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ABSTRACT
This study is intended to investigate the comparison of mental toughness between male and
female UiTM student and the demographic variables that influence it. In addition, the study
seeks to explore possible effects of gender and age on mental toughness. A total of 66
participants that study in UiTM shah alam completed demographic information and the Mental
Toughness Questionnaire. Results revealed significant main effects for both gender and age.
Analysis revealed that mental toughness ratings were higher more for female, and that mental
toughness generally increased with age.
The main limitation of the study is the sample regarding this study can only be generalized to the
population of UiTM student Athletes from the UiTM Shah Alam, who have represented their
school, state, national and international in sport competitions in Malaysia, and chosen for the
study and may not typify other populations of athletes from other states in Malaysia. Then, the
use of a written rather than an oral survey technique might have limited the responses given by
the participants. Further, participants’ responses were registered on Likert-type scales and this
might have constrained their choice of answers. It also limited their opinion or freedom to state
other factors that influence their use of coping strategies. Besides that, responses given by the
participants were self-reported responses. This suggests that increased exposure to significant life
events may have a positive developmental effect on mental toughness. The results of the study
would suggest that mental toughness can be developed through appropriate training
programmed.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am extremely grateful and owe a great debt to my supervisor, madam Ani Mazlina Dewi bt
Mohamed. You have all been a great source of knowledge and encouragement. I thank you for
your tremendous support and guidance through this process. You always found the time to
answer my endless questions, give direction or just calm me down. I thank you for your
assistance throughout this entire process, but mostly for helping me get it started. You motivated
me to “just get going” and I thank you for that. Your knowledge and experience was invaluable
on this project, not to mention thanks to Amarlina and Mohd Azrul that assist and teach me how
to use spss. Finally, I would like to thank the UiTM students that participated in this study. This
study could not have been completed without yours valuable experiences and insight into mental
toughness. Thank you all very much!
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CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
Athletes and coaches continuously search for knowledge that is going to give them a competitive
edge and make them successful. Researchers usually find that many factors contribute to athletic
success. Of course, physical fitness and athletic ability are obvious parts of that list, but another
characteristic that frequently surfaces when these top notch athletes and programs are studied is
mental toughness (Duda, 2001). The present study evaluated the importance of mental
toughness in ensuring the success of UiTM Athletes.
1.1.1 Definition of Mental Toughness
Mental toughness is the attitude that makes a successful person willing to do what it takes to get
the job done (Roy, 2007). It takes more than relaxation, visualization, meditation and other quick
fix self-improvement techniques to achieve success. For the most part this is true and adopting
the attitude of "You don't have to like it you just have to do it" is at least at the beginning a
substantial key to success in most areas. This may be a little simplistic but overall it is a working
definition of mental toughness.
Athletes are constantly under severe levels of stress and anxiety to perform well. They fight for
every inch and often put their bodies through excruciating pain to secure a win. If you are able to
maintain mental toughness then success will be yours. Mental toughness is clearly vital to
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combating pre-performance anxiety and athletic success. Getting mentally tough does not mean
bulking up your biceps to appear bigger, meaner, or stronger. It is not even about adopting a
killer instinct. Instead, getting mentally tough means gain the confidence that will pull you
through any situation (Golby, 2003).
Mental Toughness is a concept that has been given a lot of attention in sport psychology in the
last few years. It tends to be associated with some kind of ability to cope with pressure, or
resiliency. Mental toughness is many things and rather difficult to explain. Its qualities are
sacrifice and self-denial. Also, most importantly it is combined with a perfectly disciplined will
that refuses to give in.
1.1.2 Different definitions of mental toughness by other researchers
According to Jones (2002) mental toughness is having the natural or developed psychological
edge that enables you to generally cope better than your opponents with the many demands (for
example, competition, training, lifestyle) that are placed on you as a performer and specifically,
to be more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused,
confident, resilient, and in control under pressure. He also cited the key psychological
characteristics associated with mentally tough elite athletes. That is self-belief means having an
unshakable belief in your ability to achieve competition goals and unique qualities that make you
better than your opponents. Second are motivation means having an insatiable desire and
internalized motivation to succeed (you really got to want it) and ability to bounce back from
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performance setbacks with increased determination to succeed. Third is focus means that remain
fully focused on the task at hand in the face of competition-specific distractions, able to switch
focus on and off as required and not being adversely affected by others performance or your own
internal distractions (worry, negative mind chatter). And lastly is composure or handling pressure
means that are able to regain psychological control following unexpected events or distractions,
thriving on the pressure of competition (embracing pressure, stepping into the moment) and
accept that anxiety is inevitable in competition and know you can cope with it.
Roy (2007) has his own perception on mental toughness. He said that the mentally tough
competitor is self-motivated and self-directed. He/she does not need to be pushed from outside as
he is controlled from within. The player is in total control of his emotions. He/she is positive and
realistic about his/her goals and success. The individual is generally calm and relaxed under
pressure situations. The person is also mentally alert, focused, confident and responsible for his
actions. He is ready for action, usually energetic and determined. In his writing he also state the
fundamental areas of mental toughness are self-confidence, self-motivation, energy control,
positive energy control, attention control, visual or imagery skills and attitude control.
Researcher believes that the successful of the team is not depending only on physically but it also
needs the mentally tough also (Kuan, 2007). This is because physically tough is not enough to
‘fight’ with the opponents. During the match mental toughness plays an important role in term of
to cope with the stress or pressure that comes from the opponents and as well as their spectator.
When they are mentally out, they cannot perform well in the match especially when the opponent
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has controlled the games. So this is important to have athletes who have mentally tough to
represent our country, Malaysia, to perform successfully in international competitions.
1.1.3 Effects of Pressure, Stress and Anxiety upon an Athlete
Stress is a state that results from the demands that are places on the individual which require that
person to engage in some coping behavior (Hodge, 1994). Anxiety results when the individual
doubts him or her ability to cope with the situation that causes him or her stress.
As the pressure to succeed and perform consistently over time increases, athletes continually add
both physical and emotional stress to their bodies. Mental toughness, or the ability to perform at
one’s optimal level regardless of circumstances, is consequentially a vital tool in helping one
cope with such strenuous situations (Duda, 2001) My study focuses upon an important premise
that a change in an athlete’s mental state is consciously or unconsciously accompanied by a
change in his physical state. If muscle tension occurs due to feelings of anxiety or worry, it
interferes with the athlete’s performance because the nerves are focused on the cause of tension
rather than the coordinated movement for muscles. Thus, the more tension in the body, the more
difficult it is to perform the coordinated actions.
Anxiety affects more than simply the physical aspect of an athlete (Jones, 2005). There are
accompanying physiological and psychological behavioural responses as nerves and anxieties
build about an upcoming performance (Jones, 2005). Reactions to this type of anxiety many be
either positive or negative (rarely both). With positive reactions called the “fight reaction” the
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person is excited about the test and thrives on the challenge. However, most people usually
experience the negative reaction or the “flight reaction.” In response to this reaction, athletes get
extremely nervous, to the point of nauseating, before a race and begin to focus primarily on the
negative aspects of the upcoming performance. They look for excuses for a potential poor
performance and thus, in effect, prepare themselves for one.
1.2 Background of the Study
This study is intended to investigate the comparison of mental toughness between male and
female UiTM student and the demographic variables that influence it. Mental toughness has
recently been suggested to be an important characteristic for athletic success by Golby & Sheard
(2004) and Loehr (1986). A growing body of research has identified mental skills that
distinguish between more and less successful performers across a number of sports, for example,
golf by Thomas & Over (1994), rodeo by Meyers, LeUnes, & Bourgeois (1996) and
equestrianism by Meyers, Bourgeois, LeUnes, & Murray (1998). It is reasonable to expect that
psychological attributes will distinguish between players operating at different levels of
performance. However, to date, there is scant evidence of the effects of such features on high
impact collision sports, exemplified by rugby league (Golby & Sheard, 2004).
To date, most researchers have relied on qualitative research paradigms to examine mental
toughness. For example, mental toughness characteristics have been investigated in athletes from
a variety of sports for example, Fourie & Potgieter, (2001); Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton,
(2007); Jones (2002) and specific sports like cricket for example, Bull, Shambrook, James, &
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Brooks, (2005) and soccer for example, Thellwell, Weston, & Greenlees (2005). The mental
toughness studies involving the cricketers and soccer players produced similar findings to those
by Fourie and Potgieter, alongside Jones (2002) with a strong emphasis placed on coping
effectiveness Thellwell (2005) and tough thinking by Bull (2005).
Based on this widely accepted conceptualization of coping in sport by Nicholls & Polman
(2007), believe that Jones (2002), Jones (2007) refer to mentally tough athletes as being able to
cope effectively by Bull (2005); Jones (2002, 2007); Thellwell (2005). However, these studies do
not state whether mentally tough athletes differ in the actual coping strategies employed, in
comparison to athletes that are not mentally tough. Khoshaba and Maddi (1999) have suggested
that hardy people are more likely to show problem or approach based coping behavior when
faced with a stressful situation. However, little is known about the specific coping strategies that
mentally tough athletes may, or may not use in comparison to less mentally tough athletes
(Nicholls et al., 2008).
A study published by Gould, Hodge, Peterson and Petlichkoff (1987), explored the psychological
foundations of collegiate wrestling coaches. The study indicated that over 90% of the coaches
felt that sport psychology could assist them in their coaching. 82% of the coaches considered
mental toughness as the most important psychological attribute in determining wrestling success.
This lack of clarity and lack of advancement in the construct is noteworthy since mental
toughness is one of the most important psychological attributes necessary for attaining
excellence in sport.
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Gould, Eklund, and Jackson (1993) studied the coping strategies used by 20 members of United
State National team 1988 Olympic wrestling team. Their findings revealed that the difference
between the medal winning and non-medal winning wrestlers was that the medalists’ coping
strategies were more internalized and automatized than the strategies of the non-medalists. This
finding was significant because it distinguished between successful and unsuccessful athletes
whose levels of achievement were related to the development of psychological skills.
1.3 Problem Statement
According to Jones (2002), mentally tough performers are disciplined thinkers who respond to
pressure in ways which enable them to remain feeling relaxed, calm and energized because they
have the ability to increase their flow of positive energy in crisis and adversity. They also have
the right attitudes regarding problems, pressure, mistakes and competition.
The lack of mental toughness is often highlighted as a top reason why athletes and teams do not
reach their full potential and the highest possible level of success (Jones, 2002). Athletes
frequently struggle with the mental aspect of sport and many coaches question how to teach and
enhance this skill (Jones, 2002). It is easy to play mind games when you play sports. No matter
how much you practice, you always have to contend with your greatest enemy: your mind that
asks that unanswered question "what if?"
However lack of mental preparation will contribute to an athlete’s failure in competitions (Roy,
2007). Most of the failure in competitions is caused by athletes not being mentally tough to face
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the pressure from the opponents as well as their spectators (Roy, 2007) Different genders may
also different levels of mental toughness at the same level in competitions. As we know
generally male have more strength in terms of physically appearance. But this does not mean that
males also have mental toughness to cope with stress or pressure in competitions. Therefore, the
present study was aimed at investigating the comparison of mental toughness between male and
female UiTM student Athletes.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The main objectives of this research are:
1. To compare the strength of mental toughness between male and female UiTM student
athletes.
2. To examine the impact of demographic variables of gender, age, ethnicity, educational
background, level of involvement and years of participation on mental toughness.
1.5 Research Hypothesis
Based on the research background and statement of the problem, the following hypotheses were
stated.
1. There is no significant difference between male and female in terms of mental toughness
in UiTM student athletes.
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2. There is no significant difference in mental toughness of UiTM student Athletes by age.
3. There is no significant difference in mental toughness of UiTM student Athletes by
ethnicity.
4. There is no significant difference in mental toughness of UiTM student Athletes by
educational background
5. There is no significant difference in mental toughness of UiTM student Athletes by level
of involvement.
6. There is no significant difference in mental toughness of UiTM student Athletes by years
of participation.
1.6 Significance of Study
The significance of this study as a below:-
The major significance of the present study is to obtain data on the use of mental toughness by
UiTM student Athletes. In particular, data has be collected and analyzed on the use of mental
toughness by male and female UiTM student Athletes. It also has make recommendations for
UiTM coaches on how to improve the mental toughness of their athletes. Recommendations also
are made regarding areas of further research on the application of mental toughness in Malaysia.
1.7 Limitations and Delimitations of the study
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There are a number of limitations and delimitations that will affect the current study and are
described below.
1.7.1 Delimitations
This study was delimited in the ways outlined below.
1. The scope of this study was narrowed to UiTM student Athletes from the UiTM Shah Alam.
2. The study was confined to a selected group of UiTM student Athletes from the faculty of
education and faculty of sport science and recreation, who volunteered to participate in the
study.
3. Analysis of individual levels of respondents’ usage of mental toughness will be limited to
responses to as measured by mental toughness test.
4. The results of the study will be limited to UiTM student Athletes from the UiTM Shah Alam,
who has represented the school, state, national and international in different sport
competitions including hockey, football, netball, volleyball and rugby.
1.7.2 Limitations
The following limitations existed in this study:
1. The study used convenience sampling and consisted of volunteers made up of UiTM
student Athletes from the UiTM Shah Alam, who have represented their school, state,
national and international in sport competitions in Malaysia.
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2. UiTM student Athletes who responded to the questionnaire, did so voluntarily and was
not pressurized to do so.
3. Conclusions regarding this study can only be generalized to the population of UiTM
student Athletes from the UiTM Shah Alam, who have represented their school, state,
national and international in sport competitions in Malaysia, and chosen for the study and
may not typify other populations of athletes from other states in Malaysia.
4. The use of a written rather than an oral survey technique might have limited the
responses given by the participants. Further, participants’ responses were registered on
Likert-type scales and this might have constrained their choice of answers. It also limited
their opinion or freedom to state other factors that influence their use of coping strategies.
5. Responses given by the participants were self-reported responses.
1.8 Definition of Terms
1. Mental Toughness- Mental toughness is having the natural or developed
psychological edge that enables you to:
a) Generally, cope better than your opponents with the many demands (e.g.,
competition, training, and lifestyle) that are placed on you as a performer
b) Specifically, to be more consistent and better than your opponents in
remaining determined, focused, confident, resilient, and in control under pressure
(Jones, Hanton & Connaughton, 2002).
1.9 Research Framework
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The conceptual framework for the research is presented in Figure 1.1 below. The two main
variables investigated under the present research were mental toughness and demographic factor
such as gender, age, ethnicity, occupation, years of participation in sport, level of education,
level of involvement in sport and types of sport.
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Figure 1.1: The conceptual framework for the study.
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DEMOGRAPHICVARIABLES
Gender Age Ethnicity Educational Background Occupation Years of participation in sport Level of involvement in sport Types of sport
MENTAL TOUGHNESS
Rebound ability Ability to handle pressure Ability to stay focused Ability to stay confident Ability to stay motivated
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter reviewed the relevant literature on mental toughness and its impact on athletic
performance. It also reviewed the impact of demographic variables of gender, age, educational
background and marital status on mental toughness.
2.1 Introduction of Mental Toughness
Age, gender and level of competition effects on mental toughness have theoretical,
practical, and methodological implications. Unfortunately there is a complete dearth of research
that examines the effect of these variables on mental toughness. Therefore, predictions about the
effect of age, gender and level of competition are proposed guided by the extensively researched
construct physical self-concept. Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton (1976) hypothesised that self
concept becomes more differentiated with age.
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Marsh (1990; Marsh, Barnes, Cairns, & Tidman 1984) expanding the Shavelson et al.
hypothesis, proposed that self-concepts of very young children are consistently high but that with
increasing life experience children learn their relative strengths and weaknesses so that mean
levels of self-concept decline, individual self-concept becomes more differentiated, and self-
concept becomes more highly correlated with external indicators of competence (e.g., skills and
accomplishments). Markus and Wurf (1987) noted that the structure of self depends on both the
information available to an individual and the cognitive ability to process this information. .
(Simon C. Middleton, Herb W. Marsh, Andrew J. Martin, Garry E. Richards, and Clark Perry, 2005).
How does mental toughness vary with age? In a review of age effects on self-concept,
Marsh (1989; Marsh & Craven, 1997) found systematic increases in self-concept during late
adolescent and early adult years based on responses to global self-esteem scales in large,
nationally representative samples. For mental toughness, systematic increases are also expected
for the 12 characteristics of mental toughness. Factors that particularly rely on experience are
proposed to be most significantly affected by age (i.e., task familiarity, self-efficacy, stress
minimization, mental self-concept). It has been shown that psychological aspects of gender, such
as gender roles, influence the ways women and men cope with stress (e.g., Gianakos, 2000;
2002).
In a study on gender effects on coping strategies in late adolescents, Kimberly and Renk
(2003) found that females used emotion-focused coping strategies more than males. Other
research shows that females tend to use behavioral coping (e.g., taking direct and positive actions
to deal with problems) more actively than males (Fielden & Davidson, 2001). Similarly,
Gianakos (2000, 2002) found that women were more likely than men to use direct action coping
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to deal with stress by working longer and harder. Alternatively, self-concept research reports
large between-group gender effects on physical self concept (Marsh, 1998), such that males rated
themselves higher on physical self-concept than females. Examining gender-based variations in
mental toughness, therefore, may offer important insights for developing programs that address
the needs of male and female athletes. (Simon C. Middleton, Herb W. Marsh, Andrew J. Martin,
Garry E. Richards, and Clark Perry, 2005).
2.2 Definition of Mental Toughness
According to Jones (2002) mental toughness, centres on being, determined resilient, staying in
control and remaining focused in the face of pressure. They also listed some characteristics of
mentally tough elite athletes, namely self-belief, motivation, focus and composure, or ability to
handle pressure.
According to Jones (2002) mental toughness is doing whatever is necessary to get the job done
including handling the demands of a tough workout, withstanding pain, or touching an opponent
out at the end of a race.
The best of the best athletes can choke, slump, and underachieve and fail if they focus on the
wrong things, are unable to let go of setbacks, errors, and mental mistakes, lack of self-
confidence, have difficulty handling performance pressure, fear failure, have unrealistic
expectations and experience competitive anxiety (Lynch, 2007). Leaving the mental side of
performance to chance makes you more susceptible to performance problems such as psych-outs,
choking, slumps and mental blocks. To be more self-confident and achieve peak performance,
you must learn to use the power of sports psychology and mental toughness (Lynch, 2007).
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According to Lynch (2007) mentally tough people have ‘‘a high sense of self-belief and an
unshakeable faith that they control their own destiny, these individuals can remain relatively
unaffected by competition and adversity.” According to Ray (2003), a writer for Stadion News, a
training newsletter for elite athletes, mental toughness is, “control of emotions and behavior,
quality of concentration, and endurance to stress”. Brenden (2005 cited in Yukelson, 2005), a
member of Penn State University’s Women’s Basketball team, states that “Mental toughness is
not being affected by anything but what’s going on in the game or competition no matter what
coaches, other players, or referees are doing. It is being able to block out what is not important”.
Although this list of printed definitions from people involved in sport continues to grow and
encompass more and more, the most accepted definition, to date, comes from one of the few
quality scientific studies conducted regarding mental toughness (Rodriguez, 2005). The ideas of
some of the world’s top performers were combined in a study by Jones, Hanton and
Connaughton (2002), to create this definition, “Mental toughness is having the natural or
developed psychological edge that enables you to:
i) Generally cope better than your opponents with the many demands that sport
places on the performer, and
ii) Specifically, be more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining
Determined, focused, confident, and in control under pressure,”
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2.3 Characteristic of mental toughness
According to Ray (2003) the fundamental areas of mental toughness are:
2.3.1 Self-Confidence
It is a way of feeling. One can develop self-confidence with practice. The key
ingredient is belief in self. You develop self-confidence by elevation of self-image,
learning to stay calm, goal setting, positive thinking, self-discipline and reviewing
performance.
2.3.2 Self-Motivation
It is a source of positive energy. It helps to endure pain, discomfort and self-sacrifice.
To overcome low self-motivation, set meaningful long-term goals, commit the goals
on a training book, keep a daily record, associate with self-motivated players, enjoys
the activity.
2.3.3 Negative Energy Control
It is controlling negative emotions like fear, anger, envy, frustration and temper.
Performance with negative energy results in inconsistency. To overcome negative
energy, increase awareness, psycho, regulation, physical exercise and stimulate
competitive situations.
2.3.4 Positive Energy Control
It is the ability to become energized with joy, determination and team spirit. It helps
players to maintain the required arousal level to achieve peak performance. To
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overcome low positive energy control, increase awareness, develop enthusiasm, start
feeling good and ensure physical fitness.
2.3.5 Attention Control
It is the ability to tune what is important and what is not important. Improve calming
and quieting skills, time awareness, get the positive energy flowing and concentration
training.
2.3.6 Visual/Imagery Skills
It is process of creating pictures or images in mind (Example thinking in pictures) this
is one of the most powerful techniques to develop mental toughness as it is the
connecting link between the mind and body. To overcome low visual/imagery skills-
practice visualization with all the senses, ensure internal calmness, use photographs
and start rehearsing mentally in advance.
2.3.7 Attitude Control.
It is a reflection of the player's habits of thoughts. The right attitude produces
emotional control and right flow of energy. To overcome low attitude control,
identify positive and negative attitudes. Positive affirmation reinforces positive
attitude, keep records and have a vision or commitment.
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Some attributes of a mentally tough athlete listed in the existing literature include: total self-
belief, confidence, focus, control, self-imaging, discipline, motivation and composure (Arnold,
2004; Clough & Earle, 2002; Poczwardowski, 1998). Jones (2002) study resulted in a list of 12
attributes of mental toughness and included:-
1. Having an unshakable self-belief in your ability to achieve your competition goals.
2. Bouncing back from performance set-backs as a result of increased determination to
succeed.
3. Having an unshakable self-belief that you possess unique qualities and abilities that
make you better than your opponents.
4. Having an insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed.
5. Remaining fully focused on the task at hand in the face of competition specific
distractions.
6. Regaining psychological control following unexpected, uncontrollable events.
7. Pushing back the boundaries of physical and emotional pain, while still maintaining
technique and effort under distress in training and competition.
8. Accepting that competition anxiety is inevitable and knowing that you can cope with
it.
9. Not being adversely affected by others’ good and bad performances.
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10. Thriving on the pressure of competition.
11. Remaining fully-focused in the face of personal life distractions.
12. Switching a sport focus on and off as required.
2.4 Reversal Theory of Mental Toughness
Reversal Theory (Apter, 2002) provides a structure for understanding human experience that is
based on 8 motivational states below organized into 4 oppositional pairs. 4 pairs are serious and
playful, conforming and rebellious, sympathy and mastery, and self and other. All of this pairs
means ‘serious’ state, staying focused on the primary goal, ‘playful’ state finding enjoyment in
intense competition, and staying in the moment, ‘conforming’ state staying within the rules of
the game, accepting decisions, ‘rebellious’ state able to adapt when things aren’t going to plan,
‘mastery’ state, being determined, tough and competitive, ‘sympathy’ state remaining aware of
yours or team-mates emotional needs, taking care of your body, ‘self oriented’ state, focusing in
on your own performance, ‘other oriented’ state, doing what’s right for the team
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Figure 1.2: A schematic diagram of Reversal Theory
Motivational Richness: The more of all of the motivational states that you experience, the more
satisfied or happy you will tend to be.
Motivational Versatility: The ability to change motivational states to match the demands of the
situation is the key to being more effective
Indeed, a therapeutic method based on Reversal Theory called the “8 Rooms” technique, that by
imagining, drawing, or describing eight different rooms, each associated with one of the
motivational states, has been developed and used with mental health patients in France. Use of
the 8 Rooms technique has led to reductions in anxiety and depression.
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2.5 Gender factor
According to Roy (2007) females consistently report themselves lower than males on
characteristics of mental toughness. Age also positively effects mental toughness characteristics
self-efficacy, task familiarity, stress minimization, mental self-concept, positivity and task focus.
Between-group differences due to gender and age are largely consistent with predictions based
on previous research.
2.6 Summary
According to past research, many factors can contribute to failure in some sport, especially when
the athletes are not mentally tough and prepared to challenge their opponents. From the literature
review, the research focused on how mental toughness have affected and influenced the
successful performance in sport, such as, rugby and football. However, the current research
focused on comparison of mental toughness between genders. The mental part of sport is
investigated by participants and coaches much more than in the past, and sports psychology is
becoming more prevalent in today’s society (Rodriguez, 2005).
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Chapter three describes the methodology used in the present study. Methodology is a description
of the procedure employed in order to achieve the objective of the study. It covers the accuracy
and the quality of the research finding by using an appropriate questionnaire, research sampling
technique and data analysis method in order to developed relevant valid and also reliable
research finding. This research is focused on “Comparison of Mental Toughness between male
and female UiTM student athletes” and also other important variables including age, ethnicity,
marital status and educational background that impact on it. The purpose of the study was to
investigate the differences of mental toughness between male and female athletes at the same
level of competition.
1. Research Design
2. Data Collection
3. Instrumentation
4. Sampling Technique
5. Data Analysis
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3.2 Research Design
This study will be done by using quantitative research method. A questionnaire was used as the
instrument in this study. The data from the respondent were collected through the administration
of the questionnaire to all the respondents to complete. The population in this study is the UiTM
student athletes. The questionnaire consisted of two sections. Section A consisted of Mental
Toughness test from Goldberg (2007) (30 questions) and section B consisted of demographic
data of respondents (8 questions)
3.3 Sample and sampling
The sample consisted of 66 UiTM student Athletes selected by convenience sampling. They
comprised of 39 male and 27 female athletes. Their age range was from 17 to 32 years-old.
3.4 Instrumentation
The instrument used for the study was the Goldberg (2007) Mental Toughness questionnaire. For
an example, of the questionnaire used for the study, refer to Appendix I. The questionnaire
consisted of two sections, Section A and Section B.
Section A: Mental Toughness Test (30 questions)
Section A comprised of 30 questions that dealt with mental toughness. Respondents were
instructed to register their responses using 5-point Likert-scale, ranging from ‘1’ (Strongly
Disagree) to ‘5’ (Strongly Agree).
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Specifically it measured the aspects of mental toughness as below.
1) Rebound ability (an example of an item was “I frequently worry about mistakes”).
2) Ability to Handle Pressure (an example of an item was “I do my best when there more
pressure on me”).
3) Ability to Stay Focused (an example of an item was “The coach yelling knocks me off
my game”).
4) Ability to Stay Confident (an example of an item was “One or two failure do not shake
my confidence”).
5) Ability to Stay Motivated (an example of an item was “I get more motivated after
failures and setbacks”)
Section B: Demographic profile (8 questions)
Section B, comprised of 8 questions covering the demographic profile of respondents.
Respondents were instructed to select each of the responses to the 8 questions as appropriate.
3.5 Data Collection
Questionnaires were distributed to all the respondents during their training session to complete.
A brief session was held by the researcher to explain to respondents on how to complete the
questionnaire. . The session also allowed the respondents the opportunity to ask questions for
clarification about any aspect of the questionnaire. The questionnaires were collected
immediately after the respondents completed them.
27
3.6 Data Analysis
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 12.0 was used to analyse the data from the
questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data and also for
hypotheses testing. The independent sample t-test will be use in order to determine the
comparison between two variables
28
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to analyze all the data from the questionnaires that been
distributed, percentage of the respondents who answered each question can be determined. The
quantitative analysis was conducted in order to investigate the use of mental toughness among
Selangor State athletes. The Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 14.0 was a
tool that was used to interpret the data. The types of tests used to analyze the data were t-test and
ANOVA. T-test was used to determine the impact of gender on mental toughness and ANOVA
was used to determine the influence of five demographic factors of athletes such as age, level of
education, years of participation, ethnicity and level of involvement in sport on mental
toughness.
29
4.2 Section A: Demographics
Table 4.1: Frequency and percentage on demographic profile
Demographic Frequency Percentage1. Gender: Male
Female3927
5941
2. Age: 18- 22 years old 23- 27 years old 28- 32 years old
23421
34642
3. Type of sport: Handball Football Volleyball Netball Hockey Rugby Athletic Others
8164947513
1224613610719
4. Level of education: Primary Secondary Tertiary
0066
00
1005. Years of participation: 1 years
2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years and above
0451047
0671571
6. Ethnicity: Malay Chinese Indian Others
66000
100000
7. Occupation: Student Working
660
1000
8. Level of involvement: School University State National International
51829131
72743191
30
Table 4.1 shows the demographic profile of the respondents for the study. From Table 4.1, it can
be observed that 59 percent (39 athletes) of the overall respondents were males and 41 percent
(27 athletes) were females. Based on Table 4.1 the highest percentage of age was 64 percent (42
respondents) were between 23- 27 years old, 34 percent or 23 of the respondents were those age
between 18- 22 years old, and the lowest percentage of age was between 28- 32 years old, which
represented 2 percent or 1 respondents. From Table 4.1 it can be seen that 6 percent of
respondents (4 respondents) participated in volleyball. Netball was played by 13 percent of
respondents represent 9 respondents. The respondents who played football represented 24
percent of the total or represent 16 respondents. The respondents who played other sports
including cricket, lawn ball, softball and tennis were 19 percent and represented 13 respondents.
Hockey players represented 6 percent or 4 respondents. Handball players were 12 percent and
represented 8 respondents. The respondents who participated in rugby were 10 percent or 7
respondents. And lastly respondents whom took part in athletic were 7 percent or 5 respondents.
Table 4.1 shows that 100 percent of the respondents were in tertiary education (diploma, degree,
master, PhD) and this percentage represented 66 respondents. Table 4.1 shows that 47
respondents had participate in sport for 5 years and above and it represented 71 percent. The
second ranking was 15 percent which presented 10 respondents who had participated in sport 4
years. Next were 5 respondents or 7 percent, who were had participated in sport for 3 years. The
second lowest ranking was 6 percent ant it represented 4 respondents who had taken part in sport
for 2 years.
31
Referring to percentage shown in Table 4.1, all of the respondents were Malays which were 66
respondents and represented 100 percent. From Table 4.1 it can observe that 100 percent of the
respondents were still studying and it represented 66 respondents. Table 4.1, shows that 43
percent of the respondents were State athletes or 29 respondents. 13 respondents were national
level athletes and represented 19 percent. International level athletes were 2 percent and
represented 1 respondent. Then 27 percent were university level athletes and represented 18
respondents. Then those who represented only school level were 7 percent and represented 5
respondents.
32
4.2.1 Summary of respondent’s profile
The athletes’ demographic information is presented in Table 4.1. It shows that majority of the
respondents were males (59%), 23- 27 years old (64%), football (24%), Malays (100%) and
students (100%).Table 4.1 also shows that all of the respondents were had a better education
with tertiary level of education (100%). Most respondents were had enough experienced based
on the 5 years and above (71%) years of participation in sport. As presented in Table 4.1, almost
half of the sample had competed at the State level in Malaysia (43%).
33
4.3 Hypothesis Testing
To test the hypothesis, the parametric test which is the independent sample t- test and one way
ANOVA were used to examine the influence of demographic factors of athletes such as age,
level of education, years of participation, ethnicity and level of involvement on the use of mental
toughness by UiTM student.
4.3.1: Hypothesis 1
Table 4.2: Means and standard deviations of mental toughness by gender
Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Mental
toughness
Male 39 3.3735 .20650 .03307
Female 27 3.5778 .43569 .08385
Table 4.2.1: One- way ANOVA by gender
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed)NewMT Equal
variances assumed
3.035 .086 -2.549 64 .013
Equal variances not assumed
-2.266 34.151 .030
Based on the result shown in Table 4.2.1, the study had found that there is no significant
difference in mental toughness of UiTM student by gender. Table 4.2.1 shows that the significant
value was 0.013 which is greater than alpha value 0.05, and it fails to reject Ho¹. That’s mean the
34
Ho¹ was accepted. There is no significant difference in mental toughness of UiTM student by
gender.
4.3.2: Hypothesis 2
Table 4.3.1: One- way ANOVA by age
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups .299 2 .150 1.362 .264
Within Groups 6.922 63 .110
Total 7.222 65
Based on Table 4.3.1, that there was no significant difference in mental toughness of UiTM
student by age because the significant value was 0.264 which was more than the alpha value of
0.05 and it failed to reject Ho².That means there is no significant difference in mental toughness
of UiTM student by age.
4.3.3: Hypothesis 3
For the hypothesis three, there is no table that can be compute from the anova because there is
only one group for the ethnicity that is only Malay group. That means there is no significant
difference in mental toughness of UiTM student by ethnicity.
4.3.4: Hypothesis 4
For the hypothesis four, there is no table that can be compute from the anova because there is
only one group for educational background that is only tertiary group. That means there is no
significant difference in mental toughness of UiTM student by educational background.
35
4.3.5: Hypothesis 5
Table 4.6.1: One- way ANOVA by level of involvement
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups .183 4 .046 .396 .811
Within Groups 7.039 61 .115
Total 7.222 65
Based on Table 4.6.1 the study found that there was no significant difference in mental
toughness of UiTM student by level of involvement in sport because the result was 0.811, which
is greater than alpha value 0.05. Means Ho5 fails to reject. This means that there was no
significant difference in mental toughness of UiTM student by level of involvement in sport.
4.3.6: Hypothesis 6
Table 4.7.1: One- way ANOVA by years of participation in sport
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups .213 3 .071 .628 .600
Within Groups 7.009 62 .113
Total 7.222 65
From Table 4.7.1, it can be seen that there was no significant difference in mental toughness of
UiTM student by years of participation in sport because the result shown in above was 0.60,
which is greater than alpha value 0.05. This failed to reject Ho6. So, there was no significant
difference in mental toughness of UiTM student by years of participation in sport.
36
4.3.7: Summary of hypothesis testing
From the result above, all the variables had greater than alpha value 0.05. That is gender, age,
ethnicity, level of involvement, years of participation and level of education had no significant
influence on mental toughness.
2.4 Characteristic of Mental Toughness
4.4.1 Reboundability by gender
Table 4.8: Means and standard deviations of reboundability by gender
Gender Mean N Std. Deviation
Male 3.2094 39 .37212
Female 3.6111 27 1.28685
Total 3.3737 66 .88485
Based on Table 4.8, the means of female (3.61) is higher than male (3.20) in reboundability. This
means that females have a greater mental toughness in terms of reboundability than males.
4.4.2 Reboundability by age
Table 4.9: Means and standard deviations of reboundability by age
Age Mean N Std. Deviation
18 to 22 3.7174 23 1.35814
23 to 27 3.1865 42 .38643
28 to 32 3.3333 1 .
Total 3.3737 66 .88485
Based on Table 4.9, it can be observe that the mean for 18 - 22 year olds was (3.71) and was
higher than the means for 23 -27 year olds (3.18) and 28- 32 year olds (3.3) in reboundability.
37
This means that athletes aged 18 - 22 years have a greater mental toughness in terms of
reboundability.
4.4.3 Ability to handle pressure by gender
Table 4.10: Means and standard deviations of ability to handle pressure by gender
Gender Mean N Std. Deviation
Male 3.4274 39 .40608
Female 3.5802 27 .30442
Total 3.4899 66 .37311
Based on Table 4.10, the study found that the means of female (3.58) was higher than male
(3.42) in the mental toughness of component of ability to handle pressure. This means that
female athletes have a greater mental toughness in terms of ability to handle pressure than male
athletes.
4.4.4 Ability to handle pressure by age
Table 4.11: Means and standard deviations of ability to handle pressure by age
Age Mean N Std. Deviation
18 to 22 3.5000 23 .40514
23 to 27 3.4762 42 .35986
28 to 32 3.8333 1 .
Total 3.4899 66 .37311
Based on Table 4.11, the study found that means of 28- 32 year olds (3.8) was higher than 18- 22
year olds (3.5) and 23- 27 years old (3.47) in the mental toughness component of ability to
handle pressure. This means that athletes aged 28 – 32 year olds have a greater mental toughness
in terms of ability to handle pressure by age.
38
4.4.5 Ability to stay focused by gender
Table 4.12: Means and standard deviations of ability to stay focused by gender
Gender Mean N Std. Deviation
Male 3.1068 39 .46278
Female 3.2037 27 .41688
Total 3.1465 66 .44387
Based on Table 4.12, the study found that the means of female (3.20) was higher than male
(3.10) in the mental toughness component of ability to stay focused. This means that female
athletes have a greater mental toughness in terms of ability to stay focused than male athletes.
4.4.6 Ability to stay focused by age
Table 4.13: Means and standard deviations of ability to stay focused by age
Age Mean N Std. Deviation
18 to 22 3.2464 23 .52192
23 to 27 3.0952 42 .39671
28 to 32 3.0000 1 .
Total 3.1465 66 .44387
As presented in Table 4.13, the study found that means of 18- 22 year olds is (3.24) higher than
23- 27 year olds (3.09) and 28- 32 year olds (3.00) in the mental toughness component of ability
to stay focused. This means that athletes aged 18 – 22 year olds have a greater mental toughness
in terms of ability to stay focused by age.
39
4.4.7 Ability to stay confident by gender
Table 4.14: Means and standard deviations of ability to stay confident by gender
Gender Mean N Std. Deviation
Male 3.2009 39 .38650
Female 3.5247 27 1.67415
Total 3.3333 66 1.11094
Based on Table 4.14, the study found that means of female (3.52) is higher than male (3.20) in
the mental toughness component of ability to stay confident by gender. This means that female
athletes have a greater mental toughness in terms of ability to stay confident rather than male
athletes.
4.4.8 Ability to stay confident by age
Table 4.15: Means and standard deviations of ability to stay confident by age
Age Mean N Std. Deviation
18 to 22 3.5870 23 1.79003
23 to 27 3.1944 42 .42598
28 to 32 3.3333 1 .
Total 3.3333 66 1.11094
As shown in Table 4.15, the study found that means of 18- 22 year olds is (3.58) was higher than
23- 27 year olds (3.19) and 28- 32 year olds (3.33) in the mental toughness component of ability
to stay confident. This means that athletes aged 18 – 22 year olds have a greater mental
toughness in terms of ability to stay confident by age.
40
4.4.9 Ability to stay motivated by gender
Table 4.16: Means and standard deviations of ability to stay motivated by gender
Gender Mean N Std. Deviation
Male 3.9231 39 .56175
Female 3.9691 27 .47824
Total 3.9419 66 .52582
Based on Table 4.16, the study found that the mean of female (3.96) was higher than male (3.92)
in the mental toughness component of ability to stay motivated. This means that female athletes
have a greater mental toughness in terms of ability to stay motivated than male athletes.
4.4.10 Ability to stay motivated by age
Table 4.17: Means and standard deviations of ability to stay motivated by age
Age Mean N Std. Deviation
18 to 22 3.6884 23 .68958
23 to 27 4.0794 42 .35734
28 to 32 4.0000 1 .
Total 3.9419 66 .52582
Based on Table 4.17, the study found that mean of 23- 27 years old is (4.07) higher than 18- 22
year olds (3.68) and 28- 32 year olds (4.00) in the mental toughness component of ability to stay
motivated by age. This means that athletes aged 23 – 27 years old have a greater mental
toughness in terms of ability to stay motivated by age.
CHAPTER FIVE
41
DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction
The objective of this study was to investigate the comparison of mental toughness between male
and female UiTM student. Furthermore, it examines the impact of demographic variables of
gender, age, ethnicity, educational background, years of participation in sport and level of
involvement in sport on mental toughness. Data of the study was collected through self-
administered questionnaire based on Mental Toughness test questionnaire originally developed
by Goldberg (2007). The sample was distributed to UiTM student.
The data collected was analyzed using SPSS version 16.0. One way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and independent sample t-test was used to test the hypotheses for the study. The
findings of the study were presented in the previous chapter. This chapter will deal with the
discussion of the finding, implications, suggestions and recommendations pertaining to the study.
The result show that all the variables had greater than alpha value 0.05. That is gender, age,
ethnicity, level of involvement, years of participation and level of education had no significant
influence on mental toughness. The results of this study show the rank-order of the components
based on their mean score of importance to mental toughness. Then the result for mental
toughness characteristic by gender shows that female have the greater mental toughness ability
than men in this study. From the reboundability, ability to handle pressure, ability to stay
focused, ability to stay confident, and ability to stay motivated. For the result for the mental
toughness characteristics by age, show that athletes aged 18 - 22 years have a greater mental
42
toughness in terms of reboundability. Then for the second characteristic show that athletes aged
28 – 32 year olds have a greater mental toughness in terms of ability to handle pressure by age.
Then for the third characteristics show that athletes aged 18 – 22 year olds have a greater mental
toughness in terms of ability to stay focused by age. Then for the fourth characteristics show that
athletes aged 18 – 22 year olds have a greater mental toughness in terms of ability to stay
confident by age. Then for the fifth characteristics show that athletes aged 23 – 27 years old have
a greater mental toughness in terms of ability to stay motivated by age.
Ability to stay confident as reported in this study, has direct parallels to “Self-belief in ability to
achieve competition goals” (Jones et al., 2002), “Self Confidence” (Loehr, 1986), and is quite
similar to “Confidence maintenance” (Fourie & Potgieter, 2001). Fourie and Potgieter’s (2001)
confidence maintenance factor refers to “the ability to reveal competence, self-confidence, and
attitude” (pg. 67). The common theme here is that mentally tough athletes require a genuine self-
belief in their ability to achieve in their sport. Ability to stay focused is another factor that has
direct parallels across studies of mental toughness. Jones et al., (2002) report the need for: 1)
remaining fully focused on the task at hand in the face of competition-specific distractions; 2)
remaining fully focused in the face of personal life distractions; and 3) switching a sport focus on
and off as required. Additionally, Fourie and Potgieter (2001) reported the need for high
cognitive skill, which they define as “the ability to concentrate, focus, think, make decisions and
analyse” (pg. 67). Loehr (1986) also included a factor called attention control, which was defined
as “the ability to sustain a continuous focus on the task at hand” (pg. 158). Taken together, the
research highlights the centrality of task-specific focus or attention on being mentally tough.
Mentally tough athletes are able to focus on the execution of the task whilst blocking out or not
being adversely affected by “distractions”.
43
44
5.2 Recommendations
5.2.1 Counselling Session
The team manager should provide counselling session to their athletes in order to decrease their
level of stress. Besides that, through this counselling session athletes can share their problems
with counsellor and this situation can make the athletes fell better after they share their problem
with others people. This can increase their mental toughness before tournaments.
5.2.2 Create athletes program
The management can create such event or program to increase level of self confidence among
their athletes. For example, sport and leisure program such as camping, team building and
workshop can make people feel better from stress because they can talk to each other and share
their problems, knowledge and information. This situation can give positive effect because the
athletes are out from their daily training session. The management can also create a friendly
match with other team or club to build self confidence and besides that it can also develop
athletes’ mental toughness before they compete in tournaments.
5.2.3 Athletes relation
One way to increase athlete’s mental toughness is to build good relations between coach and
athletes. With this situation the athletes have their opportunity to speak out their opinion and
comment about their game and also their coach as well.
45
5.2.4 Allow athletes to take part
One way to increase mental toughness is to increase the amount of self- confidence that an
athlete has to have during tournament. The athletes can feel they have a choice in what they are
doing, even if it is a small choice, is more likely to feel better about what they are doing and
what they have to do during their tournament and even in their training session. The management
also should give them opportunity to make decisions and give personal opinion based on their
own thinking.
5.2.5 Seminar and information about the importance of mental toughness
The management should provide seminar or workshop to their athletes and even their coach as
well in order to increase their mental toughness. During this seminar or workshop, information
can be given to the athletes and coach about mental toughness such as how to increase mental
toughness, the importance of mental toughness and why they should have mental toughness.
5.3 Suggestions for future research
The researcher hopes that this study can provide an impetus for future research studies in mental
toughness. While answering some of the questions about mental toughness research, it has
raised others that should be addressed with future research. Here are some recommendations that
could be considered for future research.
46
1. One of the key considerations in future research designs is to use a bigger sample size. For
example, around 200-300 respondents can give more reliability and validation for the data
analysis. Another consideration is to ensure an equitable number of males and females in the
so as to minimize gender bias in the results.
2. In this study demographic characteristic such as gender, age, types of sport, years of
participation in sport, ethnicity, occupation, level of involvement and level of education has
been study. For future research, other characteristic may be explored such as level of income,
sport background, and religious affiliation.
3. Interview and observation techniques to complement the quantitative analysis should be
considered in future research.
4. For the future research, the researcher should change the type of respondents from state
athletes to elite athletes. Besides that, for the future research the researcher should change the
location of the research from UiTM student only to all the states in Malaysia.
47
5.4 Conclusions
As a conclusion for this study, researcher conclude that there is no significant difference in
mental toughness of UiTM student by gender and the five demographic factors (age, level of
education, years of participation in sport, ethnicity and level of involvement in sport).
According to Roy (2007) females consistently report themselves lower than males on
characteristics of mental toughness. Age also positively effects mental toughness characteristics
self-efficacy, task familiarity, stress minimization, mental self-concept, positivity and task focus.
Between-group differences due to gender and age are largely consistent with predictions based
on previous research. Present study shows that UiTM student have a greater mental toughness in
terms of reboundability, ability to handle pressure, ability to stay focused, ability to stay
confidence and ability to stay motivated.
To date, most researchers have relied on qualitative research paradigms to examine mental
toughness. For example, mental toughness characteristics have been investigated in athletes from
a variety of sports e.g., Fourie & Potgieter, (2001); Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, (2007);
Jones (2002) and specific sports like cricket e.g., Bull, Shambrook, James, & Brooks, (2005) and
soccer e.g., Thellwell, Weston, & Greenlees, (2005). The mental toughness studies involving the
cricketers and soccer players produced similar findings to those by Fourie and Potgieter,
alongside Jones (2002) with a strong emphasis placed on coping effectiveness Thellwell (2005)
and tough thinking by Bull (2005).
48
Gould, Eklund, and Jackson (1993) studied the coping strategies used by 20 members of United
State National team 1988 Olympic wrestling team. Their findings revealed that the difference
between the medal winning and non-medal winning wrestlers was that the medalists’ coping
strategies were more internalized and automatized than the strategies of the non-medalists. This
finding was significant because it distinguished between successful and unsuccessful athletes
whose levels of achievement were related to the development of psychological skills.
Moreover, from this study we can see that mental toughness is an important to sustain or remain
successful in tournaments, because mental toughness is associated with level of self- confidence
of the athletes and predicts stress related to their problem before and during tournaments. A
future study can examine mental toughness within elite athletes in Malaysia. The studies related
to mental toughness among UiTM student athletes can help guide both the athletes and the coach
as well.
49
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APPENDICES
53
