence level could result in an error of about 10%.

• The need for reducing or compiling models is necessary in reducing the

arising complexity of this topic.

Ref # Year Topic, area,

and interest

Investigated

Parameters Main Results

Applications

of their work

18 2009 CFD analysis

of

incompressible

turbulent

swirling flow

through Zanker

plate

�=1.8, 0.02

m/s, 4.1,

10.85 m/s

Thickness =

0.1D, 17D

mm.

The effects of Zanker plate

thickness and Re on the

flow characteristics have

been investigated

Flow measurement is

essential in almost all

industrial

applications: food

industry to

petrochemical, and

oil/gas processing,

such as

pharmaceutical plants

19 2010 CFD Analysis

on discharge

coefficient

during non-

Newtonian

flows through

orifice meter

�= 0.4 - 0.6,

Re=100 -

10000.

�, , ρ, ν,

��= 0.6.

Determine the discharge

co-efficient as a function of

Reynolds number with beta

ratios for single phase non-

Newtonian flows.

Moreover, the analysis on

discharge coefficient was

performed for different

concentration of the non-

Newtonian fluid

The flow meters used

in chemical industries

are orifice plate flow

meters.

20 2012 Simulations of

whistling and

the whistling

potentiality of

an in-duct

orifice with

line

aeroacoustics

�/� = 0.6 Demonstrates a linear

aeroacoustic simulation

methodology to predict the

whistling of an orifice plate

in a flow duct.

In many practical

applications related to

flow ducts, as for

example engine

exhaust systems and

ventilation systems



• Improving the numerical statistical methods could represent an important step

for reducing the confusion arises from complexity of the boundary conditions.

• It was found that previous studies were focusing on aspect ratios started

sequentially incremented at 0.1 from the minimum value of 0.2 to mostly 0.7

while no studies have shown studies with increment different from 0.1.

• Some studies have shown dramatic change of follow vorticities and swirling

activities as the aspect ratio increased from 0.2 to 0.3 and as such more

studies are needed to cover the behaviour between these two aspect ratios.

• Studies are not unified regarding the principal frequency modes and their

relevant second harmonic frequencies.

• The need for enhancing software is very important step.

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