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Importance of Fire
Part of Earth’s History
– Fire first arrived on the planet
sometime between 450-400 million
years ago.
– It is generally accepted that Fire
has been utilized by people since
~ 0.5 million years ago
(Homo erectus)
– Past and present: Used for
extermination, cooking, light,
warmth, hunting, ecological
manipulation.
http://sdominko.tripod.com/geology.htm
Importance of Fire
Aboriginal Cultural Use
• Used to drive off insects/
smoke out bees
• Used to alter wildlife
populations (hunting) –
herding and driving
animals up from the
ground
• Used to attract certain
wildlife species with post-
fire vegetation
- Historically important for ecosystem management.
Lafonzo Rahal Carter/San Bernardino Sun
Importance of Fire
Aboriginal Cultural Use
• Used for “ecological
cleansing”
• Used to assist with the
harvest of nuts (e.g.
acorns in California)
• Used to promote certain
plant species (e.g. those
with serotinous cones)
• Used to keep forests
open and ‘fruitful’
- Historically important for ecosystem management.
Photo by Jan Laoechell Turner
Photo by Joseph A. Carr
Importance of Fire
Aboriginal Cultural Use
• Fire was used to reduce the danger of wildfire.
• The fundamental logic of Aboriginal burning was:
– Burn Early, Light, and Often
• In general fire was used to manipulate the landscape
– Fire was introduced to new ecosystems
Photo by B.A. Blackwell & Associates
Importance of Fire
Role in Natural Ecosystem Processes
– Promotes native fire-
adapted plants
– encourages seed
germination, flowering,
and resprouting.
– Results in changes in soil
nutrients and microbial
activity
– Directly recycles carbon
from vegetation.
Photo by B.A. Blackwell & Associates http://www.depiazzi.com.au/soil_mixes.html
Importance of Fire
Role in Natural Ecosystem Processes
– Changes the patterns of water runoff
– Changes water storage
• Reduction of canopy interception and root uptake.
– Changes in stream ecology
Photo by Bob Gray Photo by Arthur Mostead
Importance of Fire
Role in Natural Ecosystem Processes
– Alters forest stand composition, structure and density.
• Creates openings for new regeneration
Photo by B.A. Blackwell & Associates
Importance of Fire
Role in Natural Ecosystem Processes
– Changes in landscape and vegetation alter habitat for
certain wildlife species.
Photo by B.A. Blackwell & Associates
Photo by B.A. Blackwell & Associates
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Importance of Fire
Ecological role in British Columbia
• BC has highly
variable
natural
ecosystem
types.
• Fire plays a
variety of
roles across
the province.
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
These BEC zones have been used to classify
the province into five Natural Disturbance
Types (NDT):
1. Ecosystems with rare stand-initiating events
2. Ecosystems with infrequent stand-initiating events
3. Ecosystems with frequent stand-initiating events
4. Ecosystems with frequent stand-maintaining fires
5. Alpine tundra and subalpine parkland
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
© 2007, Province of British Columbia
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
NDT1: Ecosystems with rare stand-
initiating events
– BEC zones: CWH, ICH, ESSF, MH
– Disturbances (e.g. fire) are
generally small and result in
irregular edge configurations.
– Mean disturbance return interval: ~250
years (CWH and ICH) or ~350 years
(ESSF and MH)
Photo by Alex Inselberg
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
NDT2: Ecosystems with infrequent
stand-initiating events
– BEC zones: CWH,CDF,ICH, SBS,
ESSF, SWB
– Wildfires of moderate size –
some unburned areas generally
remain.
– Mean disturbance return interval: ~200
years
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Bro/bro61.pdf
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
NDT3: Ecosystems with frequent
stand-initiating events
– BEC zones: SWBS, SBPS, BWBS, SBS,
MS, ESSF, ICH, CWH
– Largest fires occur here! Usually
patches of unburned forest which
result in a mosaic on the landscape.
– Mean disturbance return interval: ~100
years (CWH, SBPS, BWBS) or ~125 years
(SBS, BWBS) or ~150 years (ESSF, ICH,
MS)
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Bro/
bro53.pdf
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
NDT4: Ecosystems with frequent
stand-maintaining fires
– BEC zones: IDF, BG, PP
– Frequent low-intensity fires
resulting in grasslands and
open woodlands. – Mean disturbance return interval:
~4-50 years (surface fires in the PP,
IDF) or ~150-250 years (stand-
initiating crown fire in the PP, IDF)
Photo by Alex Inselberg
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
NDT5: Alpine tundra and
subalpine parkland
– BEC zones: ESSF, MH, AT
– Fire is infrequent in
these areas but an
have a dramatic effect
(weakening or killing
plants)
For more information refer to these websites:
NDT: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/biodiv/biotoc.htm
BEC: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/becweb/index.html
Photo by Gunter Marx
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
Natural Disturbance Types (NDT):
– Advantages of this system
• Simply need to look up what BEC zone and variant you
are in to know what NDT you are in.
• Literature is easily accessible
– Disadvantages of this system
• Based on many generalizations (BEC is largely based on
elevation and fire is not limited by elevational change)!
• Management recommendations in the literature are broad
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
An alternative to the NDTs has been used…
– Historical Natural Fire Regime (HNFR) and
Condition Class (CC):
• HNFR: The fire regimes exhibited prior to the
onset of European settlement but during the
current climatic regimes (Brown 2000).
• CC: A function of the degree that an ecosystem
has departed from the HNFR.
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
– Historical Natural Fire Regime (HNFR)
Fire Regime Code Description
0 Little or no occurrence of fire
I 0-35 year frequency, low severity
II 0-35 year frequency, mixed severity
III 0-35 year frequency, stand-replacement severity
IV 35-100 year frequency, mixed severity
V 35-100 year frequency, stand-replacement severity
VI 100-200 year frequency, mixed severity
VII 100-200 year frequency, stand-replacement severity
VIII 200+ year frequency, stand-replacement severity
B.A. Blackwell/R.W. Gray/Compass Resource Management.|March 2003
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
Condition
Class
Departure
from
Historic
range of
Variability
Attributes
1 Low •Fire regime is in or near historical range.
•Low risk of losing key ecosystem components
2 Moderate
•Fire regime has been moderately changed from the
historical range.
•There is a moderate risk of losing key ecosystem
components
•Fire frequencies have changed from their historical
frequency by >1 return interval.
3 High
•Fire regime has been significantly changed from the
historical range (by multiple return intervals).
•Vegetation attributes have been significantly altered. B.A. Blackwell/R.W. Gray/Compass Resource Management.|March 2003
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
The HNFR has only been mapped for the southern Interior
of British Columbia. By: B.A. Blackwell/R.W. Gray/Compass
Resource Management.|March 2003
B.A. Blackwell/R.W. Gray/Compass Resource Management.|March 2003
Consequences of Fire Regime
Changes
Stand structure changes.
Increased stand susceptibility to
insects, diseases, and pathogens.
Increased fuel accumulations. High severity fires
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
The condition class has only been mapped for the southern
Interior of British Columbia. By: B.A. Blackwell/R.W.
Gray/Compass Resource Management.|March 2003
B.A. Blackwell/R.W. Gray/Compass Resource Management.|March 2003
Importance of Fire
Ecological Role of Fire in British Columbia
Historic Natural Fire Regime (HNFR) and Condition
Class (CC):
– Advantages of the system:
• More detailed and site specific than the NDTs
– Disadvantages of the system:
• Not yet readily available to the general public
Importance of Fire
Fire in Canada
Fires burned (number and area) in Canada from 1915 to 1995.
• On average 2.5 million
ha/yr are burned (ranges
from 0.7 -7.6 million ha/yr).
• There are, on average,
8000 fires/yr.
• 3% of fires are > 200ha
• Suppression costs are, on
average $300-$500 million
annually.
(Stocks, 2000)
Year Spot
Burn
Hazard
Reduction
Silviculture Range Wildlife Ecosystem
Maintenance
TOTAL
1985 2,720 1,490 56,020 44,200 49,010 300 153,740
1990 21,220 2,570 36,890 8,480 38,270 2,780 110,210
1995 15,450 2,300 10,670 7,120 22,080 1,090 58,710
2000 7,670 6,130 650 1,000 3,030 5,850 24,330
2005 4,990 2,380 760 1,220 4,180 5,610 19,140
Importance of Fire
Fire in Canada
Data extracted from Canadian Committee on Forest Fire Management annual reports, and from people in different forest management
agencies, by M. Feller.
Area (ha) of prescribed burns annually in Canada
Values fluctuate from year to year but in general
prescribed burns in Canada have significantly declined
since 1984.
Importance of Fire
Role of Fire in Resource Management
• Depends on resource being managed:
– Timber:
• Fire prepares
seedbed or improves
plantability and
releases nutrients
http://www.montesano.us/images/forestry/planters_Web.jpg
Importance of Fire
Role of Fire in Resource Management
• Depends on resource being managed:
– Wildlife:
• Fire creates habitat, and alters
community dynamics
– Non-Timber Forest Products
• Fire induces growth of certain
plants (e.g., First Nations
peoples used fire to manage
berry bushes)
Importance of Fire
Role of Fire in Restoration
• Restore native grasslands
http://www.nps.gov/sajh/parkmgmt/firemanagement.htm
Photo by B.A. Blackwell & Associates
• Restore open woodlands
The 2003 Fire Season
The Filmon Report
Filmon Recommendation
Province to Lead Strategic Plan Development
The provincial government should lead the development of a
strategic plan in cooperation with local governments to improve
fire prevention in the interface through fuel management. The plan
should:
•Focus on identification of those areas of the province where
communities, infrastructure, and watersheds have the greatest
potential to be impacted by large-scale fires.
•Identify and assign fuel management priorities based on
threats to human life, property and resource values.
Wildfire Risk Management
Risk Assessment
Consequence
Probability
High
Low High
Low
Risk Management
Consequence
Probability
Low
Low
High
High
*
* *
*
*
*
* *
*
*
*
Mitigation
Monitoring
Proactive
Intervention
Do Nothing Emergency
Plans
Area Summaries of PSTA
Spotting Area Risk Probability
Low Risk Moderate Risk High Risk Area At Risk
Inside Municipality
Federal Ownership 88 529 749 1,365
Private Ownership 2,273 15,956 22,605 40,834
Provincial Ownership
1,784 27,113 24,453 53,349
4,144 43,598 47,806 95,549
Outside Municipality
Federal Ownership 3,776 15,070 24,684 43,530
Private Ownership 20,693 152,138 131,745 304,576
Provincial Ownership
36,677 759,334 480,492 1,276,503
Unknown Ownership 0 1 1 2
61,145 926,543 636,922 1,624,610
Total 65,290 970,140 684,728 1,720,158 Ownership Totals
Total Federal 3,863 15,599 25,433 44,895
Total Provincial 38,460 786,447 504,945 1,329,852
Total Private 22,966 168,094 154,350 345,409
Mountain Pine Beetle
Provincial Wildfire Threat Analysis: • 1.7 million ha’s of forest land pose a wildfire threat to communities in B.C • 3 % of this on First Nations Reserve Lands
Analysis shows: • 460,000 ha interface threat is potentially affected by MPB • 0.3% of MPB interface threat is on First Nations Reserve lands • 10% of MPB interface threat is Crown land next to First Nations Reserve Lands
Filmon Recommendation
• Require a community protection plan in those
communities with high probability and consequence of
fire in the interface zone.
“Where the Forest meets
the Community”
Interface defined as…
Interface Fire Issues
Interface vs Intermix
Interface
Intermix
Spot Fire Risk
Interface Fire Issues
How does fire threaten the
interface?
Wildland
Fire Threat…
Community
Interface Fire Issues
Wildland
Fire Threat…
Community
Interface Fire Issues
How does fire threaten the
interface?
Spotting Risk
1. Firebrand caused
ignitions:
How are Buildings Ignited by Wildfire?
2. Radiant heat or flame
contact:
-vegetation to structure
- structure to structure
How are Buildings Ignited by Wildfire?
April 2007
Wildfire Risk Mapping
September 2008
April 2007
Structure Protection
Building Code and Bylaw Issues
April 2007
Access and Evacuation Management
April 2007
Emergency Response
April 2007
Infrastructure Protection
April 2007
Communication and Education
April 2007
Identification of Hazardous Fuels
Post Fire Rehabilitation
Filmon Recommendation
Undertake fuel treatment pilot projects
The provincial government should undertake a
series of fuel treatment pilots projects in
cooperation with municipal and regional
governments in locations of high interface fire
risk to demonstrate and prove the social,
economic, and ecological costs and benefits of
fuel treatments.
Landscape Considerations
Area summary of forest types within the two-kilometre buffer and out of the two-
kilometre buffer.
Forest Type
Area In Buffer (ha)
(spotting zone) Area Out of Buffer (ha)
% Forest Type In Buffer
(spotting zone) % Forest Type Out of Buffer
Coniferous 1644 1104 8 9
Mixed 5037 3550 25 28
Deciduous 5637 5792 28 46
Other 1 16 0 0
Non-Fuel 8030 2127 39 17
Total 20349 12590 100 100
Conceptual example for a coniferous
dominated stand
September 2008
Vegetation management
