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7/28/2019 Finland Lecture Summer 2013 Notes
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The difficulty lies, not in the new ideas, but in escaping fromthe old ones, which ramify, for those brought up as most ofus have been, into every corner of our minds.
John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment,
Interest and Money (13 December 1935)
Peter Herrmanni
Methodological considerations for Theory of Social Policy/Social Policy Research
at the Interface of Political Economy and Politics of Social Order
Schwarze Rcke, seidne Strmpfe,
Weie hfliche Manschetten,
Sanfte Reden, Embrassieren
Ach, wenn sie nur Herzen htten!
Herzen in der Brust, und Liebe,
Warme Liebe in dem Herzen
Ach, mich ttet ihr Gesinge
Von erlognen Liebesschmerzen.
Auf die Berge will ich steigen,
Wo die frommen Htten stehen,
Wo die Brust sich frei erschlieet,
Und die freien Lfte wehen.
7/28/2019 Finland Lecture Summer 2013 Notes
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Auf die Berge will ich steigen,
Wo die dunkeln Tannen ragen,
Bche rauschen, Vgel singen,
Und die stolzen Wolken jagen.
Lebet wohl, ihr glatten Sle!
Glatte Herren! glatte Frauen!
Auf die Berge will ich steigen,
Lachend auf euch niederschauen.
(Heine, Heine, 1826: Die Harzreise,
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24249/24249-h/24249-h.htm - Juni
2013)
I.
Knowledgeof language is surely an issuewhenworking in international and
seemingly multi-linguistic environments even if the often subtle linguistic
problemsare frequently unappreciated. Some of thedifficultiesmay be taken
fromalookattheterms,oronemaybettersayconceptsoftheheadingandthe
translations
interfaceSchnittstellepointingintheEnglishlanguageclearlyonthecentrifugalaspectwhereastheGermanhighlightstheseparation
politics of social order Sozial- und Ordnungspolitikon the one sidelooking orderof the socialwhereaswesee ontheother sidea kind of
positioningofcomplementaritiesorevenajuxtaposition
political economy Volkswirtschaftslehre though the two areactuallynot the same. There is a German Politische Oekonomie, but no English
PeoplesEconomicParadigmasa literarytranslationfromtheGerman
would suggest; however, there is an English CommonWealthwhich is
completelydifferentfromtheGermanGemeinwohl.
All this is not just about terminology and knowledgeof language but about acompletelydifferentmodeofcomplexreflectionsandsentiments,eachincluding
7/28/2019 Finland Lecture Summer 2013 Notes
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adifferentZeitgeistwhichisreflectedinthetermsandconcept,eachofwhich
hadbeen emerging in specific historical contexts. Sure, already knowledgeof
language in very simple terms is often not simple at all as the little clip on
different accents of the English language shows:http://twentytwowords.com/2012/05/01/a-world-tour-of-english-accents/
Leaving this later dimension of understanding aside, the before mentioned
aspectsrequiredeepmethodologicalcircumspection!!Andacrucialpartofthis
circumspection is theknowledgeof the concretehistorical circumstances and
backgroundsanytermreflects:conceptsunderlyinglanguage,theuseofwords
andthedevelopmentofterms.
II.
Aquestionablepleasureofteachingjobsisthetaskofmarkingwhichisusually
going hand in hand with it. I faced this dimension again recently, students
actuallycomplainingaboutthemarksIgavethem.Apparentlythereisatvarious
universities an inflation of high marks. Instead of offering an upgrading as
response to their complains, I presented the possibility to submit a revised
versiononthebasisofwhichIwouldreassessthestudents.Someofthestudents
cametomyofficeinordertodiscussissuesoftheir(first)submissions.Tocuta
longstoryshort,thedeliberationsonthemarksshowedtheunderlyingproblem
whichhasalsoapsychologicaldimension.Primarilythemarksassuchhadnot
been at stake. Instead, the discussion developed in two directions, one being
concernedwithsubstantialissues,theotherbeingamatterofworryingabout
themarks.Onemaytranslatethis:ithadbeenadiscussionthathadbeendealing
at the end with the division between use value (as matter of developing
understandingandgeneratingknowledge)andexchangevalue(thegradefor
which one pays via fees,1 time invested in learning rather than leisurely
enjoyments etc. and the outcome that can later be exchanged on the labour
market).
1 Especiallythefactofpaymentoffeescontributestoorevenevokestheinflationofhighmarks.
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Ofcourse,thisisusuallyalsoreflectedinthemethodologicalquestionsapplied
bystudentsandthedefinitionoftheobjectoftheanalysischosenassubjectof
their assignments. And furthermore it is always a matter of determining the
subjectofanalysis.
III.
Thelinkbetweenthetwo,objectandsubjectofanalysis,isgivenbytheultimate
linktopractice.So,anyquestionisaboutrelationsofthefollowingdimensions.
Individualsrelatingtothemselvesas SelbstbestimmungandSelbstbezug.Reflexivity frequently used in this context as English term is actually
goingfurther,consideringalreadythereflectionoftheselfwithinandin
relationtoagivencontext
General social others in mutual relations the allgemeine und diffuseSozialbeziehungen,wherethemutualcharacterdoesbynomeansimply
equalityofpower.
Asideremarkmayenlightenusabit:theEnglishtermrelationalready
referstothecloselinktorelative:kinship.ThisisevenstrongerinItalian
wherewehavetranslationsandsynonymsasrelazione/relazioni,legame,
parente/parentaleetc.;whereastheFrench relation seesthemexplicitly
asmatterexistingentrechoses,personnes,pays).
Class relationships and relations between social strata Klassen- undSchichtbeziehungenasspecifiedrelations,actuallyspecificallydefiningthe
generalsocialother,basedondifferentcriteria.
Emededdnessinnaturalenvironments,alwaysbeingamatterofasocio-environmentUmweltbeziehungenundEinbettungen.
IV.
Lookingnowatrecentdevelopmentsmaycomeacrossasadisconnected,andit
mayseemtobefar-fetchedtodrawalinebetweenmarksofstudentsessaysand
thefloodsthatafflictedlargepartsofEurope.Thelinkisgivenbythematterof
streamlining,straightening lines. It isnot leastaboutthereduction ofvaluein
termsofasimplifiedcalculability.Attheendofthedaythismeansnothingelse
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thandisjoiningsubjectandobjectandfurthermorethedifferentinherentfacets
ofeach.Inotherwordsitisaboutthedissolutionoftotalities.
V.Ingeneral,muchoftodayssocialpolicyresearchisbasedon twofundamental
flaws/limitations.
Ontheonehandwemayfindafundamentallyandprincipallynormativeapproach
or we may find an equally fundamentally, though not necessarilyprincipallyinstitutionalistapproach.
AnexampleforthefirstisarecentspeechbytheIrishPresident,addressingthe
EuropeanParliament.Alengthyquotemayshowhisapproach.
- Schuman, who was aware of it, reached back to recall the early
monastic perigrinatio and declared Columbanus to be the patron
saint of all those who now seek to build a united Europe.
- The Schuman meeting, and the others which followed it, assisted
by such as Jean Monnet, was responding to near and terrible
events. But we should never forget, and I emphasize it today, that in
their response they recognized its immense value, and drew on, the
rich scholarship, philosophy, moral instincts and generous impulses
of European thought as they sought, not only to replace war with
peace, but more importantly, to construct a vision of Europes
people working together in an inclusive way. It was not any abstract
construction. It was a practical proposal drawn from the head,
propelled by the heart, and uniting economy and ethics in its
aspiration.
(Higgins, Michael D., 2013: Towards a European Union of the
Citizens. Adress to the European Parliament, Strasbourg,
Wednesday, 17th April,
2013http://www.president.ie/speeches/address-by-president-
michael-d-higgins-towards-a-european-union-of-the-citizens-
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european-parliament-strasbourg-wednesday-17th-april-2013-2/ -
10/05/2013)
An example for the second though not a strictly institutionalist but more
economisticapproachcanbetakenfromthe ForewordoftheUNCTADReport
bytheTaskForceonSystemicIssuesandEconomicCooperation.Weread:
The global deleveraging that first hit the world economy in mid-
2007 and that accelerated in autumn 2008 could not have been
possible without the rare coincidence of a number of market failures
and triggers, some reflecting fundamental imbalances in the global
economy and others specific to the functioning of sophisticatedfinancial markets. Chief among these systemic factors were the
full-fledged deregulation of financial markets and the increased
sophistication of speculation techniques and financial engineering.
Other determinants were also at play, particularly the systemic
incoherence among the international trading, financial and
monetary systems, not to mention the failure to reform the global
financial architecture. Most recently, the emergence of new and
powerful economic actors, especially from the developing countries,
without the accompanying reform needed in the framework
governing the world economy, accentuated that incoherence.
(Report by the UNCTAD Secretariat Task Force on Systemic Issues
and Economic Cooperation, Foreword: ix)
The latter,however, ischaracterisedbya fundamental tension:asmuchaswe
arefocussingonstructuralandformalisedlimitations,wearealsoconfrontedwith the need to go actually beyond the normative claim, looking for the
underlyingmomentsthataredeterminingwhatwesee.However,assuchthese
determinants also allow developing the understanding of structures and
processes.
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VI.
Onlythementioningofcatchwordsofthecommonlyusedapproacheshastodo
sufficehere:
Webersviewonidealtypes Marxdeterminationofsocietalandsociallaws Foucaultsspecificinterpretationofconstructivism APhanresianapproachissurelynotcommonorevenknownhowcould
it,beingherepresentedasinspirationtakingfromaseriesofthreesmall
childrens books I wrote (Herrmann,Peter: Phanresia. Geschichten vom
Anders-Sein und von den Gegensaetzen; With Illustrations by Franziska
Herrmann; Bremen: Europaeischer Literaturverlag, 2010 (2nd. Edition);
Phanresias Geschichten von der Freundschaft. Ein Kinderbuch; With
Illustrations by Franziska Herrmann; Bremen: Europaeischer
Literaturverlag, 2010; Das Grosse Zelt; With Illustrations by Franziska
Herrmann;Bremen:EuropaeischerLiteraturverlag,2010;alsoDiaryfrom
a Journey into another World. Diaries against nationalism, inspired by
trying to overcome personal resentments; with Illustrations by Kerstin
Walsh Europaeischer Hochschulverlag;2012anddifferent sociotainment-
contributionsonhttp://rozenbergquarterly.com).
Thisisabouttheuseofafantasyasmeansofacreativeapproachnotto
constructrealitybuttouseformsofdifferentcontextualisationasmeans
ofdevelopingunderstanding.Inactuallyfactitisamethodofadialectical
de-andre-constructiveapproach.
With this reference to all the various relationswehavealso a framework foranalysingcomplexrealitiesasmatterof
structure action process aims/objectives
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Mind, that aims and objectives are mentioned at the end. Though it is
impossible to determine a final rank between the four, the reason for the
sequenceisthatwearestartingwiththeconditions,elevatingtotherefinement
ofaimsbyouractionbywhichwestartchange:history(andtheknowledgeofit,subsequentlythepossibleexantecontrol)asactiveprocess.Still,attheendwe
aredealingwithrelationality,eachoftheindividualmomentsbeingbeginning,
endandfinalpointwhichisthestartofanewbeginning.
One important challenge is for any research to carefully consider this
relationalityofcourse,inpracticethiscanonlymeanreferringespeciallytothe
points of disruption. And: streamlining requires not least building dams and
bridgeswherenecessaryandappropriate.
VII
Two common matters in economics are the ceteris paribus formula and the
functionofproduction,thelatterreading
Y = ALK
saying
Production equals factor productivity multiplied by labour input
defined by output elasticity multiplied by capital defined by output
elasticity
However, both are highly questionable, as they are actually not allowing
analysing concrete realities. In order to enable us doing so, reference will
usefullybemadetotheconceptoftheModeofProduction.Wecandefinineits
follows:
The method of producing the necessities of life. The Mode of
Production is the unity of the productive forces and the relations of
production. Production begins with the development of its
determinative aspect the productive forces which, once they
have reached a certain level, come into conflict with the relations of
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production within which they have been developing. This leads to an
inevitable change in the relations of production, since in the
obsolete form they cease to be indispensable condition of the
production process. In its turn, the change in the relations of
production, which means the substitution of the new economic basis
for the old one, leads to more less rapid change in the entire society.
Therefore, the change in the Mode of Production comes about not
through peoples volition, but by virtue of the correspondence
between the productive relations to the character and level of
development of the productive forces. Due to this, the development
of society takes the form of the natural historical change of socio-
economic formations. Conflict between the productive forces and
the relations of production is the economic basis of social
revolution.
(http://www.marxists.org/glossary/terms/m/o.htm 09/06/2013)
Thelatteralsoandimportantlyandincreasinglyincludesthequestionofreach
andscope.
Thisneedstobelinkedtocapitalism,territorialisationandde-territorialisation
asfwhichSteinberghighlights
the territorial state emerged concurrent with the deterritoriali-
zation of political economy and geographical imagination
(Steinberg, P. E., 2009: Sovereignty, Territory, and the Mapping of
Mobility: A View from the Outside. Annals of the Association of
American Geographers 99[3]: 467495: here: 468).
Of special interest is here a point highlighted by Alex Callinicos in his book on
Imperialism and Global Political Economy (Callinicos, Alex, 2009/2010:
Imperialism andGlobalPolitical Economy; Cambridge: Polity).Looking atmore
recent structural developmentsand the role of statepolitics in the context of
geopoliticalshifts,hestatesinhisconclusionthat
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the simultaneous operation of both economic and geoplotical
determinations introduces a dagree of indeterminancy into the
formation of state policy, one that has the merit of allowing some
free play to other dimensions of the social. For example, scope is
allowed for ideology plainly a key topic, given the imoportance of
a Wilsonian conception of a global liberal capitalist order in
shaping US foreign policy over the past century. It is here also
perhaps that the issues higlighted by the so-called neo-Gramscian
school in international relations the effort by an actual or aspiring
hegemonic power culturally and politically to integrate the ruling
classses of other states might find some purchase.
(ibid.: 15)
The consideration of this tensional linkage between political and economic
dimensionissurelyacomplexoneandhastoberevisitedinthelightofthenew
movesofglobalisation.Importantlywehavetonoticetheroleofspaceandwith
thisthecomplexinterrelationshipbetweensocio-economic,politicalandnatural
conditions.Wecanunderstandthedifferentapproachestowardsdevelopment
onlyagainstsuchbackground.
Presumptions that are generally underlying the analysis of definitions of the
objectives are captured by the following main approaches dealing with this
issue:
Growth ashighlighted by Rostowasa general pattern of development,characterisedbyfivestages;
Stability,anorientationclaimedbyGalbraithasnecessityoftheday; Dcroissance, amore or less recent topic, brought forward in different
waysandwithdifferentfacetssomemilestonesmarkingthisdebateare
the work by the Club of Rome (since 1969), the work by the World
CommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment(WCED commonlyknown
as Brundtland commission) (since 1983) and the debates on Human
Development (1990) as well as Human Security (especially 1994); the
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latter are of special interest as they actually aim on reconceptualising
growth;
Static society as proposal brought forward by Mills for the developedsocietyandthoughinadifferentinterpretationalsotrailedbyKeynesandexpressedbypointingonhigherculturalandnon-materialneedsas
theessenceoflifewhichcouldbetakencareofafterreachingacertain
levelofgeneralwealth:
The day is not far off when the economic problem will take the back
seat where it belongs, and the arena of the heart and the head will
be occupied or reoccupied, by our real problems / the problems of
life and of human relations, of creation and behavior and religion.
(http://thinkexist.com/quotes/john_maynard_keynes/ - 17/06/2013)
Finally,freedom can be added as orientation pursued by Hegelian andMarxian thinking and differing fundamentally from the others by
referring to the aim of development and thus soci(et)al practice
(output) instead of accepting a teleologically given aim which is
concretisedbythemeansofachievingthem(input).2
VIII3
The following presents a kind of analytical tool that allows understanding
welfaresystemsascomplexpolitical-economicsystems.Bydrawingon
envisagedpatternsofgrowth(s.matrix3) thewaysofgeneratingvalue(s.matrix4) resourcesthatarestandingbehindthegenerationofvalue(s.matrix5) and finally the socio-political system and the inherent claims on
sovereignty(s.matrix6)
wearriveatananalyticalschemepresentedinmatrix1 andactuallyconsisting
offoursub-schemes,(presentedinmatrix3,matrix4,matrix5andmatrix6).
2 Ofcourse,alloftheseapproachesdonotexistinpurecontradistinction.Thereareespeciallyissuesinthelastthree
approachesthatdeservecloserdebateintermsofoverlapsandmutualstimulation.3 SeeforthefollowingalreadyrecentpostingsintheWilliamThompsonBlog.
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resourcereference
value
generatio
n
patternsof
growth
socio-politicalsystemandsovereignty
matrix1:welfaresystemanalyticaltool
Each of these schemes will only be presented without major elaboration.
Importantis,however,toconsiderinadvancethatthecoreissuearoundwhich
all thesedimensions evolve is control in theunderstanding ofpowerwhich
itselfisunderstoodasmatterofabilitytoactorHandlungsfhigkeit.Itiscoined
bydifferentpointsofreference,characterisedontheonehandbytheobjectof
controlandontheotherhandbythebasicmodeofproductionwhichactsasa
kind of counterpoint as we know it from baroquemusic. A rough guide is
presentedinmatrix2.
capitalistsocieties non-capitalistsocieties
controlofmeansofproduction
controlofprocessesofproduction
controlofproducts
controlofthedistributionof
products
matrix2:dimensionsofcontrol
Actuallythe followinghas tobe treatedwithspecialcautionasin theonecase
the term development is misleading as long as we follow the mainstream
understanding of it. The answer has to be sought by differentiating between
qualitativeandquantitativegrowth.Thisiscloselylinkedtothedistinctionmade
earlier, namely between use value and exchange value. Whereas the latter iscloselylinkedtotheconceptofexponentialgrowth, thefirstisbyanymeansa
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matter of defining the object of development in different terms, namely as
practice of permanently re-balancing and equilibrising the different facets of
relationalityastheyhadbeenoutlinedinthebeginningofsectioniii.Takenfrom
here an implicit reference is made to set use value as ultimate goal, linkingcompetitiontoenhancingtheusevalueratherthanincreasingitssupersession
byanabstractexchangevalueasarithmeticunit.
autocentricdevelopment extraverteddevelopment
relativeeco
nomic
sustainab
ility
competitiveness
matrix3:PatternsofGrowth
Coming then to the question of the generation of value, it is first useful to
remember the Marxian distinction between two departments that are
constitutive for the overall structuration of economic processes, department I
producingmeansofproduction,departmentIIproducingmeansofconsumption.
OnotheroccasionsIemphasisedthatweshouldespeciallytodaynotforget Rosa
LuxemburgselaborationinherworkonTheAccumulationofCapital(Luxemburg,
Rosa,1913:The Accumulation ofCapital.Translated from the German byAgnes
Schwarzschild. With an Introduction of Joan Robinson; London: Routledge and
KeganPaul,1951).Shestates
[w]e ought to add a further department, that of production of the
means of exchange, to the other two large departments of social
production [those of means of production (I) and of consumer goods
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(II)]. It is, indeed, a characteristic feature of this third department
that it serves neither the purposes of production nor those of
consumption, merely representing social labour in an
undifferentiated commodity that cannot be used.
(ibid.: 99)
FurthermoreIsuggestedgoingasstepfurther,introducing
a department IV that produces in particular though not solely by
providing services the social as distincted, i.e. externalised and
separated are[a] of existence. Altering Rosa Luxemburgs
formulation we may say that it is, indeed, a characteristic feature of
this fourth department that it serves neither the purposes of
production nor those of consumption, nor does it represent social
labour in an undifferentiated commodity that cannot be used.
Instead it is the representation of a quasi-independent area of
presentation: on the one hand as re-presentation of virtuality and
on the other hand as presentation of the concealed values:
whereas the early realisation and presentation had been based on
status from where it moved to contract and later to the fluctuation of
the marketised realisation and presentation, it seems to move from
there to design of an arbitrarily designed individual.
(Herrmann, Peter, 2012: Rights Developing Ownership by
Linking Control over Space and Time. Writings on Philosophy and
Economy of Power Vol. 2; Bremen: EHV: 49 f.)
With this inmind, we can gain an understanding of the different drivers ofproduction,presentedinthefollowingmatrix4.
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high-value
productionfoundedininformational
labour
high-volumeproductionbasedinlow-costlabour
redundant
producers,
reduced
ondevaluedlabour
productionofraw
materialfoundedin
naturalresources
matrix5:ResourceReference
Finallywereturntothequestionofthesocio-politicalsystemandsovereignty.
Acceptingtherelativeindependenceofthepoliticalsphere,wehavetohighlight
neverthelessitscloseinterlockingwiththeeconomictermsofthestructuration
ofsocietybuilding.Inthefollowingmatrix6thisisexpressedbyreferencetothe
keyinstrumentsofsteering,namelytwodimensionsofmonetarypolicyonthe
onehandandmechanismsofsocietalintegrationontheotherhand.
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monetarypolicyi.w.s.as
meansofsocialintegration
monetarypolicyi.w.s.asmeansofsecuring
internationalsovereignty
competitiven
ess
tra
ditionality
matrix6:Socio-PoliticalSystemandSovereignty
Anotherdimensionofthisquestionmaybeevenmoreimportantinthepresent
context of the overall conceptualisation of a theory of social policy. It is the
questionofanintegratedapproachthatlinksthequestionofwelfaresystemsto
the question of different capitalist modes of accumulation rather than
elaboratingonthis,referenceisonlymadetootherworksbythepresentauthor
(Herrmann,Peter,2012:SocialState,WelfareStateandThen?WheretoMovefrom
theWelfarestate?ACooperativeStateofSustainableSociabilityasPerspectivefor
Innovation; in: Heiskanen, Johanna/Henry, Hagen/Hytinkoski, Pekka/Kpp,
Tapani(eds.):NewOpportunitiesforCo-operatives:NewOpportunitiesforPeople.
Proceedings of the 2011 ICA Research Conference, 24-27 August, 2011, Mikkeli,
Finland; Helsinki: University of Helsinki. Ruralia Institute, 2012: 295- 313;
Herrmann, Peter, forthcoming: Poverty of the Welfare State or: Poverty:
ConstructionDe-constructionandaLostBattle).
IX
Asanoutlineforsocialpolicyandthetheoryofsocialpolicythefollowing
maybeuseful.Beforecapitalismbutalsoreachingintoit,actuallystillbeinga
relevantinpracticeeventodaywefindtheearlyclientelistsystemsofsupportand provision, not least based on religiously motivated good-doing (though
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includingpunishmentandstrictexclusion),andthemutualhelpoftheguilds.Of
coursealliscloselyboundintosystemsoffamilyandkinshiprelations.
Capitalism,now,lackedanyofsuchsupportsystemsorevenmotivationsforany
social support systems andwas thus extremely vulnerable. Nevertheless, the
lackofsuchamotivationistrueonlyontheindividuallevel.Ascapitalistsociety,
thissystemclearlyshowedaneedanditwasthis,whatthecapitaliststatehadto
deliveraspoliticalsystem,bridgingtheever-wideninggapbetweentheclasses.
Seeminglyneutral,theaimwastomaintainthehierarchyandexploitationofone
classbytheother.Inparticularfivefunctionsofsocialpolicycanbeseenagainst
thisbackground.Thestandardcategorisationofthesemainfunctionsisgrasped
underthefollowingheadings
protective distributive productivity societalpolitics re-distribution
X
Looking more closely at the perspectives for social policy from the earlier
remarks, the first and most important point is about taking the term with
caution.Thereisnosuchthingassocialpolicyinstrictusensu,i.e.as
policy academicdisciplineorideology
initsownright.
Thisisatleastvalidifwethinkaboutscienceasmatterofembracingrealityof
essentials,notasinterpretationofthephenomenology5ofcurrentexistence.This
meansdifferentiatingbetweenessenceandappearance.
5 Mind,thisisnotaboutphenomenologyasmethodology.
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Second,wefacenowthefundamentalproblemswithsocialpolicyresearchas
theyhadbeenoutlinedabove,namely
thenormativist thestucturalist/institutionalist
cage.Bothareconsequencesofanartificialseparationofpartsofthesocialfrom
the social as complex relational-interactional system of (re-)production. The
definitionthatisproposedherecomesfromthesocialqualitytheory.
In the social quality approach the social is an outcome of the
interaction between people (constituted as actors) and their
constructed and natural environment. Its subject matter refers to
peoples interrelated productive and reproductive relationships. In
other words, the constitutive interdependency between processes of
self-realisation and processes governing the formation of collective
identities is a condition for the social and its progress or decline.
(van der Maesen, Laurent/Walker, Alan: Social Quality and
Sustainability; in: 260)
Ofcourse,suchseparationisnotasimplemistakeorexpressionofsomekindof
politicalvoluntarism.Itisinactualfacttheultimateconsequenceoffollowing
societalpractice.
Assuch,itlinkssubsequentlyandultimatelytothecapitalistmodeofproduction
anditsfundamentaldistinctionbetweenandseparationof
use value and with this the institutionalist approach towards socialpolicyand
exchangevalueandwiththisthenormativistapproachtosocialpolicy.
XI
Atthispointwemayhesitate,inparticularwhenit comesto thesecondpoint:
suggesting that norms are underlying social policy is usually understood as
positive orientation, thinking about norms as matter of morality, being
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fundamentallyconcernedwiththeideaofagoodsociety,frequentlyreferringto
Aristotelianthinkinginaverybroadunderstading.However,thisoverlooks
thatAristotelianthinking,andhisunderstandingofagoodsociety,hadbeenverymuchgrounded ina specificunderstandingofwhateconomy
andthe(re-)productionofdailylifeisabout
thattheconditionsofthateconomydonotexistanymore thatAristotelianthinkinghadbeenbasedinanddependingonstructural
exclusion
that the reasoning today is in objective terms (i.e. as matter of thedevelopment of the productive forces) and equally in terms of the
referencedvaluesdifferent(linkingbacktothesecondpointofthislist).
Itisalsoimportantthatcapitalistvalueaseconomiccategoryisnotanentirely
arithmeticcategory.Inotherwords,itcannotevenbereducedonbeingobjective
insuchareducedmeaning.
On the one hand and most fundamentally the value theory is based on the
calculabilityofthecostpriceforanycommodity.Anditiseasytoacceptevenby
mainstream economics that also labour has to be assessed in this light. The
difficulty however is to go the little but decisive step further, accepting that
under certain conditions (namely the conditions of a capitalist mode of
production)notlabourassuchistherelevantcategorybutlabourpowerwhich
degenerateditselftobeingacommodity.Inthisformofgeneralisedcommodity
productionwefindinitsextremeform,i.e.thatoffetishismthat
the social relations between their private labours appear as whatthey are, i.e. they not appear as direct social relations between
persons in their work, but rather as material relations between
persons and social relations between things.
(Marx, Kapital, 1867: The Capital. Volume I)
However,sayingthatthisistheextremeformmeansthatthereisonanother
level alwayssome residual socialmeaning involved we can easily see these
whenthedeterminationofthevalueinparticularofthelabourpowermarksthe
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importance of the historical-moral element and the assertiveness of the
employees in their demands for higher wages, improvement of working
conditionsetc.(partofitnotleastregulatedwithintheframeworkagreements
[Manteltarifvertrge]).
Otherfactorsareforinstance
power, including the acceptance of inequality preceding and resultingfromequalexchange
thoughthecostpriceisthedecisivemomentwhenitcometodeterminingthe economic value, the also relevant moments are market value (as
matter of supply anddemand), the character of positional goods (onlyindirectlyamatterofcost-price)andartificiallyinfluencedcomparative
advantages(alsoamattercompetitivepower)
inaddition,therearesomesub-marketsthatareinveryparticularandpeculiarwayspronetonon-economicdeterminations;twoexamples:(1)
artsand(2)informaleconomyetc.
a fourth factor has to be added though it is already in some waysintegrated in/consequence of the previously mentioned factors: theinternaldimensionofeconomicvalueisonlyrelevantassuchandwith
thisstronglydependingontheactual scopeof internality, ortheother
wayround:itisnotleastdefinedbytheactuallyachievedexternalisation
ofcosts.
Also andmost fundamentally the category economic value is abstract,disconnectedfromtherealeconomywesawthisonanextremelevel
reflectedinrecentdebatesthatstatedaseparation/juxtapositionofrealandfinanceeconomy.
Comingfromhere,thefollowingdimensionsofthesocio-economicpowercanbe
capturedbywayofasummary:
(1)Productionandreproductionofdailylifepractice,asdailyactionandsetof
activities,issocialinthesenseofinteraction
(2) This interactionas (re-)productiverelation has a social policy dimensioninsofarwearedealingwithaprocessofstructurationofpowerrelations
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(3)This includesfurthermorethe definitionofneedsandwants. Ineconomic
theorythishadbeenissuedinvariousways,inparticularbySayandthelawof
demand-supply-balanceandthefactthateverysupplycreatessufficientdemand.
It is worth while to remark, that a product is no sooner created,
than it, from that instant, affords a market for other products to the
full extent of its own value. When the producer has put the finishing
hand to his product, he is most anxious to sell it immediately, lest its
value should diminish in his hands. Nor is he less anxious to dispose
of the money he may get for it; for the value of money is also
perishable. But th only way of getting rid of money is in the
purchase of some product or other. Thus, the mere circumstance of
the creation of one product immediately opens a vent for other
products.
(Say, Jean-Baptiste, 1880: A Treatise on Political Economy; or the
Production, Distribution, and Consumption of Wealth; Translated
from the Fourth Edition of the French, by C. R. Prinsep, M. A. with
Notes by the Translator. New American Edition. Containing a
Translation of the Introduction, and Additional Notes by Clement C.Biddle, LL. D.; Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger:
1880; Internet Edition: Kitchener/Ontario: Batoche Books: 57;
http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/say/treatise.pdf - 10/06/2013)
Furthermore
Money performs but a momentary function in this double exchange;
and when the transaction is finally closed, it will always be found,that one kind of commodity has been exchanged for another.
(Ibid.)
meansthatfromtheretherelevantdemandisalsodefined.
(4)Atthesametimefromherethewayofansweringneedsanddemandsisalso
defined.Twodimensionsareofspecialrelevance:
thedefinitionofresponsibilities(public,private,individual,social)
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thedefinitionofsociallyacceptedinequalitywhichmeansnotleasttodefineneedsandwantsaspublic,private,individual,social
XIIWe arrive at the point of a separation of political issues in several regards,
distinct issues, though closely linked to each other and also linked in/by
contradictions.
publicprivate socialindividual politicspolitiespolicies
social economic cultural environ-mental
generallivingtogether
real finance consumedculture
highculture
production,consumption,distribution,exchange
socialprovision socialprotection/insurance
everydaysculture
matrix7
It isobvious that contingenciesarenotamatter of options in termsofdepending on the situation and context, but a matter of a horizon of
optionsthatisallowedwithinaspecificcontext.
XIII
In conclusio, and coming back to the title: Methodological considerations for
TheoryofSocialPolicy/SocialPolicyResearchattheInterfaceofPoliticalEconomy
andPoliticsofSocialOrder,wemaypointoutthefollowingasbeingofparticular
relevance:
(i) Good social policy is an economic orientation that understands the
economicprocessassomethingthatisgenuinelyaboutthesocial,i.e.
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outcome of the interaction between people (constituted as actors)
and their constructed and natural environment. Its subject matter
refers to peoples interrelated productive and reproductive
relationships. In other words, the constitutive interdependency
between processes of self-realisation and processes governing the
formation of collective identities is a condition for the social and its
progress or decline.
(van der Maesen, Laurent J.G/Walker, Alan, 2012: Social Quality
and Sustainability; in: van der Maesen, Laurent J.G/Walker, Alan
[eds.]: Social Quality. From Theory to Indicators; Houndsmills:
Palgrave 260)
Importantly, social policy is also and not least about defining objectives of
production,thushasalsomajorconsequencesfortheunderstandingofwhatthe
labourmarket,employmentandemploymentpoliciesisabout.
We may well capture this in social quality terms as matter of societal
development.
(ii) In differentiated, modern societies, social policy is in particular about
dealingwithbrokenlinksofsocietalintegrity.Assuchitisverymuchaboutrepairing: compensating for losses emerging from bad economics and side
effects,securinglegitimacyetc.Thisposition,referringtotheconsequencesof
modernisation, poses explicitly against Ulrich Becks position speaking of a
uncompleted,halbiertemodernity.
Insocialqualitytermswemayspeaknowaboutthematterofinstitutions.
NB:Hereitisworthwhiletolookat leastbrieflyat thequestionofcharismatic
leadership.Ofcourse,themeaningofcharismaticleadershipanditlegitimacycanbedenied.Andinstrictusensuitdoesnotplayarolewithintheframeworkof
a completely rationalisedworld. However, its denial is about denying the fact
that even the strictly rational understanding of the world is actually still
dependingona remainder of irrationalities. It isaboutan irrational residuum
thatexistsinleadershipasitdoesalsoexistwithinreligion.Sure,thisdoesnot
sayanythingintermsofthemeaningandevenlegitimacyitisonlyreferringto
acceptingarationalanalysisoftheirrationalityoftheworld.Cumgranosaliswe
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may actually apply to the political and managerial level a point that Rosa
Luxemburgmadeinrespectoftheeconomicanalysis.Shecontends:
The workers and capitalists themselves cannot possibly realise that
part of the surplus value which is the be capitalised. Therefore, the
realisation of the surplus value for the purposes of accumulation is
an imppossible task for a society which consists solely of workers
and capitalists.
(Luxemburg, Rosa, 1913: The Accumulation of Capital. Translated
from the German by Agnes Schwarzschild. With an Introduction by
Joan Robinsom; London: Routledge And Kegan Ltd., 1951: 350)
Andsheconcludesthataccumulation
requires as its prime condition that there should be starta of
buyers outside capitalist society.
(ibid.: 352)
Translating this into a political andmanagerial perspective on leadership,we
may say that rational approaches are important for times of stability, timesduring which the historical-political process determines with it specific
rationality the societalmovements. However, in situations of upheaval, threat
andinnovationsomeformofcharismaticauthoritywillatleasthavetobelinked
with the prevailing pre-dominantly rational structure of (to useMaxWebers
terminology)legitimaterule.ActuallyWeberhadbeenverymuchawareofthis
ongoingresidualbutessentialmeaningofdifferentformsoflegitimaterule.
(iii)Socialpolicyshouldnotleastbeunderstoodasvisionaryinitsorientation,
dealingwithpursuingnon-for-profitoptions,usevalueclaimsetc.pp.Thisisnot,
however,aboutnormativeclaimsbutaboutbringingthepotentialstotheforeas
they are needed in themove towards a newmode of production as defined
earlier.
Referringanothertimetothesocialqualityapproachthisisaboutthedimension
ofcommunities.
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(iv) Here we may look at a final dimension of social policy as matter of
permanently balancing and redefining the relationship between society and
community,statusandcontractetc.
In social quality terms, this is surely a matter of both, societal development,institutions and communities (see on the latter Herrmann, Peter, 2009:
Gemeinschaft der Gesellschaft die Suche nach einem Definitionsrahmen fr
Prekaritt; in: Hepp, Rolf (ed.): The Fragilisation of Socio-structural
Components/Die Fragilisierung soziostruktureller Komponenten; Bremen:
Europaeischer Hochschulverlag: 76-107). Here it is seen as a core issue of
enabling,empoweringindividualstofullyparticipateintheoverallprocessof
societaltogetherness:inallaspectsandonalllevels.
XII
Wemayfinallyhaveabrieflookatthecitizenship.Thestandardapproachhad
been famously brought forward by T.H. Marshall, applying a historical
perspective,proposingthedevelopmentofcivilrightstopoliticalrightstosocial
rights(seeMarshall,TomH.,1950:CitizenshipandSocialClass;in:Citizenshipand
SocialClass;TomH.Marshall/TomBottomore;Londonetaltera:PlutoPress,1992:
8-17).Insomewayitcanbesaidthatheapproachestheproblemfromthewrong
end,puttingthecartbeforethehorse.6Insteadofstartingfromtheproductionof
reallifeofrealpeople,hereplicatestheconstructionofpeopleaccordingtothe
development of the bourgeois state as it is suggested by themost important
philosophers and theorisers in this areas as for instance Hobbes, Locke,
Montesquieu, Rousseau et altera. At the centre is the abstract market citizen
whosecivilrightsareactuallytherightsofthebourgeoistoengageineconomicactivities.AdecisiveexampleforthisistheclaimbyJohn Lockeforwhomthe
ultimatecivicfreedomistherightofproperty.
Ofcourse,thismeansultimatelythatwefindwiththisorientationoneconomic
propertyrightsasfundamentalcivillibertyaspecificinterpretationofrightsas
relationtonatureinthewidestsense.Actuallyitisaboutsocietysrelationwith
naturewhichisitselfbasedintwodimensions:
6 Thisisofcourseaconsequencethatactuallytherightsquestioninbourgeoissocietiesisstandingonitshead,rather
thanbeingbasedintherealdevelopmentofsocietal(re-)production.
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themodeofproduction thecontrollability, i.e. thesocialand individualpoweras it isnot least
definedbyreligiousandideologicalattitudes.
OnanotheroccasionIapproachedthistogetherwith YitzhakBerman(Berman,
Yitzhak/Herrmann,Peter, 2012:Systems ofLaw and SocialQuality; in: Social &
Public Policy Review; Social & Public Policy Review, 2012; 6, 1, pp. 20-39 -
http://www.uppress.co.uk/socialpolicy_pdf/Berman%20herman.pdf), proposing
thefollowingdimensionsanddevelopments:
ApproachtoReality ApproachtoLaw
Immediateappropriationofnature Spontaneousnaturallawaslawofnature(environmentallaw)
Successivedivisionoflabour Divinelaw
Successivedivisionofcontrol Canonlaw7
Emergenceofsystemsofcommunalproduction8
Commonlaw
Heavilyexchangebasedeconomiesandsocietiesemphasisingtheimportanceofcivicnessasdistinctarea
BeginningwiththeLexDuodecimTabularumtheRomanlawandthelatercivillaw
Prospectedsocialqualitysociety GlobalHumanRightsApproach
matrix8:RecognitionRealityRegulation
(ibid.: 35)
Thiscannotbeelaboratedatthispoint.Importantistofindagainananalytical
approachthatrecognisesthedifferentperspectivesonrightsandsubsequently
onlawnotassomethingemergingfromdifferentmoralandnormativesystems
buttheotherwayroundlocalisestheminthecontextofthedevelopmentofthe
productive forces and the mode of production. This in the given context
importantinordertochallengeustorethinkaswellthequestionofthemeaning
of rights-basedapproaches, overcoming the highly individualised concept and
limitationsofWesternjurisprudence(seeinthiscontextlectureonSocialQuality:
7 Thoughinawiderunderstanding,aslawofreligiousbodies/institutions8 Though well going hand in hand with a separation of power and control, thus including feudal and especially
capitalistsystems
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Rethinking Social Policy and Economics as Mode of Social Thinking; Shanghai
2013).
XIIIAcceptingthischallenge,alittlebitoffoulingtheownnestisattheendmost
appropriate, looking at academia and a rather fundamental or structural
conservative attitude towards generating knowledge and academic
development,amatter that hadbeen already a long time nicely expressedby
HeinrichHeineinthealreadyquotedHarzreise.
Hinter Weende begegneten mir der Schfer und Doris. Dieses ist
nicht das idyllische Paar, wovon Gener singt, sondern es sind
wohlbestallte Universittspedelle, die wachsam aufpassen mssen,
da sich keine Studenten in Bovden duellieren, und da keine neuen
Ideen, die noch immer einige Decennien vor Gttingen Quarantaine
halten mssen, von einem spekulierenden Privatdocenten
eingeschmuggelt werden. ....... Dann und wann rollte auch Einspnner vorber, wohlbepackt mit
Studenten, die fr die Ferienzeit oder auch fr immer wegreisten. In
solch' einer Universittsstadt ist ein bestndiges Kommen und
Abgehn, alle drei Jahre findet man dort eine neue
Studentengeneration. Das ist ein ewiger Menschenstrom, wo eine
Semesterwelle die andere fortdrngt, und nur die alten Professoren
bleiben stehen in dieser allgemeinen Bewegung, unerschtterlich
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fest, gleich den Pyramiden gyptens nur da in diesen
Universittspyramiden keine Weisheit verborgen ist.
(Heine)
i Dr.phil(Bremen,Germany).StudiesinSociology(Bielefeld,Germany),Economics(Hamburg,Germany),Political
Science(Leipzig,Germany)andSocialPolicyandPhilosophy(Bremen,Germany).Since2013heissenioracademicattheEuropeanObservatoryforSocialQualitywhichisanewresearchunitatEURISPESinRome,Italy.HeisalsoadjunctprofessorattheUniversityofEasternFinland(UEF),DepartmentofSocialSciences(Kuopio,Finland),honoraryassociateprofessoratCorvinusUniversityinBudapest,FacultyofEconomics,DepartmentofWorldEconomyandvisitingprofessoratUniversityCollegeCork,SchoolofAsianStudies.HehadbeenteachingatseveralThirdLevelInstitutionsacrosstheEU;currentlycorrespondenttotheMaxPlanckInstituteforForeignandInternationalSocialLaw(Munich,Germany).HeholdspositionasforinstancethatofasenioradvisortotheEuropeanFoundationonSocialQuality(TheHague,Netherlands),memberoftheAdvisoryBoardofEURISPESInstitutodiStudiPolitici,EconomicieSociali,Rome,memberoftheScientificBoardanditscoordinationcommitteeofATTACAssociationpourlataxationdestransactionsfinancirespourlaideauxcitoyens,AssociateMemberoftheEurasianCenterforBigHistoryandSystemForecasting,LomonosowMoscowStateUniversity,Russia..Heheldvariouspositionsasvisitingprofessoratdifferentuniversities.HealsohadbeenresearchfellowatNationalTaiwanUniversity,Taipei;TheCairnsInstitute,JamesCookUniversity,Australia;VisitingScholar
atOrtaDoguTeknikniversitesi(ODTU),Ankara,Turkey;VisitingScholarattheMax-Planck-InstitutefrSozialrechtundSozialpolitik,Munich,Germany.HestartedhisworkinresearchingEuropeanSocialPolicyandinparticulartheroleofNGOs.HismaininterestshiftedoverthelastyearstowardsdevelopingtheSocialQualityApproachfurther,lookinginparticularintothemeaningofeconomicquestionsandquestionsoflaw.Helinkedthiswithquestionsonthedevelopmentofstateanalysisandthequestionofsocialservices.Onbothtopicshepublishedwidely.Memberofseveraleditorialboards;editorofthebookseriesAppliedSocialStudiesRecentDevelopments,InternationalandComparativePerspectives(NewYork,USA)andStudiesinComparativePedagogiesandInternationalSocialWorkandSocialPolicy(Bremen,Germany);peer-reviewingforseveraljournalsinthesocialareaandbookseries.