Arno de Klerk

Fischer–Tropsch Refining

Further Reading

Arpe, Hans-Jurgen

Industrial Organic Chemistry

5th, completely revised edition

2010

Hardcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-32002-8

Wijngaarden, Ruud I./Westerterp, K.Roel/Kronberg, Alexander/Bos, A.N.R.(Eds.)

Industrial CatalysisOptimizing Catalysts and Processes

2011

Hardcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-31837-7

Olah, G. A., Goeppert, A., Prakash, G. K. S.

Beyond Oil and Gas: TheMethanol Economy

2010

Softcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-32422-4

Barbaro, P., Bianchini, C. (Eds.)

Catalysis for Sustainable EnergyProduction

2009

Hardcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-32095-0

Stolten, D. (Ed.)

Hydrogen and Fuel CellsFundamentals, Technologies andApplications

2010

Hardcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-32711-9

Kolb, G.

Fuel Processingfor Fuel Cells

2008

Hardcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-31581-9

Deublein, D., Steinhauser, A.

Biogas from Waste andRenewable ResourcesAn Introduction

2011

Hardcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-32798-0

Haring, H.-W. (Ed.)

Industrial Gases Processing

2008

Hardcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-31685-4

Al-Qahtani, Khalid Y./Elkamel, Ali

Planning and Integration ofRefinery and PetrochemicalOperations

2010

Hardcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-32694-5

Elvers, B. (Ed.)

Handbook of Fuels

2008

Hardcover

ISBN: 978-3-527-30740-1

Arno de Klerk

Fischer–Tropsch Refining

The Author

Arno de KlerkUniversity of AlbertaChemical and Materials EngineeringEdmonton, Alberta, T6G 2V4Canada

All books published by Wiley-VCH arecarefully produced. Nevertheless, authors,editors, and publisher do not warrant theinformation contained in these books,including this book, to be free of errors.Readers are advised to keep in mind thatstatements, data, illustrations, proceduraldetails or other items may inadvertently beinaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

British Library Cataloguing-in-PublicationDataA catalogue record for this book is availablefrom the British Library.

Bibliographic information published by theDeutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliotheklists this publication in the DeutscheNationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographicdata are available on the Internet at<http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

2011 Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA,Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim,Germany

All rights reserved (including those oftranslation into other languages). No partof this book may be reproduced in anyform – by photoprinting, microfilm, or anyother means – nor transmitted or translatedinto a machine language without writtenpermission from the publishers. Registerednames, trademarks, etc. used in this book,even when not specifically marked as such,are not to be considered unprotected by law.

Cover Design Formgeber, EppelheimTypesetting Laserwords Private Limited,Chennai, IndiaPrinting and Binding

Printed in SingaporePrinted on acid-free paper

Print ISBN: 978-3-527-32605-1ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-63562-7oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-63560-3ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-63561-0

V

To my wife, Cherie, who loves and supports me so much.

VII

Contents

Preface XIX

Part I Introduction 1

1 Fischer–Tropsch Facilities at a Glance 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Feed-to-Syngas Conversion 41.2.1 Feed Logistics and Feed Preparation 51.2.2 Syngas Production 51.2.3 Syngas Cleaning and Conditioning 71.3 Syngas-to-Syncrude Conversion 81.4 Syncrude-to-Product Conversion 101.4.1 Upgrading versus Refining 101.4.2 Fuels versus Chemicals 111.4.3 Crude Oil Compared to Syncrude 121.5 Indirect Liquefaction Economics 141.5.1 Feed Cost 141.5.2 Product Pricing 151.5.3 Capital Cost 17

References 19

2 Refining and Refineries at a Glance 212.1 Introduction 212.2 Conventional Crude Oil 222.2.1 Hydrocarbons in Crude Oil 232.2.2 Sulfur Compounds in Crude Oil 232.2.3 Nitrogen Compounds in Crude Oil 252.2.4 Oxygenates in Crude Oil 252.2.5 Metals in Crude Oil 262.2.6 Physical Properties 272.3 Products from Crude Oil 282.3.1 Boiling Range and Product Quality 292.4 Evolution of Crude Oil Refineries 31

VIII Contents

2.4.1 First-Generation Crude Oil Refineries 322.4.2 Second-Generation Crude Oil Refineries 332.4.3 Third-Generation Crude Oil Refineries 362.4.4 Fourth-Generation Crude Oil Refineries 392.4.5 Petrochemical Refineries 432.4.6 Lubricant Base Oil Refineries 44

References 46

Part II Production of Fischer–Tropsch Syncrude 49

3 Synthesis Gas Production, Cleaning, and Conditioning 513.1 Introduction 513.2 Raw Materials 513.2.1 Natural Gas 513.2.2 Solid Carbon Sources 523.3 Syngas from Natural Gas 533.3.1 Natural Gas Cleaning 553.3.2 Adiabatic Prereforming 553.3.3 Steam Reforming 563.3.4 Adiabatic Oxidative Reforming 563.3.5 Gas Reforming Comparison 573.4 Syngas from Solid Carbon Sources 583.4.1 Gasification of Heteroatoms 593.4.2 Low-Temperature Moving Bed Gasification 603.4.3 Medium-Temperature Fluidized Bed Gasification 623.4.4 High-Temperature Entrained Flow Gasification 643.4.5 Gasification Comparison 663.5 Syngas Cleaning 663.5.1 Acid Gas Removal 673.6 Syngas Conditioning 693.6.1 Water Gas Shift Conversion 693.7 Air Separation Unit 70

References 71

4 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 734.1 Introduction 734.2 Fischer–Tropsch Mechanism 744.3 Fischer–Tropsch Product Selectivity 774.3.1 Probability of Chain Growth 784.3.2 Hydrogenation versus Desorption 804.3.3 Readsorption Chemistry 814.4 Selectivity Manipulation in Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 814.4.1 Fischer–Tropsch Catalyst Formulation 814.4.2 Fischer–Tropsch Operating Conditions 834.4.3 Fischer–Tropsch Reaction Engineering 84

Contents IX

4.5 Fischer–Tropsch Catalyst Deactivation 884.5.1 Poisoning by Syngas Contaminants 894.5.2 Volatile Metal Carbonyl Formation 904.5.3 Metal Carboxylate Formation 914.5.4 Mechanical Catalyst Degradation 924.5.5 Deactivation of Fe-HTFT Catalysts 934.5.6 Deactivation of Fe-LTFT Catalysts 934.5.7 Deactivation of Co-LTFT Catalysts 95

References 99

5 Fischer–Tropsch Gas Loop 1055.1 Introduction 1055.2 Gas Loop Configurations 1075.2.1 Open Gas Loop Design 1075.2.2 Closed Gas Loop Design 1085.3 Syncrude Cooling and Separation 1095.3.1 Pressure Separation 1105.3.2 Cryogenic Separation 1105.3.3 Oxygenate Partitioning 1115.3.4 HTFT Syncrude Recovery 1135.3.5 LTFT Syncrude Recovery 114

References 116

Part III Industrial Fischer–Tropsch Facilities 117

6 German Fischer–Tropsch Facilities 1196.1 Introduction 1196.2 Synthesis Gas Production 1196.3 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 1216.3.1 Normal-Pressure Synthesis 1226.3.2 Medium-Pressure Synthesis 1256.3.3 Gas Loop Design 1276.3.4 Carbon Efficiency 1286.4 Fischer–Tropsch Refining 1286.4.1 Refining C3 –C4 Crude LPG 1296.4.2 Refining Carbon Gasoline 1306.4.3 Refining of Condensate Oil 1326.4.4 Refining of Waxes 1356.4.5 Aqueous Product Refining 1366.5 Discussion of the Refinery Design 137

References 138

7 American Hydrocol Facility 1417.1 Introduction 1417.2 Synthesis Gas Production 142

X Contents

7.3 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 1437.4 Fischer–Tropsch Refining 1457.4.1 Oil Product Refining 1467.4.2 Refining Aqueous Product 1497.5 Discussion of the Refinery Design 150

References 151

8 Sasol 1 Facility 1538.1 Introduction 1538.2 Synthesis Gas Production 1548.2.1 Lurgi Dry Ash Coal Gasification 1548.2.2 Rectisol Synthesis Gas Cleaning 1558.3 Fischer–Tropsch synthesis 1578.3.1 Kellogg HTFT synthesis 1578.3.2 Arge LTFT Synthesis 1598.3.3 Gas Loop Design 1628.4 Fischer–Tropsch Refining 1638.4.1 Kellogg HTFT Oil Refining 1638.4.2 Arge LTFT Oil Refining 1658.4.3 Aqueous Product Refining 1668.4.4 Coal Pyrolysis Product Refining 1698.4.5 Synthetic Fuel Properties 1708.5 Evolution of the Sasol 1 Facility 1728.5.1 Changes in Synthesis Gas Production 1728.5.2 Changes in Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 1738.5.3 Changes in Fischer–Tropsch Refining 1748.5.4 Changes in Coal Pyrolysis Product Refining 1778.6 Discussion of the Refinery Design 177

References 179

9 Sasol 2 and 3 Facilities 1819.1 Introduction 1819.2 Synthesis Gas Production 1829.2.1 Lurgi Dry Ash Coal Gasification 1829.2.2 Synthesis Gas Cleaning 1829.3 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 1839.3.1 Gas Loop Design 1849.4 Fischer–Tropsch Refining 1869.4.1 Synthol HTFT Condensate Refining 1889.4.2 Synthol HTFT Oil Refining 1929.4.3 Aqueous Product Refining 1949.4.4 Coal Pyrolysis Product Refining 1969.4.5 Synthetic Fuel Properties 1989.5 Evolution of Sasol Synfuels 1999.5.1 Changes in Synthesis Gas Production 201

Contents XI

9.5.2 Changes in Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 2019.5.3 Changes in Fischer–Tropsch Condensate Refining 2029.5.4 Extraction of Linear 1-Alkenes 2049.5.5 Changes in Fischer–Tropsch Oil Refining 2059.5.6 Changes in Fischer–Tropsch Aqueous Product Refining 2109.5.7 Changes in Coal Pyrolysis Product Refining 2119.5.8 Synthetic Jet Fuel 2129.6 Discussion of the Refinery Design 212

References 214

10 Mossgas Facility 21710.1 Introduction 21710.2 Synthesis Gas Production 21810.2.1 Natural Gas Liquid Recovery 21810.2.2 Gas Reforming 21810.3 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 22010.3.1 Gas Loop Design 22110.4 Fischer–Tropsch Refining 22210.4.1 Oil Refining 22210.4.2 Aqueous Product Refining 22510.4.3 Synthetic Fuel Properties 22710.5 Evolution of the PetroSA Facility 22710.5.1 Addition of Low-Temperature Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis 22710.5.2 Changes in the Fischer–Tropsch Refinery 22710.6 Discussion of the Refinery Design 228

References 229

11 Shell Middle Distillate Synthesis (SMDS) Facilities 23111.1 Introduction 23111.2 Synthesis Gas Production in Bintulu GTL 23211.3 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis in Bintulu GTL 23311.4 Fischer–Tropsch Refining in Bintulu GTL 23511.4.1 Oil Refining 23511.4.2 Aqueous Product Treatment 23811.5 Pearl GTL Facility 23811.6 Discussion of the Refinery Design 239

References 239

12 Oryx and Escravos Gas-to-Liquids Facilities 24112.1 Introduction 24112.2 Synthesis Gas Production in Oryx GTL 24212.3 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis in Oryx GTL 24312.4 Fischer–Tropsch Refining in Oryx GTL 24412.4.1 Oil Refining 24412.4.2 Aqueous Product Treatment 247

XII Contents

12.5 Discussion of the Refinery Design 247References 248

Part IV Synthetic Transportation Fuels 249

13 Motor-Gasoline 25113.1 Introduction 25113.2 Motor-Gasoline Specifications 25213.3 Motor-Gasoline Properties 25313.3.1 Octane Number 25313.3.2 Density 25913.3.3 Volatility 25913.3.4 Fuel Stability 26113.3.5 Alkene Content 26113.3.6 Aromatic Content 26213.3.7 Sulfur Content 26213.3.8 Oxygenate Content 26213.3.9 Metal Content 26313.4 Aviation-Gasoline 26413.5 Future Motor-Gasoline Specification Changes 265

References 266

14 Jet Fuel 26914.1 Introduction 26914.2 Jet Fuel Specifications 27014.2.1 Synthetic Jet Fuel 27114.2.2 Fuel for Military Use 27214.3 Jet Fuel Properties 27314.3.1 Net Heat of Combustion 27414.3.2 Density and Viscosity 27514.3.3 Freezing Point Temperature 27614.3.4 Aromatic Content and Smoke Point 27614.3.5 Sulfur and Acid Content 27814.3.6 Volatility 27814.3.7 Stability 27814.3.8 Elastomer Compatibility and Lubricity 27914.4 Future Jet Fuel Specification Changes 280

References 280

15 Diesel Fuel 28315.1 Introduction 28315.2 Diesel Fuel Specifications 28415.3 Diesel Fuel Properties 28615.3.1 Cetane Number 28615.3.2 Density and Viscosity 290

Contents XIII

15.3.3 Flash Point 29015.3.4 Lubricity 29015.3.5 Aromatic Content 29215.3.6 Sulfur Content 29215.3.7 Cold-Flow Properties 29315.3.8 Stability 29415.3.9 Elastomer Compatibility 29415.4 Diesel Fuel Additives That Affect Refinery Design 29515.5 Future Diesel Fuel Specification Changes 296

References 297

Part V Refining Technology 301

16 Refining Technology Selection 30316.1 Introduction 30316.2 Hydrotreating 30516.2.1 Hydrogenation of Alkenes 30616.2.2 Hydrodeoxygenation 30716.3 Addition and Removal of Oxygen 30816.3.1 Dehydration 30816.3.2 Etherification 30916.3.3 Hydration 30916.3.4 Esterification 31016.3.5 Carbonyl Aromatization 31016.3.6 Hydroformylation 31116.3.7 Autoxidation 31116.4 Alkene Conversion 31216.4.1 Double Bond Isomerization 31216.4.2 Metathesis 31416.4.3 Skeletal Isomerization 31416.4.4 Oligomerization 31516.4.5 Aliphatic Alkylation 31616.4.6 Aromatic Alkylation 31716.5 Alkane Conversion 31916.5.1 Hydroisomerization 31916.5.2 Hydrocracking 32016.5.3 Naphtha Reforming and Aromatization 32116.5.4 Dehydrogenation 32216.6 Residue Conversion 32316.6.1 Catalytic Cracking 32316.6.2 Visbreaking 32416.6.3 Thermal Cracking 32416.6.4 Coking 32616.7 Fischer–Tropsch Refining Technology Selection 326

References 328

XIV Contents

17 Dehydration, Etherification, and Hydration 33517.1 Introduction 33517.2 Dehydration 33617.2.1 Reaction Chemistry 33917.2.2 Catalysis 34017.2.3 Syncrude Process Technology 34117.3 Etherification 34317.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 34517.3.2 Catalysis 34617.3.3 Syncrude Process Technology 34717.4 Hydration 34717.4.1 Reaction Chemistry 34917.4.2 Catalysis 34917.4.3 Syncrude Process Technology 350

References 350

18 Isomerization 35318.1 Introduction 35318.2 Reaction Chemistry 35418.2.1 Alkene Skeletal Isomerization 35418.2.2 Alkane Hydroisomerization 35618.3 Skeletal Isomerization 35718.3.1 Butene Isomerization Catalysis 35818.3.2 Pentene Isomerization Catalysis 35918.3.3 Syncrude Process Technology 36018.4 Hydroisomerization 36018.4.1 Butane Hydroisomerization Catalysis 36218.4.2 C5 –C6 Naphtha Hydroisomerization Catalysis 36218.4.3 Heavy Alkane and Wax Hydroisomerization Catalysis 36418.4.4 Syncrude Process Technology 364

References 366

19 Oligomerization 36919.1 Introduction 36919.2 Reaction Chemistry 37219.3 Catalysis 37419.3.1 Solid Phosphoric Acid 37519.3.2 H-ZSM-5 Zeolite 37819.3.3 Amorphous Silica–Alumina 38019.3.4 Acidic Resin 38119.3.5 Homogeneous Nickel 38319.3.6 Thermal Oligomerization 38419.4 Syncrude Process Technology 385

References 388

Contents XV

20 Aromatic Alkylation 39320.1 Introduction 39320.2 Reaction Chemistry 39520.3 Catalysis 39620.3.1 Aromatic Alkylation with Ethene 39720.3.2 Aromatic Alkylation with Propene 39920.3.3 Aromatic Alkylation with C4 and Heavier Alkenes 40120.4 Syncrude Process Technology 403

References 405

21 Cracking 40721.1 Introduction 40721.2 Reaction Chemistry 41021.2.1 Thermal Cracking 41021.2.2 Catalytic Cracking 41421.2.3 Hydrocracking 41621.3 Thermal Cracking 41921.3.1 Syncrude Processing Technology 42121.4 Catalytic Cracking 42121.4.1 Catalysis 42321.4.2 Syncrude Processing Technology 42521.5 Hydrocracking 42721.5.1 Catalysis 43021.5.2 Syncrude Processing Technology 434

References 436

22 Reforming and Aromatization 44122.1 Introduction 44122.2 Thermal Naphtha Reforming 44322.3 Conventional Catalytic Naphtha Reforming 44422.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 44422.3.2 Catalysis 44722.3.3 Syncrude Processing Technology 44922.4 Monofunctional Nonacidic Pt/L-Zeolite Naphtha Reforming 45022.4.1 Reaction Chemistry 45122.4.2 Catalysis 45222.4.3 Syncrude Processing Technology 45322.5 Aromatization 45422.5.1 Reaction Chemistry 45622.5.2 Catalysis 45722.5.3 Syncrude Processing Technology 460

References 461

23 Chemical Technologies 46523.1 Introduction 465

XVI Contents

23.2 Production of n-1-Alkenes (Linear α-Olefins) 46623.2.1 Extraction of 1-Pentene and 1-Hexene 46723.2.2 Extraction of 1-Octene 47023.2.3 Production of 1-Octene from 1-Heptene 47323.2.4 Distillate-Range n-1-Alkene Extraction 47423.3 Autoxidation 47423.3.1 Autoxidation Regimes 47723.3.2 Reaction Chemistry 47823.3.3 Fischer–Tropsch Wax Oxidation 48023.3.4 Syncrude Process Technology 484

References 485

Part VI Refinery Design 489

24 Principles of Refinery Design 49124.1 Introduction 49124.2 Refinery Design Concepts 49124.2.1 Characteristic of the Refining Business 49124.2.2 Complex Systems and Design Rules 49324.2.3 Refining Complexity 49524.2.4 Refining Efficiency 49624.3 Conceptual Refinery Design 49724.3.1 Linear Programming 49724.3.2 Hierarchical Design 49824.3.3 Technology Preselection 49824.3.4 Carbon-Number-Based Design 49924.4 Real-World Refinery Design 50024.4.1 Refinery Type 50124.4.2 Refinery Products and Markets 50124.4.3 Refinery Feed Selection 50224.4.4 Refinery Location 50324.4.5 Secondary Design Objectives 506

References 508

25 Motor-Gasoline Refining 50925.1 Introduction 50925.2 Gap Analysis for Syncrude to Motor-Gasoline 51025.2.1 Motor-Gasoline Specifications 51025.2.2 Carbon Number Distribution 51125.2.3 Composition and Quality 51225.3 Decisions Affecting Motor-Gasoline Refining 51425.3.1 Chemicals Coproduction 51425.3.2 Fate of C2 –C4 Hydrocarbons 51525.3.3 Fate of the Residue and Wax 51625.3.4 Fate of the Aqueous Product 517

Contents XVII

25.3.5 Alkane-Based Naphtha Refining 51825.3.6 Technology Selection 51925.3.7 Co-refining 52125.4 Motor-Gasoline Refining from HTFT Syncrude 52225.4.1 HTFT Motor-Gasoline Design Case I 52225.4.2 HTFT Motor-Gasoline Design Case II 52625.5 Motor-Gasoline Refining from LTFT Syncrude 52925.5.1 LTFT Motor-Gasoline Design Case I 52925.5.2 LTFT Motor-Gasoline Design Case II 53425.5.3 LTFT Motor-Gasoline Design Case III 537

References 539

26 Jet Fuel Refining 54126.1 Introduction 54126.2 Gap Analysis for Syncrude to Jet Fuel 54126.2.1 Jet Fuel Specifications 54126.2.2 Carbon Number Distribution 54226.2.3 Composition and Quality 54226.3 Decisions Affecting Jet Fuel Refining 54426.3.1 Fate of C2 –C4 Hydrocarbons 54426.3.2 Fate of the Residue and Wax 54526.3.3 Technology Selection 54626.3.4 Co-refining 54726.4 Jet Fuel Refining from HTFT Syncrude 54826.4.1 HTFT Jet Fuel Design Case I 54926.4.2 HTFT Jet Fuel Design Case II 55226.5 Jet Fuel Refining from LTFT Syncrude 55326.5.1 LTFT Jet Fuel Design Case I 555

References 558

27 Diesel Fuel Refining 55927.1 Introduction 55927.2 Gap Analysis for Syncrude to Diesel Fuel 56027.2.1 Diesel Fuel Specifications 56027.2.2 Carbon Number Distribution 56127.2.3 Composition and Quality 56227.2.4 Density–Cetane–Yield Triangle 56327.3 Decisions Affecting Diesel Fuel Refining 56427.3.1 Fate of C2 –C4 Hydrocarbons 56527.3.2 Fate of the Residue and Wax 56527.3.3 Fate of the Aqueous Product 56527.3.4 Technology Selection 56627.3.5 Co-refining 56727.3.6 Dealing with the Density–Cetane–Yield Triangle 56927.4 Diesel Fuel Refining from HTFT Syncrude 570

XVIII Contents

27.4.1 HTFT Diesel Fuel Design Case I 57027.5 Diesel Fuel Refining from LTFT Syncrude 57327.5.1 LTFT Diesel Fuel Design Case I 57327.5.2 LTFT Diesel Fuel Design Case II 576

References 578

28 Chemicals and Lubricant Refining 58128.1 Introduction 58128.2 Petrochemical and Lubricant Markets 58228.2.1 Petrochemicals 58228.2.2 Lubricants 58428.3 Overview of Chemicals Refining Concepts for Syncrude 58528.3.1 Alkane-Based Refining 58528.3.2 Aromatics Production 58628.3.3 Alkene and Oxygenate Recovery 58728.3.4 Fuels and Chemicals Coproduction 58828.4 Fischer–Tropsch-Based Petrochemical Refining 59128.4.1 Alkane Refining 59128.4.2 Light Alkene Refining 59228.4.3 Linear 1-Alkene Refining 59428.4.4 Aromatics Refining 59528.4.5 Oxygenate Refining 59728.5 Fischer–Tropsch-Based Lubricant Base Oil Refining 59728.5.1 Group III Lubricant Refining 59828.5.2 Group IV Lubricant Refining 59928.5.3 Lubricant Base Oil Refining 600

References 601

Index 603

XIX

Preface

Life sometimes takes one on a journey that is quite unanticipated. After graduation, I had dreamsof making the world a better place by becoming a forensic scientist. Three years later, life took medown a different path. As a young process engineer the objective changed and I had to consolemyself with trying to make the world a better place in a different way. Thus started an industrialcareer in the refining of synthetic liquids.

The energy business is tremendously dependent on the crude oil price, which by all accountsseems to be inherently unpredictable. The crude oil price holds the synthetic liquids industry toransom, as it fluctuates in response to many global forces. Today, coal-to-liquids and gas-to-liquidsare economical processes – tomorrow it may not be. So, it goes on and on, and has been goingon for many decades.

When an idealistic individual is confronted with the realities of the energy business and thefickleness of decisions related to the continuous quest for power and money, it can becomefrustrating. It is not possible to develop technology for the refining of synthetic liquids in phasewith the waxing and waning of the oil price. This in turn leads to inefficient refining practicesand creates false impressions about the refining of synthetic liquids. Research is not amenableto the stop–start–stop–start cycles dictated by the economic fortunes of the synthetic liquidsindustry. The wheel has been reinvented many times over, as know-how is lost in times whenindirect liquefaction is not economical.

This book is an attempt to present and preserve some of the thinking around the refining ofFischer–Tropsch syncrude in the hope that it will help bridge the stop–start–stop–start interestin indirect liquefaction by Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. There are no other works on this topic,except for the occasional chapter in works on Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. The catalysis related toFischer–Tropsch refining has been discussed in a recent book by Ed Furimsky and myself thatis titled ‘‘Catalysis in the refining of Fischer–Tropsch syncrude.’’ There was a deliberate attemptto avoid duplication of effort and overlap with the aforementioned work. This book focuses onthe application of catalysis, the processes, the refining technologies, and the refinery designassociated with Fischer–Tropsch syncrude.

During the writing of this book, some decisions had to be made. The book also had to deal withshortcomings in the reported literature that could not be overcome by the author’s experience inthis field. The intent is not to apologize for these decisions and shortcomings but rather to makethe reader aware of them.

1) Throughout the book, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)chemical nomenclature was employed. This may create a slightly unfamiliar feel for many

XX Preface

readers from the industry and maybe even some readers from the academia. It is a commonoccurrence to refer to paraffins (not alkanes) and olefins (not alkenes). Yet, having wadedthrough a fair bit of the older literature on Fischer–Tropsch in writing this book, oneappreciates the value of having a consistent nomenclature. It was too often necessary toscrounge around to establish what compound or mixture has been described by a colloquialterm that had been in common use 80 years ago, but is quite unfamiliar at present. Asconcession and in order to improve readability, commonly used trivial names and termswere provided in brackets with the IUPAC nomenclature. In cases where the trivial nameis unambiguous and recognized in IUPAC nomenclature, the more familiar name wasadopted, for example, o-xylene instead of 1,2-dimethylbenzene.

2) In chemical structures, hydrogen atoms are not indicated unless it improves readability.The symbol ‘‘R’’ denotes an alkyl group or hydrogen and the symbol ‘‘M’’ denotes a metalatom.

3) The Systeme International d’Unites (SI units) were used, albeit with some exceptions.Temperature is reported in degrees Celsius (◦C) and not Kelvin (K). The conversion fromdegrees Celsius to Kelvin is easy, just add 273.15. Kinematic viscosity is reported incentistokes (cSt) and not square meter per second (1 cSt = 1 × 10−6 m2·s−1 = 1 mm2·s−1).Not all rates were converted to a per second basis and more familiar time periods wereemployed for production capacities and flow rates. Since the topic of the book is on refining,it also became clear that the unit of barrels per day (bbl/day) cannot be avoided (1 bbl =0.158 987 3 m3).

4) In the chapters that discuss transportation fuel specifications, the measurement of fuelproperties mainly refers to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standardtest methods. There are of course equivalent methods from the Institute of Petroleum (IP),International Standards Organization (ISO), and various national institutes. Reference tothe one rather than the other implies no value judgment.

5) Transportation fuel specifications are country dependent and are ever changing. Noattempt was made to provide an anthology of global specifications, which would in any casebecome outdated rather quickly. The European motor-gasoline (EN228:2004) and diesel fuel(EN590:2004) specifications were selected as the basis for discussion, with reference to someother specifications, including the World Wide Fuel Charter (WWFC). The same applies tojet fuel, where the DEF-STAN 91-91 Issue 6 has been selected as the basis for discussion.There is no implicit value judgment. The discussion focuses on the fundamentals and thespecifications are only illustrative in nature.

6) Refining consists of conversion and separation processes. In the book, there is a definitebias toward conversion processes. This does not imply that separation is less important thanconversion, but in many instances the challenge in fuel refining is not efficient separation,but efficient conversion. In petrochemical refining, the roles are sometimes reversed. Thebias toward conversion goes hand in hand with the focus.

7) The effort that has been expended in literature to correctly identify and quantify compoundsvaries considerably. If some compounds or compound classes have not been mentionedin conjunction with a specific topic, it does not necessarily imply that these compoundswere not present. In Fischer–Tropsch literature, the oxygenates and especially the aqueousproducts tend to be ignored or are considered with less care than is bestowed on the organicproduct. Where possible this bias was rectified, but this was not possible in all instances.

Preface XXI

8) The book ‘‘Catalysis in the refining of Fischer–Tropsch syncrude’’ contains an in-depthdiscussion on the catalysis needed for the refining of Fischer–Tropsch syncrude. It alsocontains a review of the patent literature on syncrude refining. References to patentliterature and catalysis literature have therefore been kept to a minimum. Nevertheless,some discussion of catalysis in the context of refining could not be avoided, since it iscritical to the success of syncrude refining.

9) Although every effort has been made to provide a comprehensive discussion of refining,this book is not a general text on oil refining. Process flow diagrams and schematics haveconsequently not been provided for every technology, and there was a deliberate attempt notto duplicate material readily available in reference texts on crude oil refining. Details relatedto general issues, such as the pressure and energy balance over fluid catalytic crackingunits, were therefore not discussed unless it had a direct bearing on syncrude refining.

10) A number of sections were devoted to the relationship between crude oil refining, trans-portation fuel specifications, and syncrude refining. Yet, the focus throughout was onFischer–Tropsch syncrude refining. It was assumed that the reader has at least a superficialknowledge of the conversion processes employed in crude oil refining. If this is not the case,the narrative will be somewhat more taxing to follow, but should still be understandable.

Edmonton, AB, Canada, December 2010 Arno de Klerk