First Sino-Japanese War.pdf

8/14/2019 First Sino-Japanese War.pdf

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First Sino-Japanese War 1

First Sino-Japanese War


Japanese troops during the Sino-Japanese war

First Sino-Japanese War, major battles and troop movements

Date 1 August 1894 17 April 1895(8 months, 2 weeks and 2 days)

Location Korea, Manchuria, Taiwan, Yellow Sea

Result Japanese victory; a significant loss of prestige for the Qing Dynasty. Joseon Korea removed from Qing vassalage. Korean Peninsula transferred to Japanese sphere of influence.

Territorialchanges

Qing Empire cedes Taiwan, Penghu, and the Liaodong Peninsula to the Empire of Japan.

Belligerents

Qing Empire Empire of Japan

Commanders and leaders

Li Hongzhang Ding Ruchang Deng Shichang Guangxu Emperor Empress Dowager Cixi

It Hirobumi Yamagata Aritomo It Sukeyuki Emperor Meiji

Strength
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630,000 menBeiyang ArmyBeiyang Navy

240,616 menImperial Japanese ArmyImperial Japanese Navy

Casualties and losses35,000 dead or wounded 1,132 dead,

3,758 wounded285 died of wounds11,894 died of disease


Chinese name

Simplified Chinese Traditional Chinese

Transcriptions

Mandarin

Hanyu Pinyin Jiw Zhnzhng

Japanese name

Japanese Japan Qing War

Chinese name

Chinese War of Jiawu- referring to the year 1894 underthetraditional sexagenary system

The First Sino-Japanese War (1 August 1894 17 April 1895) was fought between Qing Dynasty China and MeijiJapan, primarily over control of Korea. After more than six months of continuous successes by the Japanese armyand naval forces, as well as the loss of the Chinese port of Weihai, the Qing leadership sued for peace in February1895.

The war was a clear indication of the failure of the Qing dynasty's attempts to modernize its military and fend off threats to its sovereignty, especially compared with Japan's successful post-Meiji restoration[1] For the first time,regional dominance in East Asia shifted from China to Japan; the prestige of the Qing Dynasty, along with theclassical tradition in China, suffered a major blow. The humiliating loss of Korea as a vassal state sparked anunprecedented public outcry. Within China, the defeat was a catalyst for a series of revolutions and political changesled by Sun Yat-Sen and Kang Youwei. These trends would later manifest in the 1911 Revolution.

The war is commonly known in China as theWar of Jiawu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese:

; pinyin: Jiw Zhnzhng), referring to the year (1894) as named under the traditional sexagenarysystem of year reckoning. In Japan, it is commonly known as theJapan Qing War ( Nisshin sens( )).In Korea, where much of the war took place, it is commonly known as theQing-Japan War (Korean: ;
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Hanja: ).

BackgroundAfter two centuries, the Japanese policy of seclusion under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when thecountry was forced open to trade by American intervention in 1854. The years following the Meiji Restoration of

1868 and the fall of the Shogunate had seen Japan transform itself from a feudal society into a modern industrialstate. The Japanese had sent delegations and students around the world in order to learn and assimilate western artsand sciences; this was done not only to prevent Japan from falling under foreign domination but to enable Japan tocompete equally with the Western powers.[2] Korea continued to try to exclude foreigners, refusing embassies fromforeign countries and firing on ships near Korea. At the start of the war, Japan had been reforming for three decades,whereas Korea had suppressed attempts at reform, leaving it in a vulnerable situation.

Conflict over Korea

Satirical drawing in Punch Magazine[3] (29September 1894), showing the victory of "small"

Japan over "large" China.

As a newly emergent power, Japan turned its attention toward Korea.

In order to protect its own interests and security, Japan wanted to blockanother power from annexing Korea or maintaining dominance inKorea, or at least ensure Korea's effective independence by developingits resources and reforming its administration. As Prussian advisorMajor Klemens Meckel put it to the Japanese army, Korea was "adagger pointed at the heart of Japan".[4] Japan felt that another powerhaving a military presence on the Korean peninsula would have beendetrimental to Japanese national security, and so resolved to end thecenturies-old Chinese suzerainty over Korea. Moreover, Japan realizedthat having access to Koreas coal and iron ore deposits would benefit

Japan's growing industrial base. Korea was also seen as a source of agricultural imports to Japan, helping to feed the growing Japanese population.

On February 27, 1876, after certain incidents and confrontation involving Korean isolationists and the Japanese,Japan imposed the Japan Korea Treaty of 1876; forcing Korea to open itself to Japanese trade. Similar treaties weresigned between Korea and other nations.

Korea had traditionally been a tributary state and continued to be so under the influence of China's Qing Dynasty,which exerted large influence over the conservative Korean officials gathered around the royal family of the JoseonDynasty. Opinion in Korea itself was split; conservatives wanted to retain the traditional subservient relationshipwith China, while reformists wanted to establish closer ties with Japan and western nations. After two Opium Wars

in 1839 and 1856 against the British Empire and the Sino-French War, China had become weak and was unable toresist political intervention and territorial encroachment by western powers (see Unequal Treaties). Japan sought toprevent any major power from dominating Korea, fearing that would allow another power to threaten Japan, but thisbecame a desire to replace Chinese influence in Korea with its Japanese influence.
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1882 crisis

The flight of the Japanese Legation in 1882

In 1882, the Korean peninsula experienced asevere drought which led to food shortages,causing much hardship and discord among thepopulation. Korea was on the verge of bankruptcy;

the government was not able to pay its debts,particularly to its military. There was deepresentment amongst the soldiers of the Koreanarmy who had not been paid for months. On July23, a military mutiny and riot broke out in Seoul;troops, assisted by the population, sacked the ricegranaries there. The next morning the royal palace and barracks were attacked. The crowd then turned on theJapanese legation. The Japanese legation staff managed to escape to Chemulpo and then Nagasaki via the Britishsurvey ship Flying Fish.

In response the Japanese sent four warships and a battalion of troops to Seoul to safeguard Japanese interests anddemand reparations. The Chinese also deployed 4,500 troops to counter the Japanese. Tensions subsided, however,with the Treaty of Chemulpo which was signed on the evening of August 30, 1882. The agreement specified that theconspirators involved would be punished and 50,000 yen would be paid to the families of the Japanese killed. TheJapanese government would also receive 500,000 yen, a formal apology, and permission to construct barracks andstation troops at their diplomatic legation in Seoul.

Gapsin Coup

In 1884 a group of pro-Japanese reformers briefly overthrew the pro-Chinese conservative Korean government in abloody coup d'tat. However, the pro-Chinese faction, with assistance from Chinese troops under General Yuan

Shikai, succeeded in regaining control with an equally bloody counter-coup. These coups resulted not only in thedeaths of a number of reformers, but also in the burning of the Japanese legation and the deaths of several legationguards and citizens in the process. This caused an incident between Japan and China, but was eventually settled bythe Sino-Japanese Convention of Tientsin of 1885 in which the two sides agreed to (a) pull their expeditionary forcesout of Korea simultaneously; (b) not send military instructors for the training of the Korean military; and (c) notifythe other side beforehand should one decide to send troops to Korea. The Japanese, however, were frustrated byrepeated Chinese attempts to undermine their influence in Korea. After this treaty, Chinese and Japanese troops left,diplomatic relations were restored between Japan and Korea. Yuan Shikai, remained as Chinese Resident," in whatthe Chinese intended as a sort of Viceroy role directing Korean affairs. (He remained in that position until theSino-Japanese War.) Yuan Shikai attempted to encourage Chinese trade and hinder Japanese trade, though Japan

remained Koreas largest trading partner. Telegraphs under Chinese control were introduced to Korea, linking Koreato the Chinese network. Loans were provided to Korea by the Qing.

Nagasaki Incident

The Nagasaki Incident was a riot in Nagasaki caused by Qing Dynasty Beiyang Fleet soldiers stopping by the portcity in 1886. Several Japanese policemen confronting the rioters were killed. After the incident, the Qing did notapologize to Japan, and behaved with confidence in the superiority of their navy. At that time, the Qing possessedthe Dingyuan, a relatively modern pre-dreadnought battleship built in Germany. It was thought that the Japanesenavy could not match this ship at this time, as Japan lacked battleships and the Dingyuan had a heavier tonnage thanthe most modern Japanese cruisers of the time. (The Dingyuan was eventually scuttled after the Battle of Weihaiwei.) Japan's setback during the Gapsin Coup, in which 400 Japanese soldiers had been driven off by 2000Qing soldiers, was still recent and fresh.
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Bean Controversy

A poor harvest in 1889 caused a governor of Hamgyong province to prohibit soybean exports to Japan. Japanrequested compensation in 1893 for their importers, and eventually received it. The incident highlighted the growingdependence Japan felt on Korean agriculture imports.[5]

Kim Ok-gyun affair

Kim Ok-gyun photographed in Nagasakiin 1882. His assassination in China

would contribute to tensions leading tothe First Sino-Japanese War.

On March 28, 1894, a pro-Japanese Korean revolutionary, Kim Ok-gyun, wasassassinated in Shanghai. Kim had fled to Japan after his involvement in the1884 coup and the Japanese had turned down Korean demands that he beextradited. Ultimately, he was lured to Shanghai where he was killed by afellow Korean, Hong Jong-u, at a Japanese inn in the international settlement.His body was then taken aboard a Chinese warship and sent back to Korea,where it was quartered and displayed as a warning to other rebels. TheJapanese government was outraged, taking this as a direct affront to its statureand dignity.[6]

Tonghak Rebellion

The tension was high by June 1894, but war was certainly not yet inevitable.A rebellion in Korea caused Korean king to request Chinese troops on June 4to aid in suppressing the Tonghak Rebellion. The rebellion proved not to beas dangerous as initially thought and the Chinese troops were not required toput down the rebellion. The Chinese government sent General Yuan Shikai asits plenipotentiary at the head of 2,800 troops. According to the Japanese, theChinese government did not inform the Japanese government of its decisionto send troops to the Korean peninsula, and in doing so failed to comply with the Convention of Tientsin.[7] In theface of China's violation of the convention, the Japanese countered and sent their own 8,000-man expeditionary force(the Oshima Composite Brigade) to Korea. The first 400 troops arrived on June 9 en route to Seoul, and 3000 landedat Inchon on June 12. However, according to the Chinese, the Japanese encouraged the Chinese to honor theKoreans' request by sending in the troops. In addition, Japanese officials also implied that Japan had no intention tointervene. As a result, the key Chinese official Li Hongzhang "was lured into believing that Japan would not wagewar, whereas Tokyo was fully prepared to act."[8] Japan requested that China and Japan co-operate to reform theKorean government, which China refused. Korea requested that Japan withdraw its troops which Japan refused. TheJapanese force of 8,000 strong subsequently seized the king, occupied the Royal Palace in Seoul by early June 1894,

and replaced the existing government with members from the pro-Japanese faction. A new government was formedJuly 25. Though Chinese troops were already leaving Korea, finding themselves unneeded there, the newpro-Japanese Korean government granted Japan the right to expel the Chinese troops forcibly, while Japan shippedmore troops to Korea. The legitimacy of the new government was rejected by China, and the stage was thus set forconflict.
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Status of combatants

Japan

Japan's reforms under the Meiji emperor gave significant priority to naval construction, and the creation of aneffective modern national army and navy. Japan sent numerous military officials abroad for training, and evaluation

of the relative strengths and tactics of European armies and navies.

Imperial Japanese Navy

Major Combatants

Protected Cruisers

Matsushima( flagship)

Itsukushima

Hashidate

Naniwa

Takachiho

Yaeyama

Akitsushima

Yoshino

Izumi

Cruisers

Chiyoda

Armored Corvettes

Hiei

Kong

Ironclad Warship

Fus
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It Sukeyuki was the Commander-in-Chief of theCombined Fleet.

The French-built Matsushima, flagship of the ImperialJapanese Navy during the Sino-Japanese conflict.

The Imperial Japanese Navy was modeled after the British RoyalNavy, which at the time was the foremost naval power in theworld. British advisors were sent to Japan to train, advise andeducate the naval establishment; while students were in turn sentto the United Kingdom to study and observe the Royal Navy.

Through drilling and tuition by Royal Navy instructors, Japan wasable to possess a navy expertly skilled in the arts of gunnery andseamanship.[9]

At the start of hostilities, the Imperial Japanese Navy contained afleet of 12 modern warships, ( Izumibeing added during the war),one frigate (Takao), 22 torpedo boats, and numerousauxiliary/armed merchant cruisers and converted liners.

Japan did not yet have the resources to acquire battleships and soplanned to employ the Jeune coledoctrine which favoured small,fast warships, especially cruisers and torpedo boats, with gunspowerful enough to destroy larger craft.

Many of Japans major warships were built in British and Frenchshipyards (eight British, three French and two Japanese-built) and16 of the torpedo boats were known to have been built in Franceand assembled in Japan.

Imperial Japanese Army

The Meiji era government at first modeled the army on the FrenchArmy. French advisers had been sent to Japan with two militarymissions (in 1872 1880 and 1884; these were the second and thirdmissions respectively, the first having been under the shogunate).Nationwide conscription was enforced in 1873 and a western-styleconscript army was established; military schools and arsenals werealso built.

In 1886 Japan turned toward the German Army, specifically thePrussian model as the basis for its army. Its doctrines, militarysystem and organisation were studied in detail and adopted by theIJA. In 1885 Jakob Meckel, a German adviser, implemented new

measures, such as the reorganization of the command structure of the army into divisions and regiments; the strengthening of armylogistics, transportation, and structures (thereby increasingmobility); and the establishment of artillery and engineeringregiments as independent commands.

By the 1890s Japan had at its disposal a modern, professionally trained western-style army which was relatively wellequipped and supplied. Its officers had studied in Europe and were well educated in the latest tactics and strategy. Bythe start of the war, the Imperial Japanese Army could field a total force of 120,000 men in two armies and fivedivisions.
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Imperial Japanese Army Composition 1894 1895

1st Japanese Army

3rd Provincial Division (Nagoya)

5th Provincial Division (Hiroshima)

2nd Japanese Army

1st Provincial Division (Tokyo)

2nd Provincial Division (Sendai)

6th Provincial Division (Kumamoto)

In Reserve

4th Provincial Division (Osaka)

Invasion of Formosa (Taiwan)

Imperial Guards Division

China

Empress Dowager Cixi took a portion of militaryfund for palace renovation

Although the Beiyang Forces Beiyang Army and Beiyang Fleet

was the best equipped and symbolized the new modern Chinesemilitary, corruption was a serious problem. Military leaders andofficials systematically embezzled funds, even during the war. As aresult, the Beiyang Fleet did not purchase any battleships after itsestablishment in 1888. The purchase of ammunition stopped in 1891,with the funding being embezzled to build the Summer Palace inBeijing. Logistics were a huge problem, as construction of railroads inManchuria had been discouraged. The morale of the Chinese armieswas generally very low due to lack of pay and prestige, use of opiumand poor leadership which contributed to some rather ignominiouswithdrawals, such as the abandonment of the very well-fortified anddefensible Weihaiwei.

Beiyang Army

Qing Dynasty China did not have a national army. Following theTaiping Rebellion the army had been segregated into separate Manchu,Mongol, Hui (Muslim) and Han Chinese armies, which were further divided into largely independent regionalcommands. During the war, most of the fighting was done by the Beiyang Army and Beiyang Fleet; pleas calling forhelp from other Chinese armies and navies were completely ignored due to regional rivalry. The Huai and Anhweiarmies made up the larger Beiyang Army.

Qing Muslim General Zuo Baogui ( ) (1837 1894), from Shandong province, died in action in Pyongyangin Korea from Japanese artillery in 1894 while securing the city. A memorial to him was constructed.

Another General, Ma Yu-kun, who commanded a separate unit, was believed to be the son of the Muslim GeneralMa Rulong by the Europeans. Ma Yu-kun fought with some success against Japan at Pyongyang during the war andafter the war went on to fight in the Boxer Rebellion.[10][11]
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Beiyang Fleet

The Beiyang Fleet was one of the four modernised Chinese navies in the late Qing Dynasty. The navies were heavilysponsored by Li Hongzhang, the Viceroy of Zhili. The Beiyang Fleet was the dominant navy in East Asia before thefirst Sino-Japanese War. However ships were not maintained properly and indiscipline was common.[12] Sentriesspent their time gambling, watertight doors were left open, rubbish was dumped in gun barrels and gunpowder for

explosive shells was sold and replaced with cocoa. At the Yalu river, a battleship had one of its guns pawned byAdmiral Ting .[13]

Dingyuan, the flagship of the Beiyang Fleet. Zhenyuan.

Beiyang Fleet Major combatants

Ironclad battleships Dingyuan (flagship), Zhenyuan

Armoured cruisers King Yuen, Lai Yuen

Protected cruisers Chih Yuen, Ching Yuen

Cruisers Torpedo Cruisers Tsi Yuen, Kuang Ping/Kwang Ping | Chaoyong, Yangwei

Coastal warship Pingyuan

Corvette Kwan Chia

13 or so torpedo boats, numerous Gunboats and chartered merchant vessels

Foreign opinions of Chinese and Japanese forces

The prevailing view in the West was that the modernized Chinese armies and navies would crush and defeat theJapanese. Chinese armies like the Anhui Army and Beiyang Fleet were commended and admired by the Westernobservers. They perceived China as militarily stronger.

Japan looked like it would lose, according to the German General Staff. A British advisor to the Chinese military,William Lang, was interviewed by Reuter. He praised the state of the Chinese armed forces and its training, modernships, guns, and equipment. He stated that "in the end, there is no doubt that Japan must be utterly crushed", and

viewed Japan as fated to lose the war.
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11/20


Sinking of the Kow-shing

Depiction from the French periodical Le Petit Journal(1894) of the sinking of the Kow-shingand the rescue of some of its

crew by the French gunboat Le Lion.

On 25 July 1894, the cruisersYoshino, Naniwa and Akitsushimaof theJapanese flying squadron, which had been patrolling off Asan, encounteredthe Chinese cruiser Tsi-yuan and gunboat Kwang-yi. These vessels hadsteamed out of Asan in order to meet another Chinese gunboat, the

Tsao-kiang, which was escorting a transport toward Asan. After a brief,hour-long engagement, theTsi-yuan escaped while the Kwang-yibecamestranded on rocks, where its powder-magazine exploded.

The Kow-shingwas a 2,134-ton British merchant vessel owned by the Indochina Steam Navigation Companyof London, commanded by Captain T.R. Galsworthy and crewed by 64 men. The ship was chartered by the Qinggovernment to ferry troops to Korea; the Kow-shingwas on her way to Asanto reinforce Chinese forces there: 1,200 troops plus supplies and equipmentwere on board the vessel. A German artillery officer, Major von Hanneken,acting as an advisor to the Chinese, was also aboard. The ship was due toarrive on 25 July.

The cruiser Naniwa (under the command of Captain Tg Heihachir)intercepted the two ships. The gunboat was eventually captured. The Japanesethen ordered the Kow-shingto follow Naniwa and requested that the

Europeans on board be transferred to Naniwa. However the 1,200 Chinese on board desired to return to Taku, andthreatened to kill the English captain, Galsworthy, and his crew. After four hours of negotiations, Captain Togo gavethe order to fire upon the vessel. A torpedo fired from the Naniwamissed the Kow Shing; Naniwathen fired abroadside which hit the Kow shing; this was enough to distract the Chinese guarding the Europeans and allowedsome of the Europeans to jump overboard, only to be fired upon by the Chinese.[citation needed ] The Japanese rescued

three of the 43 crew (the captain, first officer and quartermaster) and a German passenger, and took them to Japan;the rest died in the sinking. The sinking of the Kow-shingalmost caused a diplomatic incident between Japan andGreat Britain, but the action was ruled in conformity with international law regarding the treatment of mutineers.Only three ships rescued any Chinese troops. The German gunboat Iltis rescued 150 Chinese soldiers. The Frenchgunboat Le Lionrescued 43 Chinese soldiers. The British Cruiser HMS Porpoisealso rescued an unknown numberof troops. No Japanese ships rescued Chinese troops in the water and it is estimated over 900 died in the sinking.[14]
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Conflict in Korea

Japanese soldiers of the Sino-Japanese War, Japan, 1895.

Korean soldiers and Chinese captives

The battle of the Yalu river

Commissioned by the new pro-Japanese Koreangovernment to expel the Chinese forces fromKorean territory by force, Major-Generalshima Yoshimasa led mixed Japanese brigades

numbering about 4,000 on a rapid forced marchfrom Seoul south toward Asan Bay to face 3,500Chinese troops garrisoned at Seonghwan Stationeast of Asan and Kongju.

On 28 July 1894, the two forces met just outsideAsan in an engagement that lasted till 0730hours the next morning. The Chinese graduallylost ground to the superior Japanese numbers,and finally broke and fled towards Pyongyang.Chinese casualties amounted to 500 killed andwounded, compared to 82 Japanese casualties.

War between China and Japan was officiallydeclared on 1 August 1894.

The remaining Chinese forces in Korea, byAugust 4, retreated to the northern city of Pyongyang, where they eventually joined troopssent from China. The 13,000 15,000 defendersmade extensive repairs and preparations to thecity, hoping to check the Japanese advance.

The Imperial Japanese Army converged onPyongyang from several directions on 15September 1894. The Japanese assaulted the cityand eventually defeated the Chinese by an attackfrom the rear; the defenders surrendered. Bytaking advantage of heavy rainfall and using thecover of darkness, the remaining troops marchedout of Pyongyang and headed northeast towardthe coast and the city of Uiju. Casualties were2,000 killed and around 4,000 wounded for theChinese, while the Japanese lost 102 men killed,433 wounded and 33 missing. The entireJapanese army entered the city of Pyongyang on

the early morning of 16 September 1894.
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Defeat of the Beiyang fleet

On September 17, 1894, Japanese warships encountered the larger Chinese Beiyang Fleet off the mouth of the YaluRiver. The Imperial Japanese Navy destroyed eight out of the ten Chinese warships, assuring Japan's command of the Yellow Sea. The Chinese were able to land 4,500 troops near the Yalu River.

The Battle of the Yalu River was the largest naval engagement of the war and was a major propaganda victory for

Japan.

Invasion of Manchuria

An illustration of Japanese soldiers beheading Chinese soldiers.

With the defeat at Pyongyang, the Chinese abandonednorthern Korea and instead took up defensive positionsin fortifications along their side of the Yalu River nearJiuliancheng. After receiving reinforcements by 10October, the Japanese quickly pushed north towardManchuria.

On the night of 24 October 1894, the Japanesesuccessfully crossed the Yalu River, undetected, byerecting a pontoon bridge. The following afternoon of 25 October at 5:00 pm, they assaulted the outpost of Hushan, east of Jiuliancheng. At 10:30 pm the defenders deserted their positions and by the next day they were infull retreat from Jiuliancheng. With the capture of Jiuliancheng, General Yamagata's 1st Army Corps occupied thenearby city of Dandong, while to the north, elements of the retreating Beiyang Army set fire to the city of Fengcheng. The Japanese had established a firm foothold on Chinese territory with the loss of only four killed and140 wounded.[citation needed ]

The Japanese 1st Army Corps then split into two groups with General Nozu Michitsura's 5th Provincial Divisionadvancing toward the city of Mukden (now Shenyang, China) and Lieutenant General Katsura Tar's 3rd ProvincialDivision pursuing fleeing Chinese forces west along toward the Liaodong Peninsula.

By December the 3rd Provincial Division had captured the towns of Ta-tung-kau, Ta-ku-shan, Xiuyan, Tomu-cheng,Hai-cheng and Kang-wa-seh. The 5th Provincial Division marched during a severe Manchurian winter towardsMukden.

The Japanese 2nd Army Corps under yama Iwao landed on the south coast of Liaodong Peninsula on 24 Octoberand quickly moved to capture Kin-chow and Talienwan on 6 7 November. The Japanese laid siege to the strategicport of Lushunkou.
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First Sino-Japanese War, major battles and troop movements.

Fall of Lshunkou

By 21 November 1894, the Japanese had takenthe city of Lshunkou (Port Arthur). TheJapanese army massacred thousands of the city's

civilian Chinese inhabitants in an event thatcame to be called the Port Arthur Massacre (notethat the scale and nature of the killing continuesto be debated). By 10 December 1894, Kaipeng(modern-day Gaixian) fell to the Japanese 1stArmy Corps.

Fall of Weihaiwei

The Chinese fleet subsequently retreated behind

the Weihaiwei fortifications. However, theywere then surprised by Japanese ground forces,who outflanked the harbor's defenses. The battleof Weihaiwei would be a 23-day siege with themajor land and naval components taking placebetween 20 January and 12 February 1895.

After Weihaiwei's fall on 12 February 1895, andan easing of harsh winter conditions, Japanesetroops pressed further into southern Manchuriaand northern China. By March 1895 theJapanese had fortified posts that commanded the sea approaches to Beijing. This would be the last major battle to befought; numerous skirmishes would follow. The Battle of Yinkou was fought outside the port town of Yingkou,Manchuria, on 5 March 1895.

Occupation of the Pescadores Islands

On 23 March 1895, Japanese forces attacked the Pescadores Islands, off the west coast of Taiwan. In a brief andalmost bloodless campaign the Japanese defeated the islands' Qing garrison and occupied the main town of Makung.This operation effectively prevented Chinese forces in Taiwan from being reinforced, and allowed the Japanese topress their demand for the cession of Taiwan in the negotiations leading to the conclusion of the Treaty of

Shimonoseki in April 1895.
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End of the war

Revisionist depiction of Chinese delegation, ledby Admiral Ding Ruchang and their foreign

advisors, boarding the Japanese vessel tonegotiate the surrender with Admiral It

Sukeyuki after the Battle of Weihaiwei. In reality,Ding had committed suicide after his defeat and

never surrendered.

The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed on 17 April 1895. Chinarecognized the total independence of Korea and ceded the LiaodongPeninsula (in the south of the present day Liaoning Province), Taiwanand the Penghu Islands to Japan "in perpetuity". The disputed islandsknown as "Senkaku / Diaoyu" islands were not named by this treaty,but Japan annexed these uninhabited islands to Okinawa prefecture in1895. Japan asserts this move was taken independently of the treatyending the war, and China asserts that they were implied as part of thecession of Taiwan.

Additionally, China was to pay Japan 200 million Kuping taels asreparation. China also signed a commercial treaty permitting Japaneseships to operate on the Yangtze River, to operate manufacturingfactories in treaty ports and to open four more ports to foreign trade. The Triple Intervention, however, forced Japan

to give up the Liaodong Peninsula in exchange for another 30 million Kuping taels(450 million yen).After the war, according to the Chinese scholar, Jin Xide, the Qing government paid a total of 34,000,000 taels (13,600 tons ) of silver to Japan for both the reparations of war and war trophies. This was equivalent to (then)510,000,000 Japanese yen, about 6.4 times the Japanese government revenue.

Japanese invasion of Taiwan

Several Qing officials in Taiwan resolved to resist the cession of Taiwan to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki,and on 23 May declared the island to be an independent Republic of Formosa. On 29 May Japanese forces underAdmiral Motonori Kabayama landed in northern Taiwan, and in a five-month campaign defeated the Republicanforces and occupied the island's main towns. The campaign effectively ended on 21 October 1895, with the flight of Liu Yung-fu, the second Republican president, and the surrender of the Republican capital Tainan.

Aftermath

Japan China Peace Treaty, 17 April 1895.

The Japanese success during the war was the result of themodernization and industrialization embarked upon two decadesearlier.[15] The war demonstrated the superiority of Japanese tacticsand training as a result of the adoption of a Western-style military. TheImperial Japanese Army and navy were able to inflict a string of defeats on the Chinese through foresight, endurance, strategy andpower of organization. Japanese prestige rose in the eyes of the world.The victory established Japan as the dominant power in Asia.[16][17]

The war for China revealed the ineffectiveness of its government, itspolicies, and the corruption of the Qing administration. Traditionally China viewed Japan as a subordinate outlier of the Chinese cultural sphere. Although Qing China had already been defeated by European powers in the 19thcentury, a defeat at the hands of fellow Asians and a former tributary state was a bitter psychological blow.Anti-foreign sentiment and agitation grew and would later culminate in the form of the Boxer Rebellion five yearslater.
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Convention of retrocession of the Liaotungpeninsula, 8 November 1895.

Although Japan had achieved what it had set out to accomplish, mainlyto end Chinese influence over Korea, Japan reluctantly had been forcedto relinquish the Liaodong Peninsula, (Port Arthur), in exchange for anincreased financial indemnity. The European powers (Russiaespecially), while having no objection to the other clauses of the treaty,

did feel that Japan should not gain Port Arthur, for they had their ownambitions in that part of the world. Russia persuaded Germany andFrance to join her in applying diplomatic pressure on the Japanese,resulting in the Triple Intervention of 23 April 1895.

Japan succeeded in eliminating Chinese influence over Korea, butironically, it was Russia who reaped the benefits. Korea proclaimeditself the Korean Empire announcing its independence from China. The Japanese sponsored Gabo reforms (Kaboreforms) from 1894-1896 transformed Korea: slavery was legally abolished in all forms; the yangban class lost allspecial privileges; outcastes were abolished; equality of law; equality of opportunity in the face of socialbackground; marriage ages were raised, abolishing child marriage; Hangul was to be used in government documents;Korean history was introduced in schools; Ming calendar was replaced with the western (common era); educationwas expanded and new textbooks written.

In 1895, a pro-Russian official tried to remove the king of Korea to the Russian legation and failed, but a secondattempt succeeded so for a year the King reigned from the Russian legation in Seoul. The concession to build aSeoul-Inchon railway had been granted to Japan in 1894 was revoked and granted to Russia. Russian guards guardedthe king in his palace even after he left the Russian legation.

In 1898, Russia signed a 25-year lease on the Liaodong Peninsula and proceeded to set up a naval station at PortArthur. Although this infuriated the Japanese, they were more concerned with Russian encroachment toward Koreathan in Manchuria. Other powers, such as France, Germany and Great Britain, took advantage of the situation in

China and gained port and trade concessions at the expense of the decaying Qing Empire. Tsingtao and Kiaochowwas acquired by Germany, Kwang-Chou-Wan by France and Weihaiwei by Great Britain.

Tensions between Russia and Japan would increase in the years after the First Sino-Japanese war. During the BoxerRebellion an eight-member international force was sent to suppress and quell the uprising; Russia sent troops intoManchuria as part of this force. After the suppression of the Boxers the Russian government agreed to vacate thearea. However, by 1903 it had actually increased the size of its forces in Manchuria. Negotiations between the twonations (1901 1904) to establish mutual recognition of respective spheres of influence (Russia over Manchuria andJapan over Korea) were repeatedly and intentionally stalled by the Russians. They felt that they were strong andconfident enough not to accept any compromise and believed Japan would not dare go to war against a Europeanpower. Russia also had intentions to use Manchuria as a springboard for further expansion of its interests in the FarEast. In 1903, Russian soldiers began construction of a fort at Yongnampo but stopped at Japanese protests.

In 1902 Japan f ormed an alliance with Britain, the terms of which stated that if Japan went to war in the Far East andthat a third power entered the fight against Japan, then Britain would come to the aid of the Japanese. This was acheck to prevent either Germany or France from intervening militarily in any future war with Russia. Japan sought toprevent a repetition of the Triple Intervention that deprived her of Port Arthur. The British reasons for joining thealliance were: to check the spread of Russian expansion into the Pacific area; to strengthen Britain's hand to focus onother areas and to gain a powerful naval ally in the Pacific.

Increasing tensions between Japan and Russia as a result of Russia's unwillingness to enter into a compromise andthe prospect of Korea falling under Russia's domination, therefore coming into conflict with and undermining Japan's

interests, compelled Japan to take action. This would be the deciding factor and catalyst that would lead to theRusso-Japanese War of 1904 05.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russo-Japanese_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russo-Japanese_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russo-Japanese_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russo-Japanese_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Japanese_Alliancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eight-Nation_Alliancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weihaiweihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kwang-Chou-Wanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kiaochowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qingdaohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hangulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yangbanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gabo_reformshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korean_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triple_Interventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L%C3%BCshunkouhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liaodong_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AConvention_of_retrocession_of_the_Liatung_Peninsula_8_November_1895.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liaotung_peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liaotung_peninsula


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Notes This article incorporates text fromThe living age ..., Volume 226 , by Eliakim Littell, Robert S. Littell, Making

of America Project, a publication from 1900 now in the public domain in the United States. This article incorporates text fromEclectic magazine: foreign literature , by John Holmes Agnew, Walter

Hilliard Bidwell, a publication from 1900 now in the public domain in the United States.

[1] "Japan Anxious for a Fight; The Chinese Are Slow and Not in Good Shape to Go to War," (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ mem/ archive-free/ pdf?res=950DEEDE1531E033A25753C3A9619C94659ED7CF) New York Times.July 30, 1894.

[2][2] Jansen, p.335[3] www.ocu.mit.edu (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ ans7870/ 21f/ 21f. 027j/ throwing_off_asia_01/ punch. html)[4][4] Duus, P. (1976). The rise of modern Japan (p. 125). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.[5][5] Seth, p. 445[6][6] Jansen, p.431[7][7] James McClain, "Japan a Modern History," 297[8] John King Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu, ed.The Cambridge History of China: Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911. Volume 11, Part 2(Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1980),105.[9] "The skills of the Japanese officers and men was astronomically higher those of their Chinese counterparts." (http:/ / www. steelnavy. com/

HasegawaMikasa. htm)

[10][10] (Original from the University of Michigan)[11][11] (Original from the University of Michigan)[12] Naval Warfare, 1815 1914, Lawrence Sondhaus, p.168/170[13][13] Geoffrey Regan, Naval Blunders, page 28[14] Sequence of events, and numbers of rescued and dead, taken from several articles fromThe Timesof London from 2 August 1894-25

October 1894[15][15] Schencking, p.78[16] Paine,The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 1895: Perception, Power, and Primacy.[17] "A new balance of power had emerged. China's millennia-long regional dominance had abruptly ended. Japan had become the dominant

power of Asia, a position it would retain throughout the twentieth century". Paine,The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 1895: Perception, Power,and Primacy.

References Duus, Peter (1998).The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea. University of California

Press. ISBN 0-52092-090-2. Schencking, J. Charles (2005). Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, And The Emergence Of The Imperial

Japanese Navy, 1868-1922. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4977-9. Jansen, Marius B. (2002).The Making of Modern Japan. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-6740-0334-9. Chamberlin, William Henry. Japan Over Asia, 1937, Little, Brown, and Company, Boston. Colliers (Ed.),The Russo-Japanese War , 1904, P.F. Collier & Son, New York. Kodansha Japan An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1993, Kodansha Press, Tokyo ISBN 4-06-205938-X Lone, Stewart. Japan's First Modern War: Army and Society in the Conflict with China, 1894 1895,1994, St.

Martin's Press, New York. Mutsu, Munemitsu. (1982). Kenkenroku(trans. Gordon Mark Berger). Tokyo: University of Toyko Press.

10-ISBN 0860083063/13-ISBN 9780860083061; OCLC 252084846 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ title/ kenkenroku-engl/ oclc/ 252084846)

Paine, S.C.M.The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 1895: Perception, Power, and Primacy,2003, CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, MA, 412 pp.

Sedwick, F.R. (R.F.A.).The Russo-Japanese War , 1909, The Macmillan Company, NY, 192 pp. Theiss, Frank.The Voyage of Forgotten Men, 1937, Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1st Ed., Indianapolis & New York. Warner, Dennis and Peggy.The Tide At Sunrise, 1974, Charterhouse, New York. Urdang, Laurence/Flexner, Stuart, Berg. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, College

Edition. Random House, New York, (1969).
http://www.worldcat.org/title/kenkenroku-engl/oclc/252084846http://www.worldcat.org/title/kenkenroku-engl/oclc/252084846http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mutsu_Munemitsuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-6740-0334-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marius_Jansenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-8047-4977-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-52092-090-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.steelnavy.com/HasegawaMikasa.htmhttp://www.steelnavy.com/HasegawaMikasa.htmhttp://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027j/throwing_off_asia_01/punch.htmlhttp://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=950DEEDE1531E033A25753C3A9619C94659ED7CFhttp://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=950DEEDE1531E033A25753C3A9619C94659ED7CFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_domainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_domainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg


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Filmography Dugo sa Kapirasong LupaA 1930- Philippine film Saka no ue no kumo(2009) Deng Sichang: The Martyr -A chinese film about the battle in yellow sea.

Further reading Military Heritage did an editorial on the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 (Brooke C. Stoddard, Military Heritage,

December 2001, Volume 3, No. 3).

External links " " Peter Perdue

(http:/ / ncn. org/ view.php?id=74846)(Chinese) Detailed account of the naval Battle of the Yalu River (http:/ / www.navyandmarine. org/ ondeck/

1894YaluBattle. htm) by Philo Norton McGiffen

Under the Dragon Flag My Experiences in the Chino-Japanese War by James Allan'at Project Gutenberg Print exhibition at MIT (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ ans7870/ 21f/ 21f. 027/ throwing_off_asia_02/ index. html) The Sinking of the Kowshing Captain Galsworthy's Report (http:/ / www.russojapanesewar. com/ galsworthy.

html) SinoJapaneseWar.com A detailed account of the Sino-Japanese War (http:/ / SinoJapaneseWar. com)
http://sinojapanesewar.com/http://www.russojapanesewar.com/galsworthy.htmlhttp://www.russojapanesewar.com/galsworthy.htmlhttp://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/throwing_off_asia_02/index.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project_Gutenberghttp://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16407http://www.navyandmarine.org/ondeck/1894YaluBattle.htmhttp://www.navyandmarine.org/ondeck/1894YaluBattle.htmhttp://ncn.org/view.php?id=74846http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_Heritagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deng_Sichang:_The_Martyrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saka_no_ue_no_kumohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dugo_sa_Kapirasong_Lupa


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