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FLEXIBLE WORK ARRANGEMENTS: AN EVALUATION OF JOB
SATISFACTION AND WORKLIFE BALANCE
by
Gladys Hrobowski-Culbreath
FRANK DECARO, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair
LUIS RIVERA, PhD, Committee Member
DAVID BALCH, PhD, Committee Member
William A. Reed, PhD, Acting Dean, School of Business and Technology
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
August 2010
UMI Number: 3423947
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI 3423947
Copyright 2010 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346
Gladys Hrobowski-Culbreath, 2010
Abstract
Flexible work arrangements are tied to turnover, absenteeism, job satisfaction,
productivity and worklife balance. The purpose of this research is threefold: (a)
Examine the relationship between flexible work arrangement programs, job satisfaction,
productivity and worklife balance; (b) identify jobs that are best suited for these
strategies and identify a number of companies tat have been successful in using these
strategies; and (c) discuss the advantages and disadvantages of flexible work
arrangements for both employees and employers. Survey data were collected from 200
individuals who participate in various forms of flexible work arrangement programs. The
participants completed the short form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss,
Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). The instrument consisted of 20 factors that measured
the relationships between job satisfaction and worklife balance. A demographic
questionnaire was also used. Herzbergs (1987) motivation-hygiene theory was used as
the framework to examine job satisfaction and worklife balance in a sample of 200
participants.
REFERENCES
Herzberg, F. (1987). One more time: How do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review, 65(5), 109120.
Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
iii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Dwight, my daughters, Brittany and
Joey, my son, Thomas, my parents, the late Freeman and Gladys Hrobowski, and my
brothers and sisters. It is truly a blessing to have (or have had) you in my life. Thank you
for your love and support which has sustained me throughout this long and sometimes
arduous journey.
iv
Acknowledgments
Without the support and encouragement of my mentor, committee members,
family, friends, and fellow classmates, I could not have achieved this momentous goal.
My gratitude and appreciation to all who contributed to my success is immeasurable.
I would like to thank my mentor, Dr. Frank DeCaro, and my committee members,
Dr. Luis Rivera and Dr. David Balch. I am eternally grateful for your expertise and
guidance throughout this challenging, but rewarding experience. I am truly grateful to the
research participants for extending their time and support to my research effort. Thanks to
my advisor, Laura Hutt, who was always willing to listen and make suggestions.
A special thanks to a young man I met at the University of Michigan. I could not
have completed this chapter in my life without your expertise.
v
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments iv
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
Introduction to the Problem 1
Background of the Problem 3
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 10
Rationale 10
Research Questions 11
Significance of the Study 11
Definition of Terms 12
Assumptions and Limitations 13
Nature of the Study 14
Organization of the Remainder of the Study 14
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 15
Types of Flexible Work Arrangements 15
Jobs Best Suited for Flexible Work Arrangements 19
Companies That Have Successful Alternative Work Arrangement Programs 20
Advantages and Disadvantages of Flexible Work Arrangements 21
Flexible Work Arrangements and WorkLife Balance 24
vi
Flexible Work Arrangements and Job Satisfaction 25
Future Trends in Flexible Work Arrangement Programs 26
Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory 27
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 32
Introduction 32
Description of Methodology 32
Design of the Study 33
Sample and Population 34
Instrumentation/Measures 36
Reliability and Validity 38
Data Collection 40
Data Analysis Procedures 41
Ethical Considerations 42
CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 44
Introduction 44
Data Collection 45
Research Sample 46
Data Analysis Procedures 50
Research Question 1 52
Research Question 2 62
Research Question 3 67
Summary 76
vii
CHAPTER 5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 80
Summary 80
Conclusions 91
Recommendations 93
Recommendations for Further Research 94
REFERENCES 97
APPENDIX A. DEMOGRAPHICS QUESTIONNAIRE 106
APPENDIX B. PARTICIPANT DEMOGRAPHICS 108
APPENDIX C. VARIABLES AND SATISFACTION 113
APPENDIX D. MSQ QUESTIONS 122
viii
List of Tables
Table 1. Participants Personal Characteristics 48
Table 2. Participants Work-Related Characteristics 49
Table 3. Summary of MANOVA Results 51
Table 4. Means 52
Table 5. MANOVA Analysis, Extrinsic Factors 56
Table 6. MANOVA Analysis, Intrinsic Factors 57
Table 7. MANOVA Analysis, Job Satisfaction 58
Table 8. MANOVA Analysis, Overall Satisfaction 60
Table 9. MANOVA Analysis, WorkLife Balance 61
Table 10. MANOVA Analysis, Job Satisfaction (Q13, Q16, Q20) 63
Table 11. Correlation Analysis, Job Satisfaction 64
Table 12. Multiple Linear Regression Analysis, Job Satisfaction 65
Table 13. MANOVA Analysis, WorkLife Balance (Q4, Q7, Q9) 68
Table 14. Correlation Analysis, WorkLife Balance 69
Table 15. Multiple Linear Regression Analysis, WorkLife Balance 72
Table 16. Cronbachs Alpha 76
Table 17. Summary of Means and Standard Deviations 77
ix
List of Figures
Figure 1. Extrinsic factors and job satisfaction 66
Figure 2. Intrinsic factors and job satisfaction 67
Figure 3. Extrinsic factors and worklife balance 73
Figure 4. Intrinsic factors and worklife balance 74
Figure 5. Job satisfaction and worklife balance 75
Figure B1. Participants gender 108
Figure B2. Participants race/ethnicity 108
Figure B3. Participants marital status 109
Figure B4. Participants number of children under 18 109
Figure B5. Participants education 110
Figure B6. Participants type of organization 110
Figure B7. Participants occupational category 111
Figure B8. Participants employment status 111
Figure B9. Participants current salary 112
Figure B10. Participants present job 112
Figure C1. Age and satisfaction 113
Figure C2. Children at home and satisfaction 114
Figure C3. Education and satisfaction 115
Figure C4. Employment status and satisfaction 116
Figure C5. Gender and satisfaction 117
Figure C6. Job tenure (years) and satisfaction 118
Figure C7. Marital status and satisfaction 119
x
Figure C8. Occupation tenure (years) and satisfaction 120
Figure C9. Salary ($1,000) and satisfaction 121
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
I believe a balanced life is essential, and I try to make sure that all of our employees know that and live that way. Its crucial to me as a manager that I help ensure that our employees are as successful as our customers and partners. I also think that employees these days expect less of a separation of work and personal life. That doesnt mean that work tasks should encroach upon our personal time, but it does mean that employees today expect more from the companies for whom they work.
Marc Benioff, CEO, Salesforce.com
Introduction to the Problem
The business world is a dynamic human structure in which its activities require
ingenuity and creativity in order to progress and survive. Innovations in workplace
strategies are the manifestations of these innate human attributes, but there are few people
who go beyond these innovations and add more color to it by using flexible work
arrangement options. Workers from all over the world are attracted to organizations that
use these business practices. Perhaps it is because of the curiosity of experiencing
something different or perhaps they are motivated to experience the business world in a
different zone (Peter & Donnelly, 2003). These businesses tend to have notable success
and continue to be highly adoptive. Therefore, it is safe to assume that, in spite of stiff
competition; they survive and flourish because of the flexible work options they offer
their employees.
2
Bias in Research
Bias is any influence or condition that distorts data (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Bias
attacks the integrity of the facts; therefore, the goal of the researcher is to minimize bias.
Research is a process that is never totally objective or completely independent;
therefore, researchers can always expect some bias. When interpreting data, researchers
sometimes produce methodical errors. Researchers must scrutinize the data in order to
avoid or at least minimize errors. The researchers interpretation must not be affected by
what the researcher wishes to discover, but rather what the facts of the research are. As a
researcher, one must commit to the research being conducted and should not deliberately
attempt to reject the results of the research (Cooper & Schindler, 2006; Leedy & Ormrod,
2001).
Theoretical Foundation of the Study
Many organizations have changed their work environment because they recognize
that their employees are valuable assets and want them to commit themselves to the
company. When employees are recognized and rewarded for the efforts that they have
contributed to the organization, many are motivated to be more effective and efficient;
they tend to stay longer with the company and are more satisfied with their job. Giving
employees more responsibilities will serve as their motivation for advancement and
growth (Herzberg, 1987).
People work for a variety reasons, the most apparent being the need for money.
However, it is not just the money that keeps them showing up for work every day. A
complex problem in this area is the ability to understand and explain why some people do
not enjoy their work and others do. Obviously there is no single resolution for satisfying
3
everybody in the workplace. Therefore, managers must recognize and understand the
concept of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction and related issues.
The theoretical framework for the study was based on Herzbergs motivation-
hygiene theory. He based the theory on his interviews with over 200 engineers and
accountants. The interviews assisted in establishing factors that determine ones
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his or her job. From the findings, Herzberg came to the
conclusion that these factors are separate and distinct. According to Herzberg, Mausner,
and Snyderman (1959), job satisfaction is positively related to achievement, opportunity
for personal growth, stimulating work, recognition, responsibility, and promotion
opportunities, which are factors related to outcomes associated with the work itself. He
labeled these factors motivators because they were associated with high levels of job
satisfaction. In contrast, he linked job dissatisfaction with factors he termed hygiene.
Examples of hygiene factors are job security, salary, working conditions, relationships
with others, company policies and procedures, and the quality of supervision. Herzberg
(1987) claimed that employees who satisfy their hygiene factors will reduce their job
dissatisfaction.
Background of the Problem
Before the 1990s, employees were housed in office buildings and involved in
mostly face-to-face communication. Equipment used in these traditional settings included
typewriters, telephones, copy machines, and early computers. Regular mail and overnight
package delivery (early 1980s) were used to transmit correspondence and documents.
The transmission speed of information was increased by advances in technology.
4
Therefore, the need for face-to-face communication was reduced significantly
(Mamaghani, 2006).
The fast development of new technologies has altered the nature of work as well
as the physical work environment. Barber, Laing, and Simeone (2005) believed that
continuous investment in infrastructures that enhance remote connectivity and
communication challenges the traditional view of the work environment. Therefore,
organizations must continuously develop new strategies and cost effective means to
satisfy the need of its employees.
Alfares (2006) asserted that employee scheduling is an important and complex,
practical problem, particularly for businesses that operate continuously (e.g., hospitals,
airports, train stations, and restaurants). When the businesses operate 7 days a week,
different employees must be given different days off, some of which do not include the
weekend.
Flexible Work Arrangements
For employees, job flexibility is important. Many employers offer various flexible
work options to meet the needs of their employees. Examples of flexible work options are
telecommuting, flextime, voluntary part-time work, particularly job sharing, and
compressed work week. Many employees are attracted to these work arrangements.
According to Cole (2006), flexible work arrangements are alternatives to the
traditional 9-to-5 work schedule. He further states that they can support employee
preference and unique job requirements. Significant organizational and individual
benefits can be obtained by using flexible work arrangements. Additionally, these work
arrangements have proved to be helpful in terms of improving morale, helping meet
5
employees personal needs while contributing to the organization, and recruiting and
retaining valuable employees.
A common element in the lives of all employees is the need to be flexible. Some
Traditionalists want to move into retirement slowly; Baby Boomers must often assume
responsibility for taking care of their ailing or aging parents and Generation Xers need
time to participate in school and community activities with their children. The terms,
Traditionalists, Baby Boomers, Generation Xers are explained in the definition of terms
section of this study. Many employers have discovered that increasing work schedule
flexibility does not interfere with maintaining acceptable levels of productivity (Reese,
Rowings, & Sharpley, 2007).
Today, some employees do not go to their offices every day. They have the
opportunity to work at home or spend less time at the office and maintain the same level
or better efficiency. Because of the impact it has had on families, this work option has
been the topic of much research. Parents have the opportunity to spend more time at
home and be hands-on parents. Working at home is one of the benefits of flexible work
arrangements. The time spent preparing for work and traveling to work can be used for
other family activities. Using mobile telecommunications technology and on-call work
arrangements allows for spending less time in the office. These strategies can increase
productivity and reduce absenteeism (Desrochers & Sargent, 2003).
Telecommuting
According to Manochehri and Pinkerton (2003), telecommuting is a preferred
substitute to working in an office. Both employees and employers have many reasons to
consider telecommuting programs. Benefits that can be realized by using telecommuting
6
include schedule and location flexibility, enhanced employee satisfaction, attracting and
retaining employees, productivity improvement, cost reduction, and benefiting society.
However, the potential benefits of this work option can be realized only if organizations
identify and address the challenges associated with telecommuting. Some challenges
include the nature of jobs, company culture, selection of employees, providing the
required infrastructure, awareness of legal considerations, overcoming resistance to
telecommuting, monitoring and performance measurements, and employee isolation and
communication.
The advantages of telecommuting for some employees can be very valuable. One
huge advantage an employee has when telecommuting is the flexibility to coordinate
work schedules and family responsibilities. Flexible working arrangements improve the
quality of the work performed. More control over ones life can be achieved when family
and work life are in balance. Turnover, job satisfaction, performance and stress, are
influenced by the advantages and benefits of telecommuting. According to the authors,
employees who telecommute 2.5 days per week heighten its favorable effects on work
and family (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007).
Compressed Work Week
Compressed work weeks allow employees to work a variety of schedules such as
4 days a week for 10-hour days or 12+ hours 3 days a week. In a recent meta-analysis
study, compressed work week schedules showed a favorable effect on the participants
work outcomes (e.g., productivity, absenteeism, job satisfaction and overall satisfaction).
The positive consequences may subsequently lead to an increase in organizational
performance (Sands & Harper, 2007). Disadvantages such as fatigue, stress, and
7
decreased productivity have been responsible for the limited acceptance of the
compressed work week schedule option (Vega & Gilbert, 1997).
Among employers, the compressed work week is one of the most preferred work
schedules. For example, Texas Instruments provides compressed work weeks, which
consist of 12-hour days, working 3 days one week and 4 days the following week.
Scheduling of this nature has had a positive effect on productivity by reducing the
number of shifts and time-consuming changeovers from three to two. One benefit of
offering a compressed work week is to make the job more attractive to employees. The
advantages of this scheduling system for employees include 3- and 4-day weekends,
potential savings on childcare and gas, more personal time, and increased employee
morale. A compressed work week also provides mutual benefits for employers by saving
operating cost, increased productivity, making employees more focused on the task at
hand and providing a recruiting advantage. A major shortcoming of flextime is that
employees who work long days may develop fatigue. This sometimes results in
eliminating the benefits (Erickson, 2005).
Work Sharing/Job Sharing
Work-sharing arrangements allow the duties and responsibilities of a full-time job
to be shared among two or more employees. For example, two department representatives
may be responsible for the whole job and all tasks. Alternatively, some projects may be
assigned independently, one employee work in the am and the other work in the pm.
Frequently, employees alternate days or develop some other schedule for sharing. On a
short-term basis, this work option can help transition experienced workers into retirement
8
while training their replacement. Over a longer term, it allows part-time employees to
remain in the job market and earn income (Preston, 2007).
Work-sharing benefits both employees and employers. When the organizations
are dedicated to meeting their personal needs, employees tend to become more loyal to
their employers. At the same time, employers avoid high turnover and reduce the cost of
benefits. However, employees who participate in work-sharing programs receive fewer
benefits and are at risk of being the first to be laid off when organizations make
workforce cutbacks. In general, work sharing has become a popular modified work
schedule. A survey of 1,000 American employers found that more than 28% of
employers offered job-sharing programs (Preston, 2007).
According to Sherwyn and Sturman (2002), job sharing provides a tool that adds a
layer of protection that lies between contingent workers and layoffs of core employees.
Layoffs are not the options to consider when economic conditions reduce the workforce
to the point where eliminating contingent-work arrangements is not enough.
Flextime
Flextime was initially introduced by Christel Kaemmerev in 1956 and
implemented in West German businesses in 1967 (Avery & Zabel, 2001). According to
Hicks and Klimoski (1981), flextime was introduced (1970s) to American businesses to
reduce crowding in parking facilities. Because of the positive effects on employee
attitude, flextime became popular as a means to adapt hours to the requirements of the
workforce. Flextime allows employees to exercise their discretion regarding the times
they want to work. This work option was used as a retention and recruitment tool during
the 20th century.
9
Statement of the Problem
Organizations and their employees are able to be more efficient, communicate
quickly, and easily perform their jobs from remote locations as a result of advances in
technology. Technology has expanded workers options in terms of how, where, and
when they work. This technology has assisted employees in improving the quality of their
lives. Additionally, advancements in technology have been helpful in terms of managing
the personal and professional aspects of their lives. Advanced technology gives the
employees the choice to perform their jobs from remote locations. Increased efficiencies,
competitive advantage in the marketplace, reduced costs, improved company and
customer communications, and global expansion are the benefits for organizations that
have embraced technical innovations (Mamaghani, 2006).
From an organizational standpoint, leadership within organizations are
continually developing strategies to contain costs (particularly energy costs these days),
maximize productivity, improve competitiveness, and do their share to preserve the
environment. While trying to improve the productivity of employees, organizations also
try to provide a culture that helps employees maintain a worklife balance. Much of the
same holds true for employees. Employees strive to save energy, protect the environment,
and most important, make an attempt to maintain a balance between family and career.
Employees also try to be productive at the workplace, but not at the cost of sacrificing
their personal or family life (D. Harris, 2004).
Our food, clothes, shelter, and much more are the rewards for work. Therefore,
employees need to understand the changes that are occurring at work. Todays workplace
is quite different from what it was years ago. Change has altered the way work is done.
10
As a result, a companys database allows sales representatives to give customers
immediate information about new products and services and allows a shipping clerk to
monitor goods in real time (Barner, 1996).
Purpose of the Study
The aim of this research was threefold. First, the study examined the relationship
between flexible work arrangement programs, job satisfaction, and worklife balance.
Second, it identified jobs that were best suited for these strategies and identified
companies that were successful in using these strategies. Third, the study discussed the
advantages and disadvantages of flexible work arrangement options for both employees
and employers. Research on this subject is important because it will help identify and
provide solutions to business, family and environmental concerns (Kalleberg, 2000).
Additionally, the reader will learn about various jobs and work situations that are
conducive to using flexible work arrangement strategies. Readers will become aware of
how these strategies improve job satisfaction and the lives of employees and their
families.
Rationale
Herzbergs theory illustrates that hygiene factors are a platform for employee
satisfaction while the motivator factors of recognition is instrumental to engendering
ones productivity and growth (Herzberg et al., 1959).
This study was designed to enhance ones knowledge about flexible work
arrangements, and how these strategies affect job satisfaction and worklife balance.
11
Work flexibility has become an important topic of interest for employees and employers
alike. To assist managers with understanding the relationships and factors linked to
worklife balance and job satisfaction, this situation needs to be talked about at length in
the workplace. This dissertation presented another opportunity to contribute to the
knowledge of flexible work arrangements. Employers can use this information to help
attract and keep competent employees.
Research Questions
1. Is there a relationship between demographic variables and job satisfaction?
2. Is job satisfaction and dissatisfaction related to motivator and hygiene factors?
3. Is there a relationship between extrinsic factors and worklife balance?
Significance of the Study
This research is significant for several reasons: (a) Employers need to be educated
so that their mind set is changed; (b) provides employers with research that will present
evidence to support the value of flexible work arrangement options for both employers
and employees in relation to job flexibility, productivity and worklife balance, job
satisfaction; (c) the study will contribute to extended knowledge related to these topics;
(d) assist employees in better understanding utilization of these work options; and (e)
identify trends to establish best practices that can be tested and or incorporated in
organizations.
These days businesses the world over must change with the times. Many times
corporate offices, branch offices, contractors and subcontractors, and business travel is
12
located around the world. Therefore, keeping everyone on the same page when work is
not even in the same time zone becomes very difficult. Even so, many organizations are
finding that the advantages of having such diverse workforce outweigh the challenges.
With this in mind, management needs to reevaluate and update strategies to meet the
challenges in a highly globalized business environment (Kooser, 2005).
Definition of Terms
The definitions that follow will help the reader understand the terms and concepts
related to this study.
Baby Boomer. Individuals born between 1946 and 1964, and represents one of the
largest populations born (Herman, 2006).
Compressed work week. According to Mitchell and Williamson (2003), the
compressed work schedule consists of working a full-time schedule in fewer, longer days.
ones home or other remote location outside the companys office.
Flexible work arrangements. Work arrangements that let employees have some
control over when and where they work (Lambert, Marler, & Gueutal, 2008).
Flextime. According to Brookshire (2002), flextime allows an employee to change
his or her start and end time, but be at work for core hours of the day, and work a
standard number of hours within a specified time.
Generation Xers. Individuals born between 1065 and 1980 (Hatfield, 2002).
Job satisfaction. Operationally defined as ones positive feelings or attitudes
towards ones occupation (Moore, 2008).
13
Telecommuting. Mamaghani (2006) defined telecommuting as working from
ones home or other remote location outside the companys office.
Telework. According to Byrd (2005), telework is defined as substitution of
information technologies for normal work-related travel.
Teleworking. The ability of managers and employees to use computers to access
their work from remote locations (Martnez-Snchez, Prez-Prez, Vela-Jimnez, & de-
Luis-Carnicer, 2008).
Traditionalists. Individuals born between 1926 and 1945.
Worklife balance. According to Nicholas (2007), worklife balance is ones
satisfaction and ability to function well at work and home while minimizing role conflict.
Assumptions and Limitations
Some assumptions that can be made from this study are (a) employee scheduling
is considered a hygiene factor; (b) 8-hour, 40-hour work weeks are not satisfactory work
arrangements; (c) replacing 8-hour, 40-hour work weeks with more flexible schedules
increase job satisfaction and improve worklife balance; (d) the sample selected is
representative of the target population; (e) variables will be accurately measured with the
short form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ); and (f) measures are valid and
reliable.
The limitations identified in this study are (a) snowball sampling can result in
biases; (b) the findings of the study cannot be generalized beyond the study sample; and
(c) the data used in the study rely on self-reporting, which can be distorted by perception,
faulty memory, and other biases.
14
Nature of the Study
This research used a quantitative, descriptive methodology approach to examine
the relationship between flexible work arrangements, worklife balance and job
satisfaction. A survey questionnaire was used to collect data from employees involved in
flexible work arrangement programs. In this study, the research examined how
employees job satisfaction and worklife balance relates to tenure, age, income, and
other personal demographics. The instrument, the short form MSQ, elicited information
from participants seeking to uncover trends and understand their perceptions of the
variables.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
Chapter 2 provides a review of literature relevant to flexible work arrangement
programs and how these programs affect job satisfaction and worklife balance. It
identifies companies who were using these programs successfully, jobs that were best
suited for these programs, and discussed advantages and disadvantages for employers and
employees. Chapter 3 describes the methodology used to conduct the study. Chapter 4
discusses the results of the survey and analysis of the data collected from participants.
This chapter also provided graphic display of the data collected. Chapter 5 discusses the
findings, recommendations, and conclusions based on the data collected and analysis of
the data.
15
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter identified available and relevant literature from a variety of sources.
The review begins with a discussion of literature that relates to the types of flexible work
arrangements programs, companies who were successful in using flexible work
arrangement strategies, and advantages and disadvantages of flexible work arrangement
programs. Next is a discussion of flexible work arrangements and worklife balance,
flexible work arrangements and job satisfaction, and future trends in flexible work
arrangement programs. Last is a discussion of Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory.
Types of Flexible Work Arrangements
Flexible work arrangements include flextime, compressed work weeks,
telecommuting, and job sharing/work sharing (Kelly & Kalev, 2006).
Telecommuting
Employers have been allowing employees to telecommute for a long time.
According to Langhoff (2002) and Kurland and Bailey (1999), the term telecommuting
was coined by Jack Nilles, a rocket scientist, while working on a project for NASA in
1970. Nilles had experienced several problems on the project and decided to try
alternative strategies to resolve the issues.
16
As computer programmers became more important and harder to find in the early
1970s, companies like Control Data Corporation (CDC) began to explore the concept of
working at home as recruitment tool. Programmers liked the idea of not being stuffed into
a corporate office and being able to concentrate any hour on his or her work. CDCs
telecommuting policy gave it a competitive advantage for a time in the hiring of
programmers (Piskurich, 1998).
When Congress amended the Clean Air Act, many companies were motivated to
implement telecommuting programs. As a result, 11 states with the poorest air quality
were targeted to reduce daily commuting. Telecommuting was used to help organization
in these states reduce the number of employees who commuted daily (Siha & Monroe,
2006).
In 2000, the Behavior Research Center conducted a study sponsored by AT&T.
The study concluded that about 17 million workers aged 18 and older could be classified
as teleworkers. In addition, the researchers revealed that over half of these employees had
worked offsite for about 3 years, and 2.8 million of these employees had limited
experience. This statistic showed a quick increase in offsite workers and a 20% increase
in the growth rate over a year earlier (Gibson, Blackwell, Dominicis, & Demerath, 2002).
Flextime
Flextime is a very popular flexible work option. It is used by both public and
private sector employers. Flextime allows flexibility in start and finish times, with no
change in the workers total hours worked. For instance, a couples partner uses flextime
and starts work early. With a shortened lunch, the partner is able take care of the children
after school. These schedules seem to work better for the couple than the standard 9-to-5
17
schedule. According to recent research, flexibility in employees work schedule has
positive effects on employee outcomes (Gainey & Clenney, 2006; Haar, 2007). Some
benefits of flextime include improved member relationships, more engaged and loyal
employees, improved communication throughout the organizations, and higher employee
retention. The Alliance for Work-Life Progress stated that employees rank flexibility
behind wages and healthcare. Given the high level of importance and impact of flexible
scheduling, almost 85% of all companies offer some form of flexibility to their
employees according to the group. Organizations that do not offer this work option to
their employees risk burning out or losing their top performers. With productivity
increasing more than one third for some organizations that embrace this strategy, this is
one that can be deemed beneficial for both sides (Liberman, 2008).
Compressed Work Week
Compressed work weeks are very common in the American workforce and have
been viewed positively by management and employees. Among the most commonly
reported disadvantages are coverage, fatigue, scheduling, moonlighting, productivity,
supervision, reluctance to return to work after being away for an extended period, and
employee dissatisfaction with long work hours. This flexible work arrangement varies
significantly and is usually used in the following industries: manufacturing, computer
operations, petroleum, insurance, and hospitals (Vega & Gilbert, 1997).
Some advantages associated with compressed works weeks are improved
productivity, morale, better recruitment and retention, employee and customer relations,
reduced turnover, absences, overtime, tardiness, and operating expenses. These authors
note that studies concerning compressed work weeks have hinged data from
18
questionnaires and case study data collected on individual companies. Very little
longitudinal data were used, which makes generalization about private and public sector
industries complex and narrow in focus (Vega & Gilbert, 1997).
Hyland, Rowsome, and Rowsome (2005) observed that mixed results have been
found in studies conducted on compressed work weeks. Some researchers found
reductions in sick time and use of personal leave, improved service and productivity (four
out of seven studies) in which compressed work weeks were investigated. There was no
change reported in three out the seven studies.
Job Sharing/Work Sharing
According to Crampton and Mishra (2005), the concept of job sharing was
introduced as a result of the 1978 Federal Employee Part-Time Career Employment Act.
The legislation was enacted to increase the number of workers who wanted to work less
than 40 hours per week. Additionally, this legislation authorized job sharing for federal
employees, which opened the door for further implementation. The authors note that
radical changes have occurred in the workforce which caused companies to reexamine
this viable alternative work arrangement. There have been reports of many benefits
associated with this work option; however, disadvantages also exist. Many companies
that offer job sharing to retain employees indicate that they are willing to use this flexible
work option, but it is sometimes difficult to find employees to participate in the program.
One reason for this is because job sharing may not be suitable for every company or
every employee. Another reason is that sometimes employees are afraid of management
disapproval or career disintegration (Crampton & Mishra, 2005). Work sharing may
influence employee productivity. For example, if employees work fewer hours per week
19
and reduce fatigue, their productivity may increase. On the other hand, this work option
can create situations where worker productivity is decreased and adds to the need for
more workers (Lanoie, Raymond, & Shearer, 2001). Job sharing can be a solution to help
employees juggle family and work obligations, reduce layoffs, produce happy and
productive employees, part-time professional work, and increase employee commitment
and organizational loyalty (Branine, 2003; Franklin, 1999).
Jobs Best Suited for Flexible Work Arrangements
These work options are suitable for work that do not involve rigid schedules, and
in organizations that have effective methods in place to measure employee performance.
It is especially appropriate in urban areas where severe traffic congestions problems exist
(Siha & Monroe, 2006). Jobs suitable for flexible work arrangements programs typically
have many characteristics. Some of these characteristics include tasks that can be
completed during quiet and uninterrupted time; tasks that are clearly defined and
objectives can be set. Other characteristics are ability to schedule work that can only be
done at the main office on nontelecommuting days; and colleagues can be satisfied
through the use of flexible work arrangements (Crampton & Mishra, 2005; Foote, 1998).
The jobs that are best suited for this program are those that fit perfectly to the
benefits it offers, such as flextime and job sharing. Within these parameters, it is
noticeable that the best jobs for this program are those that are project-based. Here, it is
the employees who set their own work discipline and the time they put into the work.
This work arrangement is a simplification of a work routine. Its only concern is to reach a
certain objective within a certain time frameall else is up to the worker. Another job
20
that is suitable for this is commission-based in which workers get paid in line with the
results of his or her work. Employees who have found alternative work arrangements
most suitable for them are those who have issues between work and family life.
Additionally, older workers who have less endurance for a 9-to-5 work routine have
found that this work option is very favorable (Flexible Work Arrangements Attract
Older Workers, 2007).
According to Scordato and Harris (1990), flexible work arrangements can be
successful in many different positions and functional areas. For example, line jobs,
supervisory positions, and jobs with heavy client contact. Some job titles include
architect, benefits administrator, counselor, daycare director, electrical engineer, financial
analyst, graphic designer, human resource generalist, information specialist, international
manager, and network engineer.
Companies That Have Successful Alternative Work Arrangement Programs
Among the best known companies that offer alternate work programs are Sun
Microsystems Incorporated, KPMG LLP, Best Buy Co. Incorporated,
PricewaterhouseCoopers, and PNC Financial Services Group, Incorporated. Sun
Microsystems is a leading software manufacturer that focuses on network computing.
The company offers an open work program to 40% of its employees where they have the
freedom to work any time they want. As a result of using open work programs, Sun
Microsystems found that employees become more productive and become more satisfied
with the company. Moreover, Sun Microsystems employees who work at home have the
21
best scores in performance ratings. KPMG LLP, a company that specializes in providing
audits, tax and advisory services, also offer flexible work schedules, which is part of their
objectives to become more flexible. As a result of using open work programs, Sun
Microsystems found that employees become more productive and become more satisfied
with the company. Moreover, Sun Microsystems employees who work at home have the
best scores in performance ratings. KPMG LLP, a company that specializes in providing
audits, tax and advisory services, also offer flexible work schedules, which is part of their
objectives to become more flexible. In its effort to become more flexible; the company is
offering compressed work weeks where employees are encouraged to leave work by 3:00
p.m. on Fridays.
Best Buy Co. Incorporated offers alternate work programs through its Results-
Only Work Environments (ROWE). Here, the hours of work in a day are not defined.
What matters is that employees achieve the results they set at the end of the day. PNC
Financial Services Group has some 12,000 or more employees on flextime, which
includes job sharing, compressed work weeks and telecommuting. Finally, there is
PricewaterhouseCoopers, which offers tax and advisory services to their clients.
Approximately 40% of their employees work on an informal basis. Every employee is
given a laptop at this company, and with it, they can work flexible hours, compressed
work weeks, telecommuting and so on (Five Flextime Friendly Companies, 2007).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Flexible Work Arrangements
These issues viewed from the perspective of the employer and employees provide
strong motivations for using these programs. Cost savings that result from such programs
22
may be a motivating factor for employers and employees. When employers realize the
economic benefits of such programs, they will allow and promote them. Much has been
written about the potential cost savings (and sometimes additional costs) that may arise
because of flexible work arrangement options (Kaczmarczyk, 2004; Shoop, 2006). Cost
reduction is often considered the main reason for an organization to use flexible work
arrangements.
Best Buy Co. Incorporated offers alternate work programs through its ROWE.
Here, the hours of work in a day are not defined. What matters is that employees achieve
the results they set at the end of the day. PNC Financial Services Group has some 12,000
or more employees on flextime, which includes job sharing, compressed work weeks and
telecommuting. Finally, there is PricewaterhouseCoopers, which offers tax and advisory
services to their clients. Approximately 40% of their employees work on an informal
basis. Every employee is given a laptop at this company, and with it, they can work
flexible hours, compressed work weeks, telecommuting and so on (Five Flextime
Friendly Companies, 2007).
These issues viewed from the perspective of the employer and employees provide
strong motivations for using these programs. Cost savings that result from such programs
may be a motivating factor for employers and employees. When employers realize the
economic benefits of such programs, they will allow and promote them. Much has been
written about the potential cost savings (and sometimes additional costs) that may arise
because of flexible work arrangement options (Kaczmarczyk, 2004; Shoop, 2006). Cost
reduction is often considered the main reason for an organization to use flexible work
arrangements. Some advantages enjoyed by employers and employees include lower fuel
23
costs, more transportation options, more parking availability, reduced stress, improved
morale and productivity, longer periods of time away from the office with no reduction in
the employees leave balance, service hours can be extended, and minimal absences and
tardiness. Because a more flexible starting and ending time can be agreed upon,
employers enjoy enhanced recruitment and retention, and employees benefit from better
opportunities for cross-training due to coverage adjustments and shared job
responsibilities (Creagh & Brewster, (1998).
Of course, some disadvantages also exist. These include loss of work unit
cohesion due to reduced face-to-face interactions, working in a central location may
cause some employees to feel distanced from the other workers, and more distractions
may occur when working from home. Other disadvantages include lower productivity,
the boundary of work time and personal time can become unclear when working from
home, and other workers in the work unit may feel they must work beyond their strength
or capacity. There are still other disadvantages, including tracking employee time
becomes complex, monitoring employees becomes more difficult; and the direct costs of
some flexible work arrangements may not be offset by increased productivity, reductions
in resource requirements, or reduced costs (Kush & Stroh, 1994).
There are many advantages to flexible work arrangements, including increased
job satisfaction, higher employee productivity, lower absenteeism and turnover, and
reduced costs associated with real estate. In addition, flexible work arrangements help
employers attract well-educated applicants, strengthen the recruitment strategy of the
organization, and maintain compliance with the Clean Air Act and the Americans with
Disabilities Act (Maxwell, Rankine, Bell, & MacVicar, 2007). Review of the literature
24
shows that flexible starting and ending times reduce loss of work due to mild illnesses,
allow greater flexibility in office space and equipment use during peak times (Creagh &
Brewster, 1998). Maxwell et al. identified several potentially negative factors: errors due
to fatigue, communication problems, continuity and isolation at work, minimized staffing
levels, and lean production lines.
Flexible Work Arrangements and WorkLife Balance
It is importance to have balance in ones work and life responsibilities. Balance
helps maintain the leverage needed to get an idea of how to approach situations and take
care of the problems. Balance in ones life is necessary to enjoy and appreciate all that
can be achieved without bringing too much stress into ones life. Lifes responsibilities
are many and situations come about in different ways, shapes and forms. It is
understandable that one cannot handle stressors in the same manner as another (Hill,
Hawkins, Ferris, & Weitzman, 2001).
Frank and Lowe (2003) reported that many employees require flexibility in their
work schedules to help balance work with their family and personal lives. Various works
of literature that focused on work and life balance seemed to boost the advantages from
flexible work arrangements in large organizations. These organizations have more
resources than smaller businesses to develop and implement such practices. Other
research has brought to the forefront health issues such as stress management caused by
worklife imbalance (Maxwell et al., 2007).
In Periyakoils (2007) article, the following holds true and share a resemblance to
what most of use know and should apply but seldom pay close attention to and execute.
25
First, finding a worklife balance helps sustain the inner core of energy and serves to
reduce work related stresses (Periyakoil, 2007, p. 308). The statement is not only valid,
but it is something that people can process and internalize on many levels. Based on the
research they conducted relating to balance and job satisfaction, Bryant and Constantine
(2006) suggested that (according to the role balance theory), women can function in
multiple roles during their life time. Further, the authors contend that the issues affecting
both womens physical health and mental depends on the extent that they organize the
roles in their lives. When one lacks in leveraging the responsibilities in his or her life, this
potentially leads to undue stress and unwanted stress, which leads to negative attitudes
and behaviors in peoples personal life and professional life. Encompassing this pattern
lies the problem of conflict arising which in reality could help ensure that peoples work
and life responsibilities are kept in balance.
Flexible Work Arrangements and Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction and worker motivation has attracted lots of research. It has
become one of the most studied work attitudes. Researchers such as Igbaria and
Guimaraes (1999) and Venkatesh and Vitalari (1992) have contributed a great deal to this
subject area. These researchers have reported that telecommuters are satisfied with their
work arrangement especially when not required by their employers. The source of job
satisfaction came from factors such as working conditions, taking care of family and
personal obligations, and scheduling ones own working hours. Individuals with children
reported the greatest satisfaction (Siha & Monroe, 2006). Researchers at the University of
Minnesota concluded that job satisfaction stems from 20 different dimensions. These
26
include recognition, compensation, supervision, job security, and advancement on the job
to name a few (D. J. Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967).
Flexible work schedules rate very high for employees interested in balancing
personal and work life and factors that contribute to job satisfaction. Randstad of North
America conducted a survey of 6,000 workers. Of these 6,000 participants, 51% indicated
that if their current employer offered flexible work hours they would continue to work for
the company. A number of employers discovered that flexible work schedules have more
benefits than loyal workers. For example, Aladdin Equipment of Sarasota, Florida, found
that absenteeism dropped 50%, and productivity increased by 10% when it changed its
traditional work schedule to four 9-hour days and 4 hours on Friday. All time sales
records were broken at another company that implemented a p.m. ending time for
employees who exceeded their sales goals (Boehle, Stamps, & Stratton, 2000; Ghazzawi,
2008).
Future Trends in Flexible Work Arrangement Programs
The number of mobile workers is on the rise. Researchers predict that there will
be about 61 million workers by 2009. A 2006 survey found that 44% of companies intend
to increase the population of workers involved in flexible work arrangements (Chen &
Nath, 2005).
Interest among workers for flexible work options is stable or growing, according
to the results of the HR Focus Flexible Work Options Survey. The growth of this option
depends on the extent of the offerings, how many employees will use them, and the
organizations motivation to implement and support these options. The respondents
27
indicated that structured programs seemed to be the main ingredient to achieve success in
these work options. Everyone knows what is expected of them when parameters are set
and enforced. Respondents said that the leading reasons employees want more flexible
arrangements are changes in family circumstances, greater need for child and elder care,
seeing other employees in the organization using these options, and the availability of
these options at other organizations (Flexible Work Grows as Work/Life Solution,
2004).
Not everyone seems to agree about the importance of flexible work arrangements.
According to Benko and Weisberg (2008), flextime and worklife balance is becoming
less important. Todays workforce is dominated by knowledge workers with different
goals and options; therefore, flextime and worklife balance is less important. The
authors also argue that flexible work arrangements do not address the fundamental needs
of the changing workforce although they have been helpful to some.
Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg developed a theory regarding employee behavior in the workplace
because he wanted to understand the factors that contributed to job satisfaction. Before
Herzberg other theorists understood the phenomenon of job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction under one continuum. They were the opposite ends of the spectrum. This
means that the greater the job satisfaction, the less dissatisfaction and vice versa. This is
the operating context on the earlier theories of job satisfaction. For example, the
fulfillment theory claimed that the degree of response a worker gets is directly
proportional to his or her job satisfaction. If an employee does not get a positive
28
response, job dissatisfaction will be more likely. Discrepancy theories deal with the needs
and wants of the employee. If employees are not fulfilled the greater the dissatisfaction
with their work (J. I. Harris, Winskowski, & Engdahl, 2007; Herzberg et al., 1959;
Michalos, 1991).
Herzberg proceeded to conduct his own study. His survey research was
undertaken with engineers and accountants in nine manufacturing firms in Pittsburgh,
PA. His questions were twofold. In the first, he asked people to describe situations in
their workplace that made them feel good about their job. The second were questions
about what made them feel bad. When interviewing employees, he found a pattern.
People seemed to feel good about their jobs, but had very different responses when asked
about bad situations. For Herzberg, these differences seemed to run out of context from
the one-line continuum that earlier theories operated (Herzberg et al., 1959).
The two-factor theory helps improve worker comradeship and workersupervisor
relationships. Essentially, because of Herzbergs theory, working became more
interesting as employees need not worry that the organization is no longer playing a tug-
of-war between satisfying their physiological and psychological needs. Furthermore, this
theory improved the aspect of promotion. Before, promotion was primarily a notion of
giving an employee more responsibility. Today, there is much more importance placed on
promotion as it is now marketed to provide growth, recognition and higher salaries.
Fundamentally, the importance of the two-factor theory to individuals is that it
accommodates self-fulfillment on the job, and it gives individual workers status which
defines ones place or rank in the organization (Williamson, 1986).
29
Good business sense tells us that Herzbergs theory is valid. A good company
policy or a neat work setting does not necessarily lead an employee to keep working. Nor
it is not reason enough for him or her to decide to stay on the job. A higher salary does
not necessarily mean an employee will be happy with his or her job. Conversely,
recognition of a job well done or career advancement are not factors that will
automatically avoid feelings of dissatisfaction. A worker may be promoted, but the work
setting and or the salary is still poor or average which can cause dissatisfaction. Common
sense tells us that a hostile work environment, no matter how much psychological needs
are provided will not counter dissatisfaction. The same applies to physiological needs. In
a statement made by Herzberg in 1968, he said that his two-factor theory has been
replicated 16 times in various populations, which included Communist countries.
Researchers he collaborated with later on were said to agree with his original findings
concerning intrinsic motivations, making it one of the most replicated findings on worker
attitudes (Sachau, 2007).
Although Herzbergs theory is not without criticism, it opened many doors to the
study of human satisfaction (Hinrichs & Mischkind, 1967; Hinton, 1968). Others
criticized Herzbergs theory because of its dimensionality and methodology. Because of
it, many researchers went back to believing that satisfaction and dissatisfaction no longer
exist in separate dimensions. Although Herzbergs theory is still influential, some regard
it as obsolete. When Herzberg asked employees what situations satisfied and dissatisfied
them, he was already framing the answer itself, which would indeed lead him to believe
that they are two phenomena. His assumptions are further skewed when, during the
interviews, the respondents gave a socially acceptable answer (or what they believe the
30
interviewer wanted to hear). The bidimensionality aspect of his theory closed the doors
on any possibilities that there are individual differences between employees. Herzberg
assumed immediately that all employees had similar personality traits; they have the
same reactions; that achievement, recognition and growth are boxed-in with motivator
factors; and salary, working conditions, and company policies are sets of hygiene factors.
Moreover, Herzberg is criticized for assuming a great deal regarding human behavior
(Herzberg et al., 1993; Phelps & Waskel, 1994). For instance, Herzberg assumed that
satisfied and happy workers are sufficient enough to explain their productivity levels; all
workers carry average behavior and so on. Indeed, getting recognition might lead
individuals to work more, but does not necessarily improve his or her productivity levels.
Still other researchers criticized Herzberg regarding satisfaction and dissatisfaction as
mutually exclusive for the obvious reason that some motivators contribute to both
motivation and hygiene factors (Friedlander, 1964). Salary can also satisfy a mans
psychological need as it gives him status in the organization (Sachau, 2007).
Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory can be used to address motivational
concerns. Outcomes such as absenteeism, lagging performance, and turnover, can be
reduced when managers show employees that they care about them and recognize them
for good performance. Line employees are motivated by hygiene factors such as salary,
overtime, bonuses, and health benefits. The authors state that there is a lack of social
recognition, which plays an important part in increasing workers productivity (McElroy,
Liddell, Richman, & Thompson, 2008).
Herzberg applied job enrichment to the motivation-hygiene theory. Job
enrichment involves modifying jobs so that employees and experience more of the
31
motivator factors. Enriched jobs offer frequent opportunities to experience achievement,
opportunities to take responsibility, opportunities to be autonomous, and opportunities to
learn (Sachau, 2007).
In Udechukwus (2007) article, the author noted that there were some who argued
against the two-factor theory and concluded that there was no support for it, and thus
demonstrated the distinct differences between satisfaction and dissatisfaction. According
to the author, all variables are equally potent contributors to job satisfaction. Udechukwu
also noted that other authors argued that job satisfaction can be due to high levels of
satisfaction with intrinsic factors, and dissatisfaction can be due to low levels of
satisfaction with intrinsic factors. Extrinsic factors can cause both satisfaction and
dissatisfaction less readily than do the intrinsic factors, but people will more likely say
they have bad or dissatisfied feelings about extrinsic factors.
32
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Introduction
In this chapter, the researcher discussed the research method that was used in
conducting the research. The following discussion presented the description of the
methodology, design of the study, sample and population, instrumentation and measures,
reliability, validity, data collection, data analysis procedures, and ethical considerations.
This research examined the relationship between flexible work arrangements, job
satisfaction, and worklife balance; identified organizations that were successful in using
these strategies; identified jobs that were best suited for these work options, and
advantages and disadvantages for both employees and employers.
Description of Methodology
The work was a descriptive, quantitative study. Koul (1984) considered
descriptive research a very popular and widely used research method. Additionally, he
suggests that descriptive methods are designed to obtain pertinent and precise
information about the phenomena and formulate valid conclusions from the facts that the
researcher uncovers.
According to Isaac and Michael (1981), the quantitative, descriptive method of
research systematically describes the facts and characteristics of the researchers topic of
33
interest consistent with the facts. Descriptive research allowed the researcher to describe
and evaluate the aspects of the participants feelings, opinions, and attitudes toward
flexible work arrangements, job satisfaction, and worklife balance. The researchers
decision to use a survey to collect the data further established the suitability of this
methodology (Lee, 1992).
Design of the Study
To gather the data, the researcher used a survey questionnaire. The survey
instrument that was used was the short form MSQ. The researcher obtained permission to
use the instrument from the University of Minnesota (Vocational Psychology Research).
There were 20 items on the survey instrument, one item from each of the original 20
scales (D. J. Weiss et al., 1967). A 5-point Likert-type scale allowed the participants to
indicate their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the variables. Much of the limitation that
is attributed to survey research is the reliance of self-report. Researchers have nothing to
depend on but the answers of the respondents. They can neither analyze the surveys
based on what they observe nor interact with the participants in a subjective manner. The
analysis can be presented numerically in an objective manner and the data are quantified
as provided by the respondents. Some of the limitations noted in the area were (a)
respondents do not participate in the construction of the information, (b) data do not
capture the decision process that produces observed outcomes, (c) it only gathers
information about the questions asked and cannot explore important subjects in depth as
they are uncovered, and (d) statistical associations do not provide an understanding of
complex relationships. The individuals being surveyed must have a moderate degree of
34
literacy in order for the surveys to be effective. Although possible, using an oral survey is
very impractical (Graverson, 2008; Idea, n.d.).
How the questionnaires are disseminated, is an important consideration. The
considerations for this process are budgets, time limitations and the level of anonymity
desired for a study. Presently, e-communication is thought to be the best mode of
dissemination since it is easier to access and disseminate at almost no cost. Respondents
were able to respond effectively and in a user-friendly medium (Burns et al., 2008;
Pinterick, 2005). For the pretest, the questionnaire was distributed via email to 40
participant surrogates. In the actual research study, the questionnaire was distributed via
email to 200 participants.
Sample and Population
Survey research is a form of scientific inquiry whose purpose is to collect reliable
and unbiased data from participants who are representative of a sample. Some
questionnaires are descriptive (reporting factual data), and can look at more than one
construct at a time. The design represented in this study was snowball sampling, a
nonprobability design. Snowball sampling is a technique where the researcher identified
individuals from the population of interest and use these individuals as informants to
identify other members of the population, who are themselves used as informants, and so
on (Robson, 2002). The researcher identified participants who met certain criteria, who in
turn identified other potential participants meeting the same criteria (Burns et al., 2008).
The key informants made initial contact with other potential participants and had them
contact the researcher if they are interested in participating in the study.
35
This explanatory research project required 200 completed surveys in order to
achieve statistically valid results. Additionally, a sample of 200 would minimize
shrinking of the multiple correlation coefficients (Cohen, 1977). Furthermore, this size
would yield power greater than .97 to detect a moderate effect (2 = .15) in a multiple
regression analysis at the .05 level. According to Cohen, the power analysis accounts for
the effect of sample size and the probability of correctly rejecting the hypothesis.
Since there were a number of options available to employees participating in
flexible work arrangement programs, and inclusion or exclusion of certain groups of
workers, the participants used in this research were male and female employees who were
involved in such programs at least once a month and were not self-employed. The
participants in this study represented individuals who worked in both the private and
public sectors (e.g., federal government, professional and business services, insurance
and healthcare industries).
Participation in this study was voluntary and survey responses were kept
confidential. Participants were required to sign a consent form that stated the purpose of
the study, acknowledging that their participation in the study was voluntary and that they
were able to stop participating in the study at any time.
Protection of the data collected was paramount to maintaining the confidentiality
and anonymity of the participants throughout the research process (Creswell, 2002).
Therefore, pseudonyms for the participants were used throughout the collection of data
and reporting of the findings.
36
Instrumentation/Measures
The MSQ (short form), which was used for the study, contained multiple
measurement variables to assess job satisfaction. In this study, the research was intended
to examine how employees job satisfaction and worklife balance relates to tenure, age,
education, income, and other demographics. This tool measured intrinsic and extrinsic
job satisfaction. This instrument was selected because of its acceptance and wide usage in
the research community and, therefore, has sufficient internal validity and reliability to
measure job satisfaction (DeMato & Curcio, 2004; Van Horn, 2008; van Saane, Sluiter,
Verbeek, & Frings-Dresen, 2003).
The data collected were analyzed to determine differences in job satisfaction and
worklife balance. Inferential statistical methods such as an independent measure t test,
confidence level, and multiple regression testing were performed on the dependent and
independent variables. An idea of the direction and strength of the relationship between
the variables will be provided through the use of measures of correlation. Descriptive
statistics (means and standard deviations) will help readers get an understanding of the
data and identify any potential problems that can skew the analysis. To determine central
tendencies of the data, means will be computed, and to discover the extent of the variance
of the data, standard deviation will be computed.
According to Leedy and Ormrod (2001), researchers are unable to avoid
encountering bias of one sort or another. To handle this problem, the authors suggest that
researchers accept this fact as an inevitable condition in research and not be unduly upset.
37
Instrument
Biases here are most likely because of the way the questions are put together and
the kind of questions asked. The survey questionnaire is created to reflect the answers the
researcher is looking for. The MSQ limits answers to one of the five categories listed.
Questionnaires often do that leaving little or no room for gray areas of concern. The
wording of the answer choices is also a way to create bias. The use of words like very
and extreme can mean different things to different people. In some cases, the differences
in how people perceive words like very satisfied and extremely satisfied can make a
difference in how they might answer. The order of choice is important, as well. Starting
with very dissatisfied and ending with very satisfied guide people to consider the negative
first. However, starting with the positive first can skew the survey to more positive results
than may occur. Some people limit themselves to the first answers or do not read
completely through an answer choice before answering the question.
Participants
Everyone has their own agenda. When participants are part of a research study,
care has to be taken to consider the background and experiences of the people being
interviewed and questioned. For example, the obvious questionssuch as Are you
satisfied with your lifestyle?are going to be very different when posed to those whose
income is less than $20,00 and those whose income is more than $100,000. Issues such as
quality of care in a hospital intensive care unit are also going to be based on experiences
including whether or not the patient involved became better. The researcher has to take
these experiences and challenges that people face into consideration. Cooper and
38
Schindler (2006) suggested that responses should be accepted for what they are
statements by individuals who reflect varying degrees of truth and accuracy.
Researcher
The first thing that a researcher must learn is to address his or her own biases
about the subject. There is a reason the researcher chooses a subject to be researched. The
researcher must understand the approach he or she takes and the questions or hypothesis
formulated. The people and data used are a choice that can be based on trying to achieve
what the researcher believes to be true. Researchers are also people with experiences and,
therefore, must examine and note those in their research evaluation (Robson, 2002).
Reliability and Validity
The data gathered and the objective of the survey generally determine the
reliability required. Reliability refers to the researchers ability to ensure that the
measurement procedure yields consistent results (Fisher, Andersen, & Heath, n.d.).
Maintaining consistency of data was necessary for making general statements. This
involves, for example, administering the questionnaire or portions of the questionnaire to
the same respondents at different times or under different circumstances to assess how
stable the answers are (Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2007).
The validity and reliability of the MSQ has been established through the finding
of van Saane et al. (2003). These researchers used a total of 29 instruments with
psychometric quality control factors consisting of internal consistency scale total and
range coefficient of 0.79, testretest coefficient scale totals and range scales (0.69),
39
convergent validity scale total and subscale correlation range (0.49), discriminate validity
(0.50), and content validity that contain at least 4 of 11 factors (van Saane et al., 2003).
The instruments reliability is based on Hoyts analysis of variance (ANOVA)
method which demonstrates that the MSQ scales have internal, consistent reliability. For
intrinsic satisfaction, researchers reported that coefficients for the short-form scale ranged
from .84 to .91 and from 77 to .82 for the extrinsic scale and from .87 to .92 for the
general satisfaction scale. The validity of the short form MSQ is contingent on the
validity of the long form MSQ which shows the validity through its performance
according to theoretical expectations (D. J. Weiss et al., 1967).
Cronbachs alpha was used to test for reliability. Cronbachs alpha measures how
well each item in a scale correlates with the sum of the remaining items. It also measured
consistency among the items in a scale (Cronbach, 1951).
Validity is the extent that a test measures what the researcher needs to measure.
Reliability is concerned with the accuracy and precision of measurement procedures. To
measure the validity (content and construct) of the survey, responses from the pretest
were analyzed. The various types of validity (face, content, construct and criterion) can
be measured in surveys. Face validity evaluates whether the questionnaire measures what
it is supposed to and is thought to be the most subjective. The researcher tests for content
validity by evaluating whether the questionnaire accurately measures every aspect of the
topic. Construct validity should be measured if specific criteria cannot be identified that
adequately defines the construct being measured. Criterion validity reflects the success of
measures used for prediction or estimation. Researcher must make sure that the validity
criterion used is itself valid (Cooper & Schindler, 2006, p. 320). These authors
40
suggested that any criterion measure should be judged in terms of several qualities: (a)
relevance, (b) freedom from bias, (c) reliability, and (d) availability.
Data Collection
The data were collected using a survey questionnaire. Questionnaires are useful
when the researcher needs to collect large amounts of information from people quickly or
easily. Several advantages are (a) can complete anonymously, (b) easy to compare and
analyze, (c) inexpensive to administer, (d) can administer to many people, and (e) can use
existing questionnaires. Some of the challenges of using questionnaires are (a) people
who receive them do not return them, (b) wording can bias responses, and (c) impersonal
so the researcher does not get the full story (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).
The confidence level reveals the percent range of certainty generated from a
sample (+ or a certain value range), of how the whole population will respond to a
specific question. The wider the confidence interval accepted the more certain the entire
population answers will be within that particular range. The confidence level tells the
researcher how sure he or she can be because it represents how often the true percentage
of the population will choose an answer that falls within the confidence level. The
literature shows that most researchers use the 95% level. The choice of the significance
level used in this research will be .05, the most common level used by researchers
(Cooper & Schindler, 2006).
Participants completed the survey. Prior to the administration of the questionnaire,
40 pretest participants were selected from volunteers who participated from a request
made on the universitys Web site. All individuals were contacted via email. The
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questionnaire, information about why the survey is being conducted, a definition of
flexible work arrangements, a statement regarding anonymity, instructions, and a request
for a return email to confirm his or her agreement to participate in the survey was
included in this communication.
Follow-up was accomplished using email 15 business days after the surveys were
emailed. This allowed ample time for delivery to the participants and time to complete
and return the survey. For participants who returned the surveys, the correspondence
thanked them for their participation. For those who did not respond, the email served as a
reminder that they were still able to participate if the survey was returned within 5
business days.
Data Analysis Procedures
ORourke (2003) stated that when analyzing data, it is normal to discover that
some data are missing. Sometimes the quantity of missing data is negligible; while in
other instances, it can be substantial. To prevent or minimize instances of missing data,
the author suggests (a) understand the reason for the missing data (e.g., participants
refuse to answer the question, participants do not know the answer to the question, or
question sensitivity); (b) prevention is the best possible means to avoid or minimize
missing data; and (c) survey instruments should be well designed with explicable
directions and clear-cut and answerable items. Missing data can be dealt with by simply
ignoring it and just analyzing the remaining data.
Like ORourke, Cooper and Schindler (2006) suggested several tools to use to
address missing data. These tools appear to be the same as ORourkes, just with different
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names: (a) listwise deletiondiscarding the surveys, (b) pairwise deletionmissing data
completely random and requires that the researcher estimate for consistency, and (c)
replacement of missing data requires the researcher to estimate the missing responses
based on the researchers choice of using average response or most used response to
capture the missing data. Generally, it is quite difficult to measure the effects when data
are missing. Analysis and interpretation of the data can be influenced by missing data.
To prepare and analyze the data, the researcher used SPSS and Excel software
packages. Mean score were computed and graphics created. A regression analysis of the
independent and dependent variables was performed.
Ethical Considerations
Robson (2002) stated that it is vital, at a very early stage of ones preparation to
carry out an enquiry, that the researcher gives serious thought to the ethical aspects of
what he or she is proposing. Taking this into consideration, this researcher adhered to the
highest ethical standards during the conduct of the research. All participants in the study
were provided, in writing, detailed information concerning the study and its purpose and
the study procedures.
The email invitation and online informed consent form assured participants
confidentiality and anonymity. The use of a third-party vendor, FreeOnlineSurveys.com,
assisted in maintaining the participants privacy and anonymity. The researcher did not
include any vulnerable populations in the study.
All data were used to prepare the dissertation. All data were analyzed, so the
researcher stored it in a secure location. The results of the study will not be shared with
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anyone. The surveys, other paperwork, and software computations will remain in the
researchers possession within the statutory limits after publication of the dissertation at
which time all data will be shredded and discarded (G. McLaughlin, personal
communication, January 7, 2009).
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CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between job satisfaction
and worklife balance. The researcher identified organizations that were successful in
using alternative workplace strategies and identified jobs that were best suited for the
work options. The study discussed advantages and disadvantages for both employees and
employers and factors that determined job satisfaction and worklife balance.
Participants completed online instruments, which consisted of the MSQ and a
demographic survey. A description of the data collection method, the research sample,
the data analysis procedures, and the results of the data analysis from the survey data in
order to answer the following research questions are provided in this chapter:
1. Is there a relationship between demographic variables and job satisfaction?
2. Is job satisfaction and dissatisfaction related to motivator and hygiene factors?
3. Is there a relationship between extrinsic factors and worklife balance?
Results of the data analysis include descriptive statistics for each MSQ scale,
correlations, significance tests, and a summary of the research findings.
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Data Collection
The researcher used the short form MSQ, which consisted of 20 statements
related to the participants work environment. The participants responded to the
statements by indicating his or her choice of how satisfied he or she was with his or her
present job. The participants checked the appropriate response according to five choices
and corresponding numerical assignment: 1 = very dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 =
neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 4 = satisfied, and 5 = very satisfied.
The short form MSQ has statements that measured intrinsic motivators (e.g.,
achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and other factors that motivate
employees). Some statements measured extrinsic motivators (e.g., salary, job security,
working conditions, status, organizational policies and procedures, quality of supervision,
and other job content).
A pretest that consisted of 40 participants was conducted prior to launching the
survey. The participants received an email invitation requesting their assistance in testing
the survey, with a link to FreeOnlineSurveys.com, an online survey provider. The email
informed participants that the survey and the six questions should be completed as soon
as possible, but not later than October 30, 2009.
The pretest participants were asked to access the Web link, where they completed
the actual survey and answered six brief questions about the MSQ. All participants
completed the questionnaire and answered the six questions. The participants provided
the following feedback regarding the questionnaire: (a) They were comfortable with the
questions and instructions for completing the survey questionnaire were easy to
understand, (b) the construction and design of the survey was very good, (c) the language
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and terminology used in wording the questions was simple, (d) the length of the survey
was very good, (e) the appearance was simple, and (f) provided no recommendations for
improving the survey.
Research Sample
The researcher identified participants who met certain criteria, who in turn
identified other potential participants meeting the same criteria (Burns et al., 2008). The
key informants made initial contact with other potential participants who contacted the
researcher if t