First-Wave FeminismFirst-Wave Feminism

Has its foundation in the Enlightenment Has its foundation in the Enlightenment doctrine of human rights, esp. as doctrine of human rights, esp. as expressed in the expressed in the Declaration of the Rights Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizenof Man and of the Citizen (1789) (1789)

Political in focus: works for political Political in focus: works for political equality in areas such as voting, equality in areas such as voting, ownership of property, inheritance, ownership of property, inheritance, education and ability to run for public education and ability to run for public officeoffice

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)1797)

A Vindication of the Rights of A Vindication of the Rights of WomanWoman (1792) (1792)

Followed up her Followed up her earlier book, earlier book, A A Vindication of the Vindication of the Rights of ManRights of Man

Focused on the moral Focused on the moral demand of equality, demand of equality, especially in educationespecially in education

First attribution of First attribution of gender differences to gender differences to socializationsocialization

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)The Subjection of WomenThe Subjection of Women

(1869)(1869) Focused on Focused on

establishing a right to establishing a right to vote and to hold vote and to hold political officepolitical office

Much of the book was Much of the book was dedicated to dedicated to undermining popular undermining popular stereotypes of women stereotypes of women that were used to that were used to justify political justify political exclusionexclusion

John Stuart Mill and Harriet John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor (1807-1858)Taylor (1807-1858)

The Enfranchisement of The Enfranchisement of WomenWomen (1851) (1851)

Originally written by Originally written by Taylor, later republished Taylor, later republished with essays written by her with essays written by her and Milland Mill

Also focused on arguing for Also focused on arguing for political enfranchisement political enfranchisement for womenfor women

Added essays in later Added essays in later additions argued for additions argued for women’s right to sue for women’s right to sue for divorcedivorce

Second-Wave FeminismSecond-Wave Feminism

Had its foundation in phenomenology Had its foundation in phenomenology (and for some psychoanalysis)(and for some psychoanalysis)

Picks up from First-Wave Feminism’s Picks up from First-Wave Feminism’s critique of gender differencescritique of gender differences

Primarily theoretically focusedPrimarily theoretically focused Aims at identifying and eliminating Aims at identifying and eliminating

sources of sexism and gender sources of sexism and gender oppressionoppression

Simone de Beauvoir (1908-Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)1986)

The Second SexThe Second Sex (1949) (1949) Denies that gender Denies that gender

differences are differences are based in biologybased in biology

Developed the Developed the sex/gender sex/gender distinctiondistinction

Recognizes Recognizes ‘femininity’ and ‘femininity’ and ‘masculinity’ as ‘masculinity’ as historically variablehistorically variable

Betty Friedan (1921-2006)Betty Friedan (1921-2006)The Feminine MystiqueThe Feminine Mystique (1963) (1963)

““The Problem That Has The Problem That Has No Name”: No Name”: unhappiness despite unhappiness despite gains of the women’s gains of the women’s rights movementrights movement

Argues that traditional Argues that traditional gender roles stifle gender roles stifle women’s development women’s development

Treats gender roles as Treats gender roles as inherently inherently dehumanizingdehumanizing

Carol Gilligan (1936-)Carol Gilligan (1936-)In a Different VoiceIn a Different Voice (1982) (1982)

Was a student of Was a student of developmental psychologist developmental psychologist Larry Kohlberg, who found Larry Kohlberg, who found gender differences in gender differences in approaches to moralityapproaches to morality

Argues that these Argues that these differences are the result of differences are the result of socialization, not inherent socialization, not inherent reasoning differencesreasoning differences

Contends that neither Contends that neither men’s nor women’s men’s nor women’s approaches to ethics is approaches to ethics is superior; rather, both are superior; rather, both are needed for a whole moral needed for a whole moral personperson

Naomi Wolf (1962-)Naomi Wolf (1962-)The Beauty MythThe Beauty Myth (1991) (1991)

Examines the ways in Examines the ways in which beauty standards which beauty standards are used to both are used to both discriminate against discriminate against and physically harm and physically harm womenwomen

Focuses on the way in Focuses on the way in which gender norms for which gender norms for women create double-women create double-binds—situations where binds—situations where both meeting and both meeting and failing to meet the norm failing to meet the norm become harmful.become harmful.

Third-Wave FeminismThird-Wave Feminism

Often influenced by postmodernism and critical Often influenced by postmodernism and critical theorytheory

Extends Second-Wave Feminism’s critique of Extends Second-Wave Feminism’s critique of gender norms by rejecting dichotomous and gender norms by rejecting dichotomous and hierarchical thinkinghierarchical thinking

Typically seeks to destabilize the very notions of Typically seeks to destabilize the very notions of gender and sexgender and sex

Examines both the variability within categories Examines both the variability within categories (such as ‘woman’) and the complex ways in which (such as ‘woman’) and the complex ways in which those categories interact [intersectionality]those categories interact [intersectionality]

Angela Y. Davis (1944-)Angela Y. Davis (1944-)Women, Race, and ClassWomen, Race, and Class

(1981)(1981) Inaugurated the Inaugurated the

third wave third wave emphasis on emphasis on intersectionality by intersectionality by examining how examining how race and class race and class biases negatively biases negatively affected the affected the feminist movementfeminist movement

bell hooks (1952-)bell hooks (1952-)Ain’t I a WomanAin’t I a Woman (1981) (1981)

Called attention to the Called attention to the way in which feminist way in which feminist writings have mainly writings have mainly reflected the needs reflected the needs and interests of white and interests of white middle-class womenmiddle-class women

Inaugurated a greater Inaugurated a greater recognition of and recognition of and response to diversity response to diversity by feminist thinkersby feminist thinkers

Luce Irigaray (1932-)Luce Irigaray (1932-)This Sex Which Is Not OneThis Sex Which Is Not One

(1977)(1977) Emphasizes the Emphasizes the

ambiguous and ambiguous and variable nature of variable nature of ‘womanhood’ and ‘womanhood’ and ‘femininity’‘femininity’

Claims that to Claims that to conceive of ‘woman’ conceive of ‘woman’ or ‘the feminine’ at all or ‘the feminine’ at all is to engage in an is to engage in an inherently sexist inherently sexist approach to approach to understanding genderunderstanding gender

Judith Butler (1956-)Judith Butler (1956-)Gender TroubleGender Trouble (1989) (1989)

Argues that “gender” Argues that “gender” is a performance, and is a performance, and is thus indefinitely is thus indefinitely variablevariable

Key work in the Key work in the development of queer development of queer theory as welltheory as well

Links gender norms to Links gender norms to language—language language—language both creates and both creates and reinforces gender reinforces gender normsnorms