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FacultyofBusinessAdministration&Economics
InstituteforCooperationinDevelopingCountries
(InstitutfrKooperationinEntwicklungslndern)
AmPlan2,D35037Marburg,Germany
FinalReport
IDEntifyingandAnalysingNewIssuesinDesertification:
ResearchTrendsandResearchNeedS
IDEASProject1November200931December2010
AlexanderBisaro,MichaelKirk,
WilliZimmermann,PandiZdruli
Marburg2011
Fundedby
BMBF
GermanFederalMinistryofEducationandResearch
(Bundesministerium frBildungundForschung)
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Pleasecitethisreportasfollows:
Bisaro,A.,Kirk,M.,Zimmermann,W.,andZdruli,P.,2011.Analysingnewissuesindesertification:
research trends and research needs. Final report of the IDEAS project to the German Federal
Ministryof
Education
and
Research
(BMBF),
Institute
for
Co
operation
in
Developing
Countries,
Marburg,Germany.
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ListofAbbreviations
ACSAD ArabCenterforAridZonesandDryLands
ADB AsianDevelopmentBank
ADMnet ArabDesertificationMonitoringandAssessmentNetwork
BMBF Bundesministerium frBildungundForschung
BMZ Bundesministerium frwirtschaftlicheZusammenarbeitundEntwicklung
CACILM CentralAsianCountriesInitiativeforLandManagement
CDM CleanDevelopmentMechanism
CGIAR ConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch
CSR CorporateSocialResponsibility
CST CommitteeonScienceandTechnology
CWANA CentralandWestAsiaandNorthAfrica
DDP DrylandsDevelopmentParadigm
DIE/GDI DeutschesInstitutfrEntwicklungspolitik/
GermanDevelopmentInstitute
DLDD Desertification,LandDegradationandDrought
DPSIR DriverPressureStateImpactResponse
DRCH DrylandResearchCentreHamburg
ESCWA EconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia
EU EuropeanUnion
FAO
Food
and
Agriculture
Organization
of
the
United
Nations
FDI ForeignDirectInvestment
GCC GulfCooperationCouncil
GDP GrossDomesticProduct
EF GlobalEnvironmentFacility
GIS GeographicInformationSystem
GLASOD GlobalAssessmentofSoilDeterioration
GLOWA GlobalChangeandtheHydrologicalCycle
GM GlobalMechanism
GTZ GesellschaftfrtechnischeZusammenarbeitICARDA InternationalCenterforAgriculturalResearchintheDryAreas
IDEAS IdentifyingandAnalysingNewIssuesinDesertification: ResearchTrendsand
ResearchNeeds
IEA InternationalEnvironmentalAgreements
IFAD InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment
IFPRI InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute
InWent InternationaleWeiterbildungundEntwicklunggGmbH
IPCC IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange
KAZA KavangoZambeziTransfrontierConservationArea
KfW KreditanstaltfrWiederaufbau
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LADA LandDegradationAssessmentinDrylands
LAPs LocalActionPlans
LCA LifeCycleAnalysis
LDC LeastDevelopedCountries
LGAF LandGovernanceAssessmentFramework
MEA MilleniumEcosystemAssessment
MDG MillenniumDevelopmentGoals
MENA MiddleEastandNorthAfricacountries
NAP NationalActionPlans
NARS NationalAgriculturalResearchSystems
NGO NonGovernmentalOrganisation
NPP NetPrimaryProductivity
NVDI NormalisedVegetationDifferentiationIndex
OECD OrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment
OSS ObservatoireduSaheletSahara
PCAD PlantoCombatAdvancingDesertification
PES PaymentforEcosystemServices
PIK PotsdamInstitutfrKlimafolgenforschung/
PotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearch
REDD ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandDegradation
REWS RegionalEarlyWarningSystemforcombatingDesertification
RSSC RegionalScienceServicesCentres
SLM
Sustainable
Land
Management
SOC SoilOrganicCarbon
SWC SoilandWaterConservation
UNCCD UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification
UNDP UnitedNationsDrylandsProgram
UNECE UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope
UNEP UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme
UNESCO UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation
WASCAL WestAfricanScienceServiceCenteronClimateandAdaptedLandUse
WB WorldBankWOCAT WorldOverviewofConservationApproachesandTechnologies
WRI WorldResourceInstitute
ZEF ZentrumfrEntwicklungsforschung/Center forDevelopmentResearch
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Contents:
Part1:Problemsetting..................................................................................................6
1. ProblemStatement:DLDDindrylands...............................................................6
2. IDEASproject......................................................................................................7
3. Rationalefordrylandsinvestments....................................................................8
4. Structureofthispaper........................................................................................8
Part2:Researchtrendsandresearchneeds...................................................................9
1. Changing(global)frame conditions........................................................................9
1. Risingfoodandenergyprices...................................................................9
2. Carbonmarkets...........................................................................................10
3. Complexityinglobalinterconnections........................................................11
4. Climatechange............................................................................................11
2. AgriculturaldevelopmentandSLM.....................................................................13
1. subsistencevs.marketforces............................................................................13
2. SLMandDLDD:technologies.............................................................................14
3. SLMandDLDD:adoption..................................................................................15
4. SLM: summaryandconclusions.......................................................................16
5. Biofuels.............................................................................................................17
1. Jatropha......................................................................................................17
6. Future
of
farming
systems
in
drylands
..........................................................18
3. Alternativelivelihoods.........................................................................................20
1. PaymentforEcosystemServices:Carbonsequestration.............................20
2. Ecotourism...................................................................................................21
3. Solarenergy...............................................................................................22
4. Landandwaterinteractions.......................................................................22
4. CostsofDLDD ....................................................................................................23
1. Productivity................................................................................................232. Foodemergencies......................................................................................24
3. Restoration.................................................................................................24
5. MonitoringandassessingDLDD:indicators...........................................................25
Part3:RegionalAssessments......................................................................................27
1. Arabregion............................................................................................................27
2. Crosscuttingissues...........................................................................................31
1. Landgovernance..............................................................................................31
2. Scalingofresearch...........................................................................................32
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3. Knowledgemanagement................................................................................32
4. Capacitybuilding.............................................................................................33
Part4:Products..........................................................................................................34
Part5:
German
scientific
capacities............................................................................35
References..................................................................................................................36
Annex1:Furtherreading
Stateoftheartonnaturalsciencefindingsandgapsinlanddegradation,desertification,
sustainablelandmanagementresearchandmonitoring
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1.ProblemSetting
1.1ProblemStatement:Desertification,landdegradationanddrought
Desertificationhasbeenarecognisedenvironmentalcumdevelopmentproblemfordecades,with
theissuefirstattractingglobalattentionwiththeSaheldroughtsandattendantfoodcrisesofthe
1970s.Initialpoliticalandinstitutionalresponses,e.g.UNEPguidedPlantoCombatAdvancing
Desertification(PCAD),werebasedonthenarrow,yetwidelyreproduced,imageofrapidly
advancingdesertsindrylandsdrivenbylocalhumanactivities.Globalconcernwiththeissue
resultedintheUNConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD)in1992.Yetdevelopment
interventionsaddresstheimpactsofthisglobalphenomenonareseentohavelargelyfailed.
Populationslivingindrylandsremainamongthemostvulnerableintheworld,whileglobalscale
forces,suchasglobalisationandchangingmarketconditions,havenotreduced,andpossibly
contributedto,increasesinthisvulnerability.
SubsequentresearchhasshowntheparticularinstanceofdesertadvanceintheSaheltonotonly
bereversible(greeningoftheSahel),butalsotodependonamyriadoffactors,includingrainfall
variation.Desertificationisnotsimplytheadvancingmarchofsanddunesacrosspreviously
productiveareas,butrelatestoamoregeneralphenomenonofenvironmentaldegradationandits
interactionwithhumanpopulations.Desertificationhassincebeendefinedaslanddegradationin
arid,semiaridanddrysubhumidareasresultingfromvariousfactors,includingclimaticvariations
andhumanactivities(UNCCD),wherelanddegradationisdefined,followingtheMillenium
EcosystemAssessmentreport(Adeeletal.,2005),asthelossofbiologicaloreconomic
productivity.
Such
a
definition
is
based
on
the
framework
of
ecosystems
services,
and
takes
as
an
essentialcomponenttheimpactsoflanddegradationonthewelfareofaffectedpopulations,
highlightingtheintegratednatureofsocialandecologicalsystemsindrylands.
Desertificationhashowevernotinthepastbeenseenasaproblemoflinkedsocialecological
systems.Intheeightiesandearlyninetiesofthepastcentury,itwasalmostsolelythepreferred
domainofsoilscientists.Themajorachievementofthatperiodwasthepublicationin1991ofthe
statusofhumaninducedsoildegradation(GLASOD,Oldemanetal.,1991),whichfoundthat17%
ofvegetatedlandgloballywasdegraded,largelybyerosion,and1in6hectarescouldnolongerbe
cultivated.Themaincausesofthisenvironmentaldisasterweredeforestationandadversefarmingpracticessuchasovergrazing. Indrylands,thesituationwasmuchworse.Drylands,thatisarid,
semiaridanddrysubhumidareas,covernearly41%oftheearth'ssurface,andarehometo2
billionpeople,adisproportionatelygreateramountofwhomliveinpoverty.Morethan1billionha
indrylandswereestimatedtobedegraded:467millionbywatererosion,432millionbywind
erosion,100millionhabychemicaldeteriorationand35millionhabyphysicaldeterioration.
Itwasonlyafterthemidninetiesandthedawnofthenewmillenniumthatsoildegradation
startedtobeincreasinglyseenalsoasasocioeconomicproblem.However,thishasnotleadina
straightforwardmannertoacommonlyagreedsetofindicatorsformonitoringandassessingthe
stateofdesertification. Despitestudiesonthisissuesince2001,theCommitteeonScienceand
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Technology(CST)oftheUnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD)failedfor
thebetterpartofadecadetoarriveatanagreeduponsetofindicatorsasguidancefornational
governments.Thechallengesofmonitoring,assessingandrespondingtolanddegradationin
drylandsarenotonlyofascientificnature,butalsoincludepoliticaleconomyconcernswhichhave
presentedbarrierstosuccessfulimplementationoftheUNCCD. Indrylandcountries,rural
populationsoftendonothaveaccesstoextensionservicesanddecisionmakingwhichcanaffect
theirlivelihoods.Thisisparticularlythecaseinregardtopotentialdrylanddevelopmentssuchas
biofuelprojects,whenundertakenincommonlands(seeSection2.2.5).
Recentinsightsfromresilience,vulnerability,povertyandcommunitybaseddevelopmentresearch
haveinformedtheDrylandDevelopmentParadigm(DDP)(Reynoldsetal.2007),whichpointsto5
factorswhichdefinedrylandareas:highclimatevariability,lowfertility,sparsepopulation,
remoteness,distantvoice.TheDPPfocusesondynamiccoupledhumanenvironmentsystems,
wheretheimportanceofslowvariables,thresholds,nestedandscaledmultilevelgovernance,and
localecologicalknowledgeisemphasised.Drylandsecosystemsarenotseenasunidirectional,
evolvingtowardsapeakecologicalstate,rathertheyaredynamicalsystemspossiblyswitching
betweenalternativestates(Holling,1973).Further,contextualityisimportantinassessingDLDD,as
indicatorsfordegradationinonesettingmightnotbeappropriatewhenseenintheframeworkof
localecosystemserviceprovisioninanothersetting.TheDPPhasbeenlargelyembracedbythe
researchcommunity,representingashiftawayfromsingledisciplineperspectiveofsoil
degradation,towardsacceptanceofmultipleinteractingcauses(GeistandLambin,2004),non
linearity,andtheimportanceadaptiveresponsesoflocalpopulationsinthefaceofrapidglobal
changes
(Mortimore,
2005b).
Thesefindingspointtoexistingdisciplinaryimbalancesinresearch,anlackofattentionofapplied
science to the urgent needs for practical change and livelihood improvements, an incomplete
understand of political economy concerns affecting knowledge, an undervaluation of
stakeholders and insufficient interagency coordination. This Scoping Paper contributes to
narrowingexistinggapsbyformulatingperspectivesforrenewedresearchprioritiestogetherwith
a new understanding of the requirements expressed for research from the scientific and
practitionercommunities,civilsocietyandpolicymakers.
1.2 TheIDEASProject:IdentifyingandAnalysingNewIssuesinDesertification:ResearchTrends
andResearchNeeds
TheBMBFhasaskedthePhilippsUniversittMarburginGermanytocoordinateandpreparea
ScopingPaperthatshould1)analysethepresentstateofresearchindesertification/sustainable
landmanagementrelatedissuesand;2)provideinputsfornewtrendsandresearchneedsfor
additionalimprovements. TheintentionsoftheBMBFaretolinktheoutcomes withitsongoing
activitiesonsustainablelandmanagementandrelatedfieldsofresearchandpolicyformulation
(e.g.Biodiversity)possiblytoprovidefundingforaninternationalcollaborativeresearchand
cooperationproject/programme totackleDLDDandSLMfromvariousperspectives.
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This Scoping Paper presents research based on two core activities: 1. interdisciplinary desk
researchwhichhasfocusedonanalyzingthestateoftheartandidentifyinggapsinrecentresearch
ondesertification, landdegradationanddroughts.2.Feedbackmechanisms including interviews
withdecisionmakers,highrankingbureaucratsand implementersatanationaland international
levelregardingtheresultsofourdeskworkstudy.Focusgroupdiscussionandinterviewswiththe
expertscientificcommunityand implementingagenciesregardingourgapanalysisresults.These
are BMZ, its implementing agencies (GTZ, KfW, InWent), national and international centres of
applied research, suchasGDI,CGIAR centres, IFPRIand internationalorganizationsand regimes
(e.g.FAO,OECD,WorldBank,UNEP,UNDPDrylandsProgram,GEF,DesertnetInternational).
1.3Rationalefordrylandsinvestment
Thereareseveralcompellingrationalesforinvestmentindrylands.Drylandsarehometolarge
populationslivingatlowlevelsofpoverty.Thesepopulationsaresovastthataddressingtheir
povertyisakeytoachievingtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Second,theircapacityto
contributetofoodsecurity,bothatlocalandatnationallevels,isconsideredbymanytobeunder
threat(Mortimore,2005a),increasingthedangerthataffectedruralpopulationswillbecome
permanentlydependentonsocialtransfers.Thesevastareasofferalargenegativepotentialfor
environmentaldegradation,withsevereimpactsontheprovisioningoftheglobalcommons,e.g.
throughthelossofcarbonstorageinsoilandvegetation.Further,manydevelopmentinvestments
haveuptonowfailedtoreversetheseobservedtrends.Consideringthechangesinkeyframe
conditionsatthegloballevelinrecentyears,suchasrisingfoodprices,emergingcarbonmarkets,
climate
changes,
and
new
land
market
dynamics,
this
creates
an
urgent
need
for
policy
to
find
new
approaches.Risingglobalfoodpriceshaveincreasedthisurgency,asvariousstudiesconcludethat
ruralpovertywouldgenerallyincreaseintheshortruniffoodpricesweretorisesubstantially,.
Thustherecentfoodcrisisoffersopportunitiestoaddresstheimbalanceswithintheglobal
agriculturalsystemrelatedtodrylandsthathavebeenexposedincludingalackofinvestmentand
agriculturalaid.
1.4Thestructureofthispaper
Thispaperpresentstheresultsofaliteraturereview,expertinterviewsandfeedbackmechanismswith the community of expert scientists and practitioners in desertification and drylands
management. We base our analyses on the new concept of Desertification, Land Degradation,
DesertificationandDrought(DLDD).Wefirst identifyseveral changes inframeconditionsatthe
global level,effecting landusedecisionsatnationalandsubnational levels. Wediscusseachof
thesechangingframeconditionsandtheirimpactonDLDDresearchneedsacrossdifferentsectors
(Part2).AregionalanalysisofDLDDispresentedfocusingontheArabregionandCentralAsia(Part
3).Next,wediscuss theproducts thatcanbeexpected fromnewprojects inDLDD (Part4).We
concludewithadiscussionofGermandrylands researchcapacity (Part5). Finally,wenote that
thispaperisacondensedversionofourresearchresults.Werefertheinterestedreadertothisfull
version(Bisaroetal.,2010)formoreindepthdiscussionoftheissuespresentedhere.
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Part2:Researchtrendsandresearchneeds
2.1Changing(global)frameconditions
Therecentriseandincreasedvolatilityofworldfood(andenergy)prices,theemergenceofcarbon
marketsandanincreaseincomplexityofglobalinterconnections, suchastheimpactof
differentiatedandchangingconsumerpreferencesinindustrialisedanddevelopingnationsand
subsidies,aredirectlyrelevanttoeffortstocombatlanddegradationindrylands.Additionally,on
thebiophysicalside,climatechangewillcauseincreasingtemperaturesandwaterscarcity,
introducingnewuncertaintiesandpotentiallyworseninglanddegradationissues.Thissection
explorestheimpactsofthesechangesinframeconditions,fordecisionmakersatdifferentlevels,
andwhattheymeanforresearchprioritiesonlanddegradationindrylands.
2.1.1Foodandenergyprices
Foodandenergy,especiallyoil,pricesrosedramaticallyoverthecourseof20072008leadingto
foodemergenciesinmanydevelopingcountries.Volatilityinthesepriceshasalsoincreased. These
changesareimportantinregardstodesertification(landdegradationindrylands)forseveral
reasons:
drylandcountriesgenerallyhavehighlevelsofpovertyandthepoorspendahigher
proportionoftheirincomeonfoodconsumption;
manydrylandcountriesarenetfoodimporters;
higherfoodpricesprovideincentivesforagriculturalexpansionintolandsinappropriateto
farming;
risingenergypriceshavecausedagriculturalinputs,suchasinorganicfertilizer,torise
relativetofoodprices,potentiallymakingsustainablelandmanagementandconservation
agriculturepracticesmoreprofitable;
subsistencefarmingisstillimportantespeciallyinsubSaharanAfrica(seeSection2.1).
Regardinglanddegradation,increasedfood(andenergy)pricescanmeanincreasedprofitability
foragricultureandSLMinsubsaharanAfrica(Pender2009).Thisissobecausethepriceoffarming
inputs,suchasinorganicfertilizer,haverisenmorethanthepriceofcorn,wheatandcassava,
makingsustainablelandandfarmingpracticesmoreprofitablerelativetoconventionalmethods.Similarly,increasingfoodpriceshavemadesoilandwaterconservationpracticesmoreprofitable,
althoughtheeffectisambiguouswhencomparedwithprofitabilityofnonconservationpractices.
Higherfoodpricesincreasetheimportanceofsoilandwaterconservation(SWC)approachesin
drylandsbecausetheycreatestrongerincentivesforfarmerstopracticeSWCcomparedtonon
drylands(seeSection2.2).
Despitetheabovementionedresultstherehavebeenrelativelyfewstudiesdirectlyinvestigating
theimpactoffoodpricesonadoptionofSLMtechniques.Thereissimilarlylimitedbutconsistent
evidenceforrisingfoodpricescontributingtoagriculturalexpansionanddeforestation(Pender
2009).Thesedynamicsclearlypointtotherelevanceofchangingfoodpricestolanddegradationin
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drylands,boththroughdirectimpactsonthelivelihoodsofdrylandpopulationsandthrough
changedincentivesinlandmanagementpractices.Theresearchprioritiesthatthispresentswillbe
addressedindetailbelowinsectionsonSLMadoptioninagriculture,landtenureandtheregional
assessment(Section3.1).Risingfood(andenergy)pricespresentnewresearchneedsindrylands,
whileofferingopportunitiestoaddressthefundamentalimbalanceswithintheglobalagricultural
systemthathavebeenexposedincludingalackofinvestmentandagriculturalaidandover
relianceonthereservesystemsofmajorproducers.
2.1.2Carbonmarkets
Astheimpactsofclimatechangebecomeapparent,urgencyforactiononmitigatingitseffectsis
increasing.Emissionsfromlandusechangeareestimatedtomakeup20%ofatmosphericcarbon
dioxidethroughlossofbiomassandsoilorganicmatter(Smithetal.,2007).Althoughdrylands
storemuchlesscarbonperhectarethanhumidregions,thevastsurfaceareaofglobaldrylands
(nearly40%ofgloballandcover)makesthemahighlysignificantglobalcarbonsink(Lal,2009).
Somearguethatthepotentialforstoringcarbonindrylandsoilsmayinfactbecomparableona
perhectarebasistothatofhumidareasbecause,asopposedtosoilinhumidareas,drylandsoils
havesufferedpreviouslossofsoilorganiccarbon(SOC)fromdegradation(Farageetal.2007).
Restoringdegradedsoilsthushasasignificantpotentialasatmosphericcarbonsink. TheIPCC
indicatesthatimprovedgrazingandcropmanagementwithcurrentlyavailabletechnologiesoffers
thebestoptionforatmosphericcarbonreductions(Smithetal.2007).Pastoralismisimportantin
this
regard,
as
where
rangelands
are
converted
to
cropland
up
to
95%
of
the
carbon
in
biomass
and
50%ofsoilcarbonislost(Lipperetal.,2010).Inthesamevein,convertingmarginalagricultural
areasbacktorangelandrestoresthecarbonlevelsto80percentofthenaturalsavannahcarbon
levelsoverthelongterm(Lal,2009).ConservationagriculturealsoplaysaroleasstudiesfromEast
AfricahaveshownthatincreasingfallowperiodsresultinincreasedSOCcontent(FAO,2004).
Therearefurtherbenefitstoincreasedcarbonsequestrationinsoils,ascropbiomassandseed
productionhavebeenfoundtobesignificantlycorrelatedwiththeSOCconcentrationindegraded
soilsinChina.Thesedevelopmentsarecomplementaryascarbonsequestrationcanbeachievedby
reducinglanddegradationandrehabilitatingdegradedlands,thusincreasingbiological
productivitythroughincreasedsoilorganiccarbon.
Emergingcarbonmarketsarethuspotentiallyanopportunitytoimproverangelandqualityand
productivityaswellasforincreasedruralincomesandpastoralistmarketparticipation. The
expansionofcarbonmarketstoincludesoilcarbonsinksthroughtheUNFCCCCleanDevelopment
Mechanism(CDM)ortheBioCarbonFundpromotetheuseofterrestrialcarbonsinkswhile
providingextraincomeforlocalfarmersandlivestockkeepers(BioCarbonFund2009).
Despitetheseadvantages,uncertaintyremainsastohowthesemarketswilldevelop,as
methodologiesfortheattributionofcarbonsequestrationoverlongertimesscalesarenotyet
widelyagreedupon.Makingcarbontradingoperationalwithrespecttosoilsequestrationrequires
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agreedmethodologiesforassessingdegradedlandinrelationtocarbon.Tounderstandthe
possibleimplicationsofanationalpolicytopromotethedevelopmentoflandthatisdegraded
fromacarbonstandpointwillrequiredistinguishingbetweentermsthatrefertophysicalstatus
andcarboncontent,andthosethatrefertosociolegalstatus.Identifyingacceptabledegraded
areasforrestorationwillfurthermorerequirethatpolicymakersdevelopaparticipatorydecision
makingprocessinformedbyaccurateanduptodatespatialdatathataddressesenvironmental,
economic,social,andlegalconsiderations(Section2.6).
2.1.3Globalinterconnections:increasingcomplexity
Marketsandvaluechainshavebecomemoreinterconnectedacrossregionsandlevelsinthepast
decade.Astradeliberalisationandforeigndirectinvestmenthaveincreased,thecomplexityof
interconnectionsisincreasingwithimportantimplicationsfordrylands.Ingeneral,subsistence
farmingplaysgreaterroleinDLDDthanmarkets,however,sincetheturnofthecenturydrylands
havewitnessedstrongerimpactsofchanginginternationalconsumptionpatternsandlifestyles.
Themassivedemandforbiofuels,drivenlargelybytheclimatechangeissue,hasalreadyledtoa
lossofpasturesanddeforestation.Atthesametime,standardizedcropping,inpartstemmingfrom
largescalebiofuelprojects,reducesthepresenceanduseoflocaladaptedcropsandendangers
biodiversity.Whileencouragementofforeigndirectinvestment(FDI)canpotentiallygenerate
economicgrowthandincome,drylandcountriesoftendonothave(yet)policiesinplacenorthe
capacitytoincludeenvironmentalimpactassessmentsintheseprojects.Similarly,largescale
developmentstakenplaceoncommonlandswithnoformaltitling,riskdisplacinglocal,customary
use
and
access
rights
for
traditional
livelihoods.
Initial
evidence
points
to
the
dangers
of
large
scale
projectsforthewelfareoflocalpopulations,althoughoutgrowerschemesundertakeninan
appropriateinstitutionalenvironmentshowmorepositivepotential(seeSection2.2.7).
Despiteincreasinglyfreetradeinmanysectorsglobally,NorthSouthrelationsarealsoverymuch
shapedbysubsidiesforagricultureintheUSAandEU.Drylandsproducerscannotaccesscertain
internationalmarkets,whiletheymayalsonotbeabletocompetewithgoodsproducedwiththe
helpofsubsidies.Atthesametime,countriesoftheglobalNorthwhicharemovingtowards
greeneconomiesexportenvironmentalimpactsoftheirproduction.Thisisseenbythevirtual
waterconceptwhichdemonstratesthattotalwaterconsumptionmaynotbeaccountedforwithinacountriesborder,butincludestheirrigationinvolvedinproducingfoodimports.
2.1.4Climatechange
Drylandsarethemselvesvulnerabletotheimpactsofclimatechange.TheIPCChasdetected
changesindrylandsovertheperiod19002005,withrainfallhasdeclininginsouthernAfrica,parts
ofIndiaandMexicoandintheSahel. Theimpactsofclimatechangeintheseareasmayleadto
furthercarbonemissions,whilenyfurtherfailureofplantgrowthduetoincreasedtemperatures
wouldfurtherreducecarboninputstothesoil,acceleratingitsdegradation.Evenpartiallossof
vegetationintegritycouldmakesoilsmorevulnerabletodegradationthrough grazingand
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cultivation(Smithetal.2007).
Climatechangewillproducebothdirectandindirectimpacts,withdirectimpactsresultingfrom
increasedfrequencyofextremeevents,andincreasedvariabilityandshiftsintemperatureand
precipitationpatterns.Thesechangesresultinincreasingfloodsanddroughts,spreadofdisease
incidence,suchasmalaria,infrastructuredestructionindrylands,shorteningofthegrowing
season. Indirecteffectsaretheresultofpoliciesaimedatmitigatingclimatechange,asincreases
inagriculturalproductiondevotedtobiofuelswilleffectfoodpricesandcarbonmarketswill
increasethevalueoftropicalforestland.Increasedrisksfromclimatechangedecreaseincentives
forfarmerstoinvestinlandandlabour,possiblycreatingmoreextensivepastoralsystems.
Stillsignificantknowledgegapsremain.Ononehand,thefeedbacksbetweenglobalclimate,
vegetation,precipitationandcarboncyclepresentseriouschallengesformodelling (Andersenet
al.2009).Thereisarelativelackofprecise,downscaledanduserfriendlymodellingofdriversfor
respectiveimpactsofclimatevariabilityanddrought.Additionally,whilethereiswidespread
agreementthatclimatechangewilllikelyincreasetemperaturesindrylands,forvariabilitythe
impactsarelessclear.1Ontheotherhand,thetimeseriesonrecordfordrylandsof3050year
timeseriesforassessingroleofclimatevariationandchangeinlanddegradationisnotsufficient,
astheexperienceofthegreeningoftheSahelshows.Thereisaneedforlongertermchange
researchontheroleofclimateinlanddegradation.
Howeverunderstandingandsupportinglocalpopulationscapacitytoadaptremainsan
interdisciplinary
challenge
which
cannot
be
addressed
with
improved
biophysical
information
alone(Hinkeletal.,2009). Whilebothmodellingandlongtimeseriesapproachesareimportant,
thesemustbecomplementedwithgroundtruthinglocalinputsinaparticipatoryapproach.This
impliesintensifiedinterchangebetweentherespectiveclimateanddesertificationresearch
communities,includingparticipatorymodellingexercisingtoalignregionalclimatescenarioswith
localcopingandadaptationstrategies.
Thesegapsareinpartaresultofpoorcommunicationbetweentheclimateanddesertification
communities.TheMEAcarriedoutscenarioanalysisonlanddegradation,buttheissuewasonly
brieflyaddressedinboththeIPCCandSternReport.Occurringandfutureimpactsofclimatechangeindrylandsdemonstratetheurgencyofaddressingthesegapsthroughanintensified
interchangebetweentherespectivescientificcommunities.Theclimatechangeissuehasopened
upnewopportunitiesfordrylandstoaccessinternationaldonorfunds,yetinordertotake
advantageofthisbetterinformationisneededontheimpactoflandusechangesand
desertificationoncarbonsequestrationandthecostbenefitratioofsoilimprovementandcarbon
sequestrationpracticesforsmalllandholdersandsubsistencefarmersindrylandecosystems
(Adeeletal.,2005).
1 For example, differentmodelresultsforprecipitationinWestAfricaarenotinagreement(Andersenetal.
2009).
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Implicationsfordrylandsresearch:
Foodandenergyprices:
landscapeandtargetgroupspecificapproachesneededtoassessimpactondesertification
optionsfor,andlimitsof,agriculturalintensificationandencroachment tobeexplored;
localversusregionalincentivesmayfavourdualgovernanceapproaches,
assessinglandusetradeoffsandmappingproductivelands,linktoSustainableLand
Managementwork(BMBF)
Carbonmarkets:
methodsdemonstratinglandmanagementleadingtolongtermsoilsequestration;
improvingmodellingasexistingapproacheslacklocalverification;
lowcostlocallevelparticipatorymonitoringwithstakeholders;
potentialof
restoration
to
increase
productivity
and
PES
interdisciplinaryresearchissueofstructuringdiversitybetweenregions
Globalinterconnections:
marketandnonmarketincentivesneeded
policyframeworkstoregulateimpactsofFDIontheenvironmentandlocallivelihood
interdisciplinaryresearchembeddedinexistingglobalintiatives(FAO,IFAD,WB)
Climatechange:
improvedmodelling
and
long
time
scale
data
needed
intensifiedinterchangebetweenclimateanddesertificationresearchcommunities
participatorymodellingtoalignregionalclimatescenarioswithlocalcopingand
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2.2AgriculturaldevelopmentandSLM2.2.1Marketorientedvs.subsistenceproduction
Fordrylandcountries,withthehighestratesofpovertyandinfantmortalityintheworld,
agricultureisparticularlyimportant.The2008WorldDevelopmentReportestimatesthatGDP
growthoriginatinginagricultureisaboutfourtimesmoreeffectiveinraisingincomesofextremely
poorpeoplethanGDPgrowthfromothersources(WorldBank,2008). Thisisthecasebecause
drylandsoftensupporttraditionallivelihoodsbasedonsmallholderfarmingandpastoralism,
whereforexample,onefindsthat70%ofthelaborforceinsubsaharanAfricaisstillengagedin
theagriculturalsector.Ontheotherhand,recentevidencefromsubsaharanAfricarevealsthat
althoughthereisarelationshipbetweenlanddegradationandpoverty,strategieswhichrelyon
agriculturalmodernisationandintensificationalonemayreducepoverty,butcanhavenegative
orambiguousenvironmentalimpacts(Nkonyaetal.2008).Inotherwords,povertyreduction
pursuedthroughagriculturalinvestmentsmustbecomplementedbyeffortstoincreaseadoption
ofsustainablelandmanagementpracticesalsoinlessfavouredregions.Certainstrategies,suchas
soilandwaterconservationoragroforestry,arewinwininthisrespect,contributingtothe
reductionofbothpovertyandlanddegradation,whileothersencouragingofffarmincomedonot
implytradeoffs.Finally,someinvestments,suchasthoseassociatedwithagricultural
intensification,mayinvolvetradeoffsbetweenenvironmentalanddevelopmentgoals.
Aninsightfromrecentresearchisthattheimpactofincentives,suchasinputsubsidies,ishighly
contextdependent.Agriculturalproductioninmanydrylandareasismixedbetweensubsistence
and
market
orientation.
As
discussed,
the
impacts
of
rising
food
prices
and
increasing
environmentalriskscanpotentiallyincreaseincentivesforwaterandsoilconservationagricultural
practices,whileatthesametimeprovidingarationalefortheexpansionofagricultureintomore
marginalandfragileareaswithnegativeimpactsonlanddegradation. Scientificandpolicyinputs
intothesedevelopmentpathwaysmusttakeintoaccountthatdrylandfarmerscanberesponsive
toeithermarketandsubsistenceneeds.
2.2.2SLMandDLDD:technologies
SustainableLandManagement(SLM)offerstremendousopportunitiesandbenefitsfordrylands.TheWorldOverviewofConservationApproachesandTechnologies(WOCAT)project hasclearly
identifiedmanyofthem.AfirstconclusionisthatinvestmentsinSLMandoverallinrural
developmentpayoffinbothagriculturalproductionandenvironmentalquality. However,
SustainableLandManagementisdefinedinanarrowmannerwithintheUNCCDincontrasttoFAO
(landtenureservice)andotherprofessionalbodies.Thesociolegalandsocioeconomicaspectsof
land(landtenuresecurity,accesstoland,landeconomy,landpolicy)requiremuchmoreattention
andshouldbeanintegralcomponentofSLM.
ThebenefitsofSustainableLandManagementaresummarisedasfollows:
Reversenegativetrendsofresourcebasedegradationanddecliningagricultural
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Contributetomitigationandadaptationtoclimatechange
Improvelocallivelihoodsbyreducingpovertyandimprovingfoodsecurity
Safeguardandprovidestewardshipfornaturalresources
Preserveandenhanceecosystemservicesandfunctionality
Provideimportantenvironmentalbenefitsatlocal,regionalandgloballevels
TheMillenniumEcosystemAssessmentdescribestheecosystemgoodsandservicesandincludes
themintofourcategoriesidentifiedas:Supportingservices(soil,nutrientsupply,cropgrowth),
Provisioningservices(food,water,wood,fishing,hunting,geneticresources,etc),Regulating
services(carbonsequestration,airquality,climate,floods,diseases),andCulturalservices
(aesthetic,spiritual,religious,educational,andrecreation).SLMhasdirectimpactsonthese
servicesinanumberofdifferentways.Inrelationtoprovisioningservices,SLMcanincrease
productivityparticularlybyimprovingwateruseefficiencyandoptimisingnutrientandbiomass
cycles,whilealsoincreasingfoodsecurity,primarilyforthesmallholderfarmersindeveloping
countries.Inaddition,itcanprovidelocalenergysourcesaswellasbuildingmaterialsandfodder,
aswellasprovidinglocalfreshandcleandrinkingwater. Regardingregulatingandsupporting
services,SLMcanenhancevegetationcover;enhancesoildevelopmentandhelpincreasesoil
organicmattercontent;enhancenutrientcyclingandimprovesoilfertility;preservebiodiversity;
enhancecarbonsequestrationanddecreaseCO2releaseintheatmosphere;increasewater
infiltrationandreduceevaporationandrunoff;regulateriver,lakeandgroundwaterlevels;
regulatewaterdischargefromhighlandstolowlandareas;reducefloodinganddryingupofrivers.
In
relation
to
cultural
and
social
services,
SLM
can
keep
alive
cultural
and
natural
landscapes;
protectculturalheritage;protectandpromoteindigenousknowledge;supportsustainable
productiontechnologies;enhanceecotourismbyofferingneweconomicopportunities.
NumerousstudieshaveshownthatSLMhasthepotentialtoincreaseyieldsby30170percent,
increasesoilorganiccarbonupto1percentindegradedsoilsandupto23percentinhealthy
soils,andincreasewateruseefficiencybyupto100percent.SLMshouldbebasedprimarilyonsoil
andwatermanagement(terracing,contourplanting,living barriers,lowtillage,mulches,cover
cropsincludingbiological nitrogenfixinglegumes,grazingcorridors,water harvesting),andsoil
fertilitymanagement (manure,compost,biomasstransfer,agro forestryandnitrogenfixingtreesonfarms,integratedsoilfertility management).Further,approachestointroducingconservation
agriculturetechniques(notillage,bedandfurrowtechnologies,residuemanagement,etc.)in
drylands,includingirrigateddrylands,arepromisingastheyprovidealowcostentrypointforlong
termsustainability(seeFullReportformoredetails).
2.2.3SLMandDLDD:adoption
TheapplicationofthesetechnologiesaredemonstratedinsuccessstoriesfromsubsaharanAfrica
showingthatsoilandwaterconservationandagroforestryinterventionsandotherland
managementpracticescanhaveimmediateproductivitybenefitswhilecontributingtoreduced
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landdegradation(Penderetal.,2006,Nkonya,2004).Stillknowledgegapsremainregardingthe
adoptionofSLMtechnologiesandpracticesbylocalfarmersandconditionsforsuccessful
upscalingofSLM.Nkonyaetal.(2008)investigatetherelationshipbetweenprofitabilityand
adoptionofsustainablelandmanagementtechnologies,andfindthatprofitabilityisanecessary,
butnotsufficientconditionforadoption.Otherfactorswhichappearimportantareawarenessof
thelanddegradationproblem,securityoflandtenure,accesstomarkets,education,accessto
creditandagriculturaltechnicalassistance.However,theliteraturerarelyarrivesatunambiguous
conclusionsaboutthelinksbetweenanyoneofthesefactorsandlanddegradation.Takingaccess
tomarketsasoneexample,thishasbeenpositivelycorrelatedwithuptakeofsomeSLM
technologies,howeverremainshighlydependentoncontextualfactorssuchasthevalueofthe
cropgrown,creditavailabilityandruralinfrastructure.Attentiontothesevariouscontextualfactors
intermsoftheirprofitabilityandtherisktheyimplyforfarmersisakeyissueforfutureresearchto
bothunderstanddecisionmakingregardingSLM,andtodesignpoliciestosupportSLMadoption.
Adoptionissuesalsoraisekeyimplementationgaps,astheimportanceknowledgemanagement
andinstitutionalcontextscometothefore.Inthecaseofconservationtillage,formationof
communication,planningandmanagementplatformsappeartobeessentialforhighadoption
rates.Whileforpastoralism,akeyforproductivityandlowenvironmentalimpactsisaccessto
goodinformationformobilityandhealthandmarketaccess.
2.2.4SLM:Summaryandconclusions
RecentresearchshowsthemostpromisingapproachesforSLMconservationtechnologiesare
zero
tillage,
crop
residue
management,
drip
irrigation,
sprinkle
irrigation,
laser
leveling
of
fields
digitalmapping,satelliteimageryforinformationsharingaboutlandtypes.Furtheropportunities
doexistforresearchonconventionaltechnology,e.g.adaptedgermplasms.Howeverthereisalso
criticismofthetechnologicalapproachtosustainablelandmanagement.Conventionalscience
investsinincreasingthesalinitytoleranceofcrops,howeverthesecropscanincreasethesalinityin
soilsbeyondthebiologicalpotentialtobeproductive,sothatwaterremianslthelimitingfactor.
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ResearchprioritiesforSLM:1. Evaluatehowchangesinlanduseandlandmanagementaffectbiophysical
propertiesanddisturbanceregimesofterrestrialecosystems;
2. DefinebettertheroleoflandwithintheecosystemcomponentsandestablishtheimpactsofSLMintherecoveryofdegradedlands;
3. DefinesynergiesinSLMbenefitsnotonlyforlandconservationandlandstewardshipbutalsointermsofbiodiversityconservationandclimatechangemitigation;
4. Developmentandapplicationofframeworkstobetterintegratetechnicalandsocial
research;
5. Demonstratetheimportanceofbestmanagementpracticesaswellasdevelopmentofpolicyoptions,managementstrategies,andguidelinesforfuturesustained
interventionsinthedrylandsandbettervalorisetheirbiophysicalpotential;
6. Includelandvalueandecosystemservicesintothenationalfinancialaccounting
systems.
7. Definestrategiesandmethodsformatchingsustainablelanduseoptionsandsecureland
Thusliteratureandexpertconsultationshaveidentifiedknowledgegapsrelatingtopolicyand
institutionalenvironmentsforSLM.Thereisaneedtomovefromtechnologytransferto
researchtransferapproachesinwhichresearchersworkwithlocalscienceonlocalneeds;thisis
alsomorecosteffective.TheadoptionofSLMtechnologiesinpartdependsoncostandbenefits,
whichinturndependsonthefreedomoflanduserstoinnovateandtheirresources.Thereis
limitedknowledgeonthesecostsandbenefits,inpart,becausetheyarenottypicallyrecognized
bytechnologytransferthinking.Asanconceptualandanalyticalframeworkwhichaddressesand
integratesthetechnicaldimensionofresourceunitsandresourcesystemsaswellastheinterests
oftheirusersandresultinggovernancestructures,theSocioEcologicalSystemframeworkofE.
Ostrom(2009)mighthelptofocusproblemsandpinpointstrategiesandinstrumentsforfuture
SLM.Furtherthishighlights theneedtorevitalizeembeddednessoftechnologydebate,inwhich
technologyisseeninthecontextofitsimpactsonsocietaldevelopment.
2.2.5Biofuels
Biofuelshaveseenarashofinvestmentinbothdevelopinganddevelopedcountriessince2005,
drivenbyfuelblendtargetssetinmanycountries,includingtheUSAandtheEU.Around80%of
bioethanolproducedworldwideisgrownintheUSAandBrazil,whilebiodieselfromrapeseedis
producedinGermanyandtheEU.InAfricaandAsia,recentmajorlandacquisitionshavebeen
aimedatproducingbiodieselfromJatrophaandpalmoil.
Biofuelshavebeenpromotedindrylandsasembodyingasynergybetweenincreasedagricultural
investmentandproductivityandreductionsofglobalgreenhousegasemissionsthroughcarbon
storage
in
the
plant
biomass.
However,
the
initial
optimism
which
led
to
high
biofuel
targets
has
beenmitigatedbyconcernswiththecarbonfootprintofbiofuelswhentheentireproductionand
tradecyclearetakenintoaccount.Further,differentgroups,includingNGOs,haveraisedconcerns
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abouttheroleofmultinationalcorporationsinbiofueldevelopmentinthedevelopingworld.
Risingfoodpriceshaveincreasedreturnstotheproductionpartoffoodprovisionvaluechains.
Thishasincreasedtheincentivesoflargescaleagribusinessestobecomeinvolvedinproduction
throughlargescalelandacquisitions.
Largescaleagribusinessisevidentlyhowevernottheonlybusinessmodelassociatedinfood
production. Whilelargescalelandacquisitionscanhavepositivemacroleveleffectsintermsof
increasedGDPgrowthandrevenuesforthenationalgovernment,alternativemodelssuchas
outgrowerschemesarepotentiallymorebeneficialforlocalsmallholders.Inadditiontoresearch
organisations,socalledfarmertofarmerorganisations,supportedbyNGOshavebeen
promotingtheuseofalternativebusinessmodelsinbiofueldevelopment..
2.2.5.1Biofuels:Jatrophaindrylands2
Jatrophahasbeenseenasapotentiallyvaluableboosttodrylandproductivitybecauseofits
heraldedabilitytogrowinmoremarginallandsandunderwaterscarceconditions.However,there
remainsahighdegreeofuncertainty,andevendoubt,aboutitsclaimedadvantages,withrespect
tobiophysicalcharacteristicsoftheplant(itstoxicityandinputresponsiveness)andthesocio
economicimpactsofbiofuelsinvestmentbothbymultinationalcorporationsandlocalfarmers.
Ingeneral,theliteratureiscautionaryregardingJatropha,pointingtoeconomic,environmental
andsocietalrisks.RecentenergypricevolatilitymeansthatthereisnoguaranteethatJatropha
production
for
biodiesel
is
profitable;
though
when
income
from
by
products
such
as
soap
are
includedresultslookbetter(BrittaineandLutaladio,2010).Environmentalrisksincludelossof
biodiversityduetomonocropping,withmoreresearchneededonthetoxicityimpactsofusing
seedcakefertilizeronlargescales.Forsociety,landacquisitionindevelopingcountriesthreatens
rurallivelihoodsparticularlywheretenureiscustomaryandoftenbasedoncommunalsystems.
LargescaleJatrophaplantationsoftenlackmechanismstoincludetheruralpoorandtakethe
mostproductivelandwiththebestaccesstowaterandinfrastructure.
Jatrophainvestmentshaveoftennotdemonstratedbenefitstoruralpopulationsthroughtax
revenuesforgovernmentsandimprovedemploymentopportunities.Outgrowerschemesbasedon
overlyoptimisticyieldpredictionshavenotfulfilledpromises,andcanleadtolossofinterestbyfarmersinJatrophagrowing.Further,localfarmershaveweakbargainingpositionsinrelationto
multinationalcorporationsincompensationschemesrelatedtolargescalelandacquisitions,so
thatcommonlandsandunclearlandtenurerelationsincreasetheriskthatruralpopulationswill
bedisplacedfromlandsimportanttotheirlivelihoods(WorldBank2010).
Ontheotherhand,Jatrophaoffersseveraladvantagestopoorfarmersindrylands.Itprovidesa
waytodiversifyincome,whileitswoodybyproductsarecombustibleandreducepressureon
forests.Itcanbeplantedasfenceonconservationareasbecauseitisnotpalatabletograzing
animalsand,itcanbeusedasacontourtostopsoilerosion.Recentfindingspointtowardsapro
2 See Full Length Version Scoping Paper for more details
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poordevelopmentpathwayifincreasedJatrophaplantingissupportedthroughlocalfarmers.
Grownatlowerintensitiesithasahigherpotentialtoreducecarbonemissions.However,fullLife
CycleAnalysis(LCA)ofthecarbonimpactandevaluationofitssoilandwaterconservation
propertiesareneverthelessareneededtomakesounddecisions.
Biofuels
in
drylands:
research
priorities
Biophysical:
biofuelproductionshouldbebasedonlongtermassessments,andlifecycle
analysis,ofthecarbonandwaterimpacts
developmoreproductivestrainsofJatrophatoensureprofitability
moreresearchisneededonthetoxicityimpactsofusingseedcakefertilizerfrom
Jatrophaonalargescale
Institutions
and
policy:
needforidentfyingequitablebusinessmodels;whichmodelsworkinwhich
contexts,andwhycertainarrangementshaveemergedinthesecontexts
capacitybuildingtoaddressinformationassymmetriesandthelackofadequate
policyframeworksandparticipatorygovernancemechanisms
knowledgemanagementsystemstotakeintoaccountlocalinterests,aswellas
environmentalimpacts
2.2.6
Future
of
farming
systems
in
drylands
Themostpromisingapproachesfordrylandsfarmingaddressingdevelopmentandenvironmental
goalsincludesustainablecommercialagricultureandintegratedfarming.Methodswhichinclude
localknowledgearehoweverneededtoidentifyareaswithpotentialforintensificationandto
excludeareasofhighvalueforbiodiversityandwaterregeneration.Becausedrylandsareoften
locatedoffmaintradingroutesitisimportanttofocusonhighvaluecrops.Inthiscontext,spatial
planningandrenewedlanduseconceptsareneededwhichwouldincludelandusetradeoffsand
aclearanalysisoflimitingfactorwhichisnotalwayswater,evenindrylands.
Theassessmentofintegratedfarmingsystemsvisavislandusedundermonocultureisan
importantaspectoffutureresearch:integratedanddiversifiedfarmingsystemsbasedonextensiveanimalhusbandryandcropproductionwouldproducenotonlymanureforcrops,butwouldalso
diversifyincomeopportunitiesincaseofshiftingmarketorientationsanddrought.Integrated
farmingsystemsisnotcurrentlyanindicatorforDLDD.Further,organicallyproducedfood,
especiallythroughbiodynamicagriculture,holds promiseforenhancingbiodiversityand
promotingintegratedfarmingsystems.Thiscanalsoapplytocashcropslikecottonasexperiences
withorganiccottoninthedrylandsoftheSahelactuallyshow(BurkinaFaso,Mali).
Arenewedfocusonsustainablegrowthofagriculturalproductionisachievablethroughbio
dynamic,organicfood/products. Evidencefrommodellingandcasestudiesshowthatorganic
agricultureratherthanincreasingfoodsecurityproblems,presentssolutionsintermsofincreased
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productivityandimprovedaccesstofood(Halberg,etal.,2006).Further,duetomoreintensive
labourprocessesthisleadstohigherlevelsofemploymentreducingoutmigrationrisks,aswellas
increasingenvironmentalbenefits.Investmentsinorganicfarminghavethepotentialindirect
effectsofbetterschoolingandinfrastructure,whilesubsidizingandfacilitatingecosystemservice
provision.
Uptonow,therehavebeenaninsufficientamountofstudiesonlandgrabbingandland
conversionstemmingfromtherushintobiofuels(Section2.2.5)(Themostcomprehensiveare
WorldBank2010andClavetal.2010).Thebenefitsofalternativetenuresystemsinfragile
naturalenvironments,inparticularcommonlands,havebeendemonstrated,yetgovernments
generallycontinuetosupportprivatization,nowadaysverymuchdrivenbyFDIinland.Thisleads
topotentialresourceconflicts,whilealsopresentingopportunitiesintheformofnewemployment
andmarketparticipation.Atthesametime,supportforthedecentralised,locallydrivenand
participatorybiofuelandagricultureproductionasacounterweighttoFDIisbeingprovidedby
organisationsassociatedwiththesuperficiallyappealing,thoughcontestedfoodsovereignty
concept,e.g.byCampesinoaCampesinofoundedinLatinAmericaandotherNGOs.
ThelinksforDLDDtoagriculturalandruraldevelopmentresearchareevident.Assuch,thereisa
needtorelatetoongoingresearchinpubliclyfinancedInternationalAgriculturalResearchcentres
oftheCGIARsystem.Naturalandappliedsciencesshouldaddressrestorationtechniques,while
thesocialsciencesshouldcomplementthiswithattentiontoglobaldrivers,suchaschanging
preferencesinthedevelopedworldandthepushtowardsorganicproductionandquality
standards
(labelling),
in
the
form
of
research
on
value
add
chains
which
link
local
and
international
scales.Positiveeffectsofthesestronglydependoneffectivegovernancestructureswhichcannot
easilybeimplementedatlowerlevelsinremoteandneglectedregions.Suchanalysisshould
includepathwaysandscenarioanalysisofidealisedfutureproductionpatterns,takingaccountof
theparallelexistenceofcommercialised,marketintegrated,agribusinessfocuseddevelopment
alongsidepeasantsubsistencedrivenagriculture.Thisagainpointstotheimportanceof
revitalisingfarmingsystemapproaches,withspecialattentiontothespatiallandscapedimension
withrespecttolanduseplanning.
Crosscuttingresearchissuesinfutureofdrylandfarming:
Integratedresearchissue:needforlandscapeapproachandfarmingsystem
approach movingbeyondmicro/macroscales
Methodstoidentifyandmaphighproductiveandecologicallyvaluableareas,
whichincludelocalknowledge
participatoryapproaches:alternativebusinessmodels outgrowerschemes,food
sovereigntyapproach
Biodynamic,organicfarming:assessmentofintegratedfarmingsystemsvisavis
landusedundermonoculturetosupportPES
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2.3Alternativelivelihoods
TraditionalthinkingaboutdrylandsdevelopmentfallsintowhatSafrielandAdeel(2008)callthe
"desertificationparadigm",wherebyrisingpopulationdensitiesputpressureonresourceusersto
extractmorefromaninherentlylowproductivityland,leadingtofurtherlanddegradation.
Alternatively,the"counterparadigm"arguesthat,facingscarcityofbiologicalproductivity,
resourceuserswillfindinnovativesolutions(inducedtechnicalandinstitutionalinnovationsinthe
traditionoftheHayamiRuttanModelandEsterBoserup)andadapttothesituation;thisthinking
appliestobothtraditionallivelihoodsadaptedtohighvariabilityofdrylands,butalsotoinnovative
strategiesforalternativelivelihoods.Recentresearchinsightsalsoputemphasisconsideringthe
multifunctionalityofdrylandstoattractinvestmentsintheformofpaymentsforecosystem
servicesinordertoreverseandpreventdegradation(ThomasandTurkelboom,2008).
Whileitisagreedthatalternativelivelihoodscanplayanimportantroleinvulnerabilityreduction,
andpreventionoflanddegradation,theydonotgouncriticised.Somearguethatalternative
incomestrategiesoftenareeitheroflittleimpacttothelocaleconomyorresultinnegative
impactsonpastoralistsandotherlanduserswithsecondarypropertyrights. Thissuggestsa
thoroughanalysisofwhethertheconceptofalternativeincomestrategieshasbeenbeneficialto
theecologyandeconomyoflocalsystems,asarelativelysmallliteraturebaseindrylandsexistsin
thisregard(Hazell2001). Certainly,thepotentialforecotourismandrenewableenergygeneration
asasourceofincomeandincomediversificationexists,howeverknowledgegapsexistaswellas
regardingtheecologicallimits,andfullcostsandbenefitsofsuchapproaches.Thisisinadditionto
the
institutional
and
political
context
questions
regarding
successful
implementation.
2.3.1 PaymentforEcosystemServices(PES):Carbonsequestration
Recentmodellingstudieshaveshownthatcarbonsequestrationinsoilscanprovideasignificant
offsetforgreenhousegasemissions3.Soilerosionleadstolossofthepotentialtogrowbiomass
andincreasinghumuscontent.Indeed,severalscholarsarguethegreatestpotentialfor
sequestrationexistsinsoilsthathavealreadybeencarbondepleted,asindrylandsoils.However,
thisisgenerallynotwellunderstoodandtheUNFCCCprocesshaspaidlittleattentiontothe
potentialforcarbonsequestrationinsoils.Infact,certainstudiesclaimthatsoilerosionisnot
contributingtoatmosphericcarbonlevelsbecauseerodedsoilisredepositedinotherlocations,anditdoesnotmineralise.However,thistypeofconclusionwhilevalidforspecificstudysites
demonstratestheneedforlandscapescaleapproachestoassesstheentireprocess.Further
researchisthusneededonthepotentialforcarbonsequestrationinsoilsthroughSLMpractices.
Althoughmodellingstudieshavebeencarriedout,improvedmethodsareneededformeasuring
sequesteredcarbonandensuringthatitremainsinthesoilinthelongerterm,inorderforsoil
carboncreditstobeincorporatedintomarketmechanisms.
3 Farageetal.(2007)thatestimatethatagriculturalsoilscouldsequesteratleast2030Pgofcarbonoverthe
next50100years,possiblyrisingto100Pg.AtmosphericCO2concentrationisrisingatjustover3Pgyear(IPCC,
2001),
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KnowledgegapsalsoremainregardingtheimpactsofcarbonPESschemesonlocallivelihoods.The
priceofcarboniscurrentlytoolowtomakepaymentsforsoilcarbonsequestrationa
comprehensivealternativetotraditionallivelihoods,howeveritcanplayaroleinsupplementing
anddiversifyingrurallivelihoods.BecauseofthesynergiesbetweenSLMpracticesandcarbon
sequestration,theanalysisofadoptionofSLMtechnologiesapplies(seeSection2.2.4)..
Finally,thereisfurtherpotentialfornewtechnologiestocontributetosoilcarbonsequestration.
Lal(2009)arguesthereareseveralpromisinginnovativestrategiesofenhancingsoilorganic
matter.Nanotechnologyenhancedmaterialscanbeappliedtoimprovesoilqualityanduse
efficiencyofinput.Useofnanoenhancedmaterialcanalsoincreasesoilrestorationandbringnew
landunderproduction.Nanofertilizershaveapotentialtoenhanceuseefficiencyanddecrease
soillosses.Biotechnologyalsohascarbonsequestrationapplicationsinaridclimates4
2.3.2Ecotourism
Tourismtonaturalattractionsinremoteruralareasrepresentsanopportunitytoincreaseincomes
anddiversifylivelihoodsindrylands.InsubSaharanAfricaithasbeenoneofthelargestgrowth
areasintherecentdecade.Opportunitiesfordiversificationofthe(local)economyexiststhrough
creatingincomeopportunitiesfromecotourismandhandicraftproduction,forexample,asin
UNESCOprojectsinTunisia,JordanandEgyptwhichhaveyieldedgoodresults,whileecotourismis
analreadybeingimplementedtoinNamibia. Thepotentialforecotourismtosignificantlyreduce
povertyandenvironmentaldegradationindrylandshasbeendiscussedforyears,butremains
relatively
unexplored.
The
limits
of
this
development
option
must
however
be
considered
with
regardtowaterconsumption.ConservancymodelsinSouthernAfricahaveshownthatecotourism
canalsobeencouragedincommunallandsbasedonsharedinvestmentsandbenefitsof
communities,however,itspotentialshouldnotbeoverestimatedforthedrylands.Large,
transnationalprojectshavingthepotentialforecotourismareunderplanning,suchastheKAZA
transboundarynationalparkprojectinthesameregion.Additionally,tourismandwildlife
opportunitiesneedsignificantinvestmentandasafesocialandpoliticalenvironment.
Growingfinancialopportunitiesfromtourism,institutionalchallengesrelatingtothecontrolof
naturalresources,andvariablelocalcapacityformanagingecotourismventuresareillustrateboththepotentialofandthechallengestocommunitybasedecotourism.Recentresearchhighlights
thefactthatgoodgovernanceiscriticaltoachievingconservationandruraldevelopment
objectives.
4 GrowinggeneticallymodifiedplantscanimprovetheSOCpoolthroughimprovementofroot/shootratio,
harvestindex,andincorporationofsomerecalcitrantcompoundsinplanttissues(especiallyroots)thatdecreasethe
rateofdecompositionofbiomassreturnedtothesoil(Lal,2009).
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2.3.3Solarenergy
Thepotentialofsolarfarmsindrylandshasbeendiscussedforyears,butremainsrelatively
unexplored.Energygenerationthroughwindandsolarcouldbringdevelopmenttodrylandsbased
onindividualorgrouprightsandmanagement.Therearerecentinitiativeswhichhavebegunto
addressthisopportunityby,forexample,investigatingthepoliticalrisksassociatedwithasocalled
SuperSmartGridwhichsupplyEuropeanelectricitydemandwithdecentralisedproductionin
NorthAfrica(Battaglinietal.2009).Suchdevelopmentsrequiresignificantinvestmentandsecurity
andstabilityinsocialandpoliticalenvironment.However,thetechnologicaloptionswiththe
potentialfordecentraliseddevelopment,andlowerinvestmentcosts,aregenerallythoughttobe
morebeneficialtolocalpopulations.Decentralisedsolarenergyproductionisaresearchdirection
withpotentialbenefitstopoordrylandpopulations,althoughtechnicalandorganizational
knowledgegapsexist.
2.3.4Landandwaterinteractions
Landandwaterinteractionshavegenerallybeenneglectedinpolicydebates,aswater
managementinthedrylandshasbeenreceivingfarmoreattentionofrecentyears.However,ithas
becomeclearinthecontextofDLDD,thatintegratedlandandwaterapproachesarerequiredto
assessclimatechange,landuseplanning,vegetationcover,PES,waterandcarboncredits. A
furtherdevelopmentofirrigationschemesandwateruseefficiency(dripirrigation)indrylands
alsorequirenewmethodswhichbetterintegratelandandwater.Thereisaneedtodevelop
interactiveknowledgemanagementsystemsforasyetverydispersedinformationcomponents
Fromaninstitutionalperspective,thereisclearlythepotentialfororganizationaldevelopment
researchtoeliminateinstitutionalbarriersaslandandwaterareoftenaffiliatedtodifferent
governmentstructures.Thisimpliesprovidinginstitutionalsupporttofacilitatewaterspecialists
cooperatingwithlandresearchersandpolicymakers,aswellasotherstakeholders.Such
approachesneedtotakeintoaccountthepreviousworkandotherinitatives,suchasGlobal
ChangeandtheHydrologicalCycle(GLOWA),theRegionalScienceServicesCentres(RSSC)West
AfricanScienceServiceCenteronClimateandAdaptedLandUse (WASCAL)approaches.
Fromatechnicalperspective,thereexiststhepotentialtoidentifyanddevelopoptionsfortechnicalprojectfocuswithclearbenefitsrelatedtoDLDD.Forexample,AUNESCOfundedproject
inEgyptasdevelopedtechniquesfordesalinationofwaterusingsolarenergyinsteadoffossilfuel.
Landandwaterinteractionsarerelevantatvariouslevels:i)landandwaterpolicy,(Linkingland
andwatergovernanceIFAD);ii)landtenureandwaterrights(LandandWater:therightsinterface;
FAOlegislativestudy84);iii)landuseplanningandwatershedmanagement.
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Researchneeds,alternativelivelihoods:
CarbonsequestrationandlinkbetweenPESandSLM:biophysicalgapsregardingC
storage,andimplementationgapsregardingtechnology
Thoroughanalysis
of
whether
the
concept
of
alternative
income
strategies
has
beenbeneficialtotheecologyandeconomyoflocalsystems
Analysisofpotentialforecotourismandrenewableenergygenerationregardingthe
ecologicallimits,andfullcostsandbenefits
Methodsforintegrationoflandandwaterinlanduseplanningandirrigation
development
2.4CostsofDLDD
2.4.1Productivity
Estimatingthecostsoflanddegradationatarangeofscalesisapotentiallyusefultoolfordecision
makers,bothraisingtheprofileoflanddegradationissuesandprovidingthebasisforlanduse
decisionmakinginacostbenefitframework.Assuchthishasbeenontheresearchagendaofthe
UNCCDandassociatedinstitutions,e.g.theGlobalMechanism,forsometime. Someestimatesof
globalcostsat40billionUSDperyear(LADA,2008).However,studieswhicharenationalorglobal
inscopearebothfew,andsufferfrommethodologicalanddatarelatedweaknesses.
Inthepast,costestimatesandcostbenefitanalysesofDLDDhavebeencarriedouteitherthrough
scalingupmicrostudiesbyestimatingthecostsperhectare,orbyaggregatingmicrostudiesasa
functionofpopulationsandspatialdata,i.e.landuses.Limitsanddifficultiesexistwithrespectto
dataavailabilityforbothapproaches. Forexample,landuseschangeoverthecourseoftheyear
limitingtheaccuracyofavailabledata. Berryetal.(2003),incasesstudiesfromChina,sub
SaharanAfricaandSouthAmerica,findthatlanddegradationdecreasesagriculturalproductivity
by3%to7%,howeverciteproblemswithcomparabilityofdataacrossregions.Becauseof
incompletenessandinconsistencyinthebasicdataoncostsoflanddegradation,thereisneedfor
amorecomprehensiveapproachtothetopic.Withrespecttomodelling,gapsexistintermsoflinkingstudiestoempiricalmethodsofdemonstratingincreasedproductivityoverthemediumto
longterm.
Overallthereisalimitedamountofreliable,widelyacceptedestimatesforthecostsofland
degradationduetoproductivitylossesatalllevels.Further,theLandDegradationAssessmentin
Drylands(LADA)arguesthatfullcostestimatesoflanddegradationmustincludesocialcosts,such
asthoseassociatedwithoutmigration.Improvedmethodsanddatacollectionarenecessaryfor
progressinthisarea.
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2.4.2FoodEmergencies
Fromadevelopmentviewpoint,neglectofdrylandspopulationstakesacostlytollthroughthe
frequentreliefeffortsthatarerequiredtorespondtofoodemergenciesresultingfromdrought
andsubsequentlossofharvestsandlivestock.Thesecostsareactuallylargelymetbythe
internationalcommunitiesincaseswherecountriesarenotabletorespondontheirown.Recent
researchfromIndia,whichcurrentlyrespondstofoodemergencieswithouttheaidofthe
internationalcommunity,revealedthatthecountriescombinedlossesandresponseexpenses
fromthedroughtof200304weremorethanallgovernmentyearlyspendingcombined,and
amountedtohalfthegovernmentsinvestmentsinagricultureandruraldevelopmentovera5year
period(Ryden,2010).Inadditiontothecoststothestate,therewereveryconsiderablecoststo
theruralcommunityintheformofforcedlabourmigration,lossesduetodistresssalesofcattle
andjewelleryandthesocialcostsofindebtednessanddistress.
Whileclearlythesecostsaresignificantandusefulforpolicymakers,theliteraturebaseinthis
areagloballyissmall.DLDDhasundertakennothingcomparabletotheSternReportintheclimate
changecommunity,whichdrewsubstantialglobalattentionbyattributingcoststowhatwas
previouslyseenasmainlymerelyanenvironmentalissue.Expertconsultationshavepointedtoa
needforincreasedscientificevidenceforbenefitsofdrylandsinvestment,whencomparedwith
thecostlyemergencyaidwhichcannotbeavoidedoncethereisafailedcroporseverelossof
livestockduetodroughts.
2.4.3Restoration
A
global
assessment
of
the
costs
and
benefits
of
land
restoration
relies
on
the
development
of
methodsforassessingbothlocalandglobalbenefitsofecosystemservice(seeSection2.1.2).
Whilethereisinterestinthisarea,largeknowledgegapsremain.Further,suchassessmentsshould
addressthequestionsofwhatrestorationtechniquesworkandinwhichecological,institutional
andsocialcontexts,aswellasthereasonsfortheirsuccess.
Thereisaneedforresearchandmethodsforaddressingthereconciliationofshorttermgoals,
involvingfastregenerationandincreasedproductivitywiththelongtermgoalsofecosystem
restoration,includingcostestimationoftherecoveryofdegradationland.Methodsexistwith
regardtoprotectedareasandbiospherereserves,wherebyreferenceareasforpotentialnaturalvegetationandbiotopesinotherwisedegradeddrylands areas canbeusedasapristineland
benchmark,thereisaneedforimprovementandwideracceptance.
ResearchneedsforcostsofDLDD:
needforempiricallybasedstudiesoflanddegradationcostsfor
supportingcostbenefitdecisionframeworkatmultiplescales
costsofrespondingtofoodemergencies
improvedmethodsforrestorationcostestimatesrecognisingtension
betweenshorttermandlongtermgoals2.5
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MonitoringandassessingDLDD:indicatorsAsubstantialamountofeffortandresourceshavegoneintothedevelopmentofindicatorsfor
DLDDoverthepastdecades.Despitetheseeffortsglobalassessmentsdiffersignificantlyinthe
percentageoflandwhichisclassifiedasdegraded,rangingfrom4%to74%(Safriel,2007).The
mostprominentglobalassessmentistheGLASODassessment(UNEP,1990),whichassessedsoil
degradation,andwasnotwithoutcritics.Becausesoilmodellingexhibitschaoticfeatures,much
modelcalibrationandindicatorselectionintheGLASODassessmentwasdonethroughsubjective
judgementofexperts.Theseexpertjudgementswerefoundtobetobesometimesinconsistent;
thesamecharacteristicsindifferentplacesproduceddifferentclassifications(SonneveldandDent,
2009).
Amorerecent,ambitiousattempttotackletheissueofmonitoringandassessmentistheLand
AssessmentDegradationAssessmentinDrylands(LADA)project.Inthisapproach,NetPrimary
Productivity(NPP)andNormalisedVegetationDifferentiationIndex(NVDI)areusedastheprimary
indicatorsoflanddegradationattheglobal,regionalandnationalscale.Thoughsoilcharacteristics
havealsobeenusedinthepast,thispresentsdifficultiesforbothintermsofmethodsfortheuse
ofGISandsatellites,andintermsofcosts(PonceHernandezandKoohafkan,2010).Atthesub
nationalscale,biophysicalindicatorsoflanddegradationareseparatedintotheirphysical,
biologicalandchemicalcomponents. TheLADAmethodologyappliestheDriverPressureState
ImpactResponse(DPSIR)framework.Thedifferentphysical,biologicalandchemicaldegradation
indicatorsarethenlinkedtosocioeconomicpressuresanddriversthroughexpertjudgement5.
TheDPSIRhasenjoyedwidespreaduseforindicatorselectioninenvironmentalproblems.
However,Svarstadetal.(2008)arguetheDPSIRframeworkismostconducivetoaconservation
approachwhichignorestheneedsoflocalpopulations,asitemphasisesecologicalimpactstothe
neglectofeconomicandsocialconsiderations.Withtherecentemphasisonecosystemservices
andrecognitionthatlanddegradationisdrivenbymultiplesocialandecologicalfactors(Geistand
Lambin,2004),akeyresearchissueisarrivingataminimumsetofindicatorsfromlinkedsocial
ecologicalsystems(e.g.Ostrom,2007,2009).
TheDrylandsDevelopmentParadigm(DDP)(Reynoldsetal.2007,seeSection1.1)hasfurtheremphasisedthelinkedsocialecologicalsystemsindrylands,pointingtotherelevanceofslow
variablesandthresholdsasnewdirectionsfordrylandsmanagement.Researchcanplayamajor
roleinestablishingearlywarningsystemsdevelopedwithaviewtomonitoringslowvariables.The
majorknowledgeneedsforsuchsystemsincludebiophysicalandspatiotemporalvariationsof
DLDDrisks,andlimitsandthresholdsofservicesinagroecosystems.
Further,casestudiesfromsouthernAfricahaveunderlinedtheneedtobetterintegrateknowledge
withinandbetweenscientificandlocalknowledgebases.Empiricalresultsshowthatboth
scientificandlocalknowledgehavetheirlimitationssothatneutralverificationisnecessaryto
5 Theselasttwomethodsrelylargelyon eitheradhocdesignedforms orusing(bayesian)computermodels.
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broadenreductionistscienceapproachesaswellastoputlocalspecificitiesintoageneralizing
context(Stringer&Reed,2007).Reedetal.(2006)proposeaframeworkforindicatorselection
whichincludesstakeholdersatalllevels,providingfortheincorporationoflocalknowledge.This
combinestopdownandbottomupapproachestoM&Aandallowsforcomparabilitybetween
siteswiththeminimumsetindicatorsandsitespecificitywithlocallydevelopedindicators.
However,suchproposalshavenotencounteredsmoothsailingwithintheUNCCDprocesswhere
currentindicatoruserequiresPartiestocollectandshareinformationonlyonlandcoverstatus
andthepercentageofpopulationsinaffectedareaslivingabovethepovertyline.Amore
comprehensivesetofindicatorslimitedbybothinstitutionalconstraintsrelatedtotheUNCCD
(Grainger,2009b)andcapacityconstraintsrelatedtothechallengeofachievingconsistencyand
standardisationbetweencountriesandacrossadministrativelevels.Thus,indicatorresearch
shouldbedirectedtowardsthebarriersto,andavenuesfor,expandingsuchaminimumsetby
improvingtheacceptanceofindicatorsystemsinpolicydecisionmaking.
Becauseoftheseconstraintstogetherwiththewealthofpastworkonindicators,theresultsofour
studypointtoresearchprioritiesidentifyingandimplementingcosteffectiveusesofexisting
indicatorsystems.(Thenotableexceptiontothisbeingthedevelopmentofslowchangeindicators
tosupportfoodemergencyearlywarningsystemsindrylands).Thisrequiresastocktakingand
evaluationofexistingindicatorsetandmonitoringprocesseswithrespecttothecriteriaof
practicabilityinuseforpolicymakersandotherstakeholdersatdifferentscales,withaviewto
bettercombiningbiophysicalandsocioeconomicindicators.Further,thereisaneedforclarityin
depicting
present
status,
trends
and
reversible
processes
of
land
degradation,
with
the
possibility
oflinkingstatesofdegradationtochangesineconomicevaluationofdesertification. Expert
consultationalsopointedtotheneedforscenarioanalyseslinkingclimate,population&land
coverchangewithpotentialvulnerabilityoftargetgroupstoDLDD.
ResearchneedsformonitoringandassessmentofDLDD:
researchoncosteffectiveuseofexistingindicators&monitoring
multilevelnestedframeworksforlinkingsocialecologicalsystems;inclusionoflocal
knowledge
Earlywarningsystemdevelopment:slowvariablesandthresholdsinagro
ecosystems
identifycostandpoliticallimitstocombiningbiophysicalandsocioeconomicand
selectingminimumset
linkstatesofdegradationtochangesineconomicevaluationofdesertification
Improvingacceptanceofindicatorsystemsinpolicydecisionmaking
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RegionalAssessment1;TheArabWorld6,
PuttingtheUNCCDimplementationincontext
Arabcountries,whoseareaamountstoabout14.3millionkm2andextendthroughtheAridand
Semiaridzonesissufferingfromthephenomenonofdesertificationinvariousformsandvarying
degrees.ThecomplexityoftheissuesconfrontingtheimplementationoftheUNCCDconvention
requiresaglobal,regional,nationalaswellasalocalevidencebasedandknowledgebased
approach.Governance,climatechange,poverty,foodsecurity,accesstolandandwater,political
conflictsinthefaceofdesertificationandlanddegradationarealllinkedintheArabregionand
demandaclearandpragmaticfocus.Forbetterunderstandingthecomplexityandcontextinthe
Arabworld,someofthemostrelevantlinkagesarediscussed.
ImpactofClimateChangeonAgricultureandCostsofAdaptation
IFPRI2009MiddleEastandNorthAfrica7
Thecropmodellingresultsindicatethatclimatechangewillhaveanegativeeffectoncropyieldsin
theMiddleEastandNorthAfricain2050.Theregionwillfaceyielddeclinesofupto30percentfor
rice,about47percentformaizeand20percentforwheat.
Withoutclimatechange,calorieavailabilityisexpectedtoincreaseintheMiddleEastandNorth
Africabetween2000and2050,from2,846to3,119dailycaloriesperperson.Withclimatechange,
however,calorieavailabilityintheregionin2050willbeabout2,500,orupto500calorieslessper
personperday,comparedtoanoclimatechangescenario.
Inanoclimatechangescenario,NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEastwillseedramaticimprovements
inthenumberofmalnourishedchildrenbetween2000and2050,decliningfrom3.5milliontojust
over1million.Climatechangewillcounteractmuchofthisprogress,resultinginover2million
malnourishedchildrenin2050,1millionmorethaninanoclimatechangescenario.Tocounteract
theeffectsofclimatechangeonnutrition,NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEastrequireadditional
6 Arab world or Arab countries or League of Arab states or Middle East and North Africa countries (MENA)7 http://www.ifpri.org/publication/climate-change-impact-agriculture-and-costs-adaptation
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annualinvestmentsof241271millionUSD.Themajorityofinvestmentexpendituresshouldbein
agriculturalresearch.
HumanRightsandDesertification.8
Itisnowwidelyacceptedthatpovertyshouldnotbeseenonlyasalackofincome,butalsoasa
deprivationofhumanrights(undernutritionandhungerareconstitutiveofpoverty).Itisequally
recognizedthatunlesstheproblemsofpovertyareaddressed,environmentalissueswillnotbe
resolved.Inthiscontext,ahumanrightsapproachtopovertyreductionprovidesaconceptual
frameworkforcombatingdesertificationandlanddegradationintheArabregion.
Forexample,farmersandherdersneedfirmrightstothesoils,grazing,woodlandsandwater
sourcesonwhichtheirlivelihooddepend.Governmentsneedtorecogniselocalrightswhichare
vitalforpromotingfarmerinvestment.
TheESCWAregionsuffersfromaviciouscycleofpoliticaltension,conflictanddedevelopmentin
whichpoliticaltensions,conflict,collapseofStateinstitutions,extremeideologicaldiscourse,and
negativedetrimentalsocialandeconomicrepercussionsreinforceoneanother.9
GovernanceandAntiCorruptionPerformanceintheArabregion10
Avarietyoffactorshavebeenhighlightedtoexplainthegovernancegapandrelativelypoor
governanceandanticorruptionperformanceofMENAcountries.Thesefactorsarefullydeveloped
anddocumentedintheWorldBankreportonBetterGovernanceaswellasinInstitutionalised
Corruption:aninstrumentofgovernanceintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica?11
Desertification
and
Land
Governance
12
RegionalAssessmentfortheFAOVoluntaryGuidelinesonResponsibleGovernanceofTenureof
LandandOtherNaturalResourcesMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA),Amman,Jordan,May
201013
Rightsofaccesstotheseresourcesandtheassociatedsecurityoftenureareincreasinglyaffected
byoccupation,neoliberaleconomicpolicies,populationgrowth,urbanization,climatechange,
naturaldisasters,violentconflicts,andgrowingdemandsforlandforfoodproductionandfornew
energysourcessuchasbioenergy.Weakgovernanceoftenureisafactorinmanytenurerelated
problems,andfailingtoaddresstheseproblemshindersreformefforts.Incontrast,responsiblegovernanceoftenurecanhelptoreducehungerandpoverty,supportsocialandeconomic
development,reformpublicadministration,andcontributetopeacebuilding. Intheregion,two
particularchallengeswerehighlighted:thelinkagesbetweenlandandwatergovernanceaswellas
theimpactofwar,occupationandconflictonlandrelatedissues.
8 http://www.unccd.int/publicinfo/docs/HumanRightsandDesertification.pdf
9 www.unescwa.org
10 Overview of Corruption in the MENA Countries 2007; www.u4.no
11 http://www.cipe.org/pdf/publications/fs/rachami.pdf12 FAO 2010, Regional Assessment for the FAO Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land and OtherNatural Resources Middle East and North Africa (forthcoming)
13 W. Zimmermann, 2010: Land tenure development in the Arab region, in FAO Land reform bulletin 2010 (forthcoming)
30
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ResearchPartnersintheArabRegion
TheroleandfunctionofACSADfortheArabregion(TheArabCenterforAridZonesand
DryLands14
)
ACSADwasappointedbytheleagueofArabStatestobetheAraborganization,whichis
responsiblefordesertificationstudiesandmonitoringintheArabworld,aswellasfollowingupthe
activitiesofUnitedNationsconventiontocombatdesertification(UNCCD).
TheArabCenterfortheStudiesofAridZonesandDryLandswasestablishedinDamascus,Syriain
1968.ACSADisaspecializedAraborganizationworkingwithintheframeworkoftheLeagueof
ArabStateswiththeobjectiveofunifyingtheArabeffortswhichaimtodevelopthescientific
agriculturalresearchinthearidandsemiaridareas,helpintheexchangeofinformationand
experiencesandmakeuseofthescientificprogressandthemodernagriculturaltechniquesin
ordertoincreasetheagriculturalproduction.
ACSAD/GTZPartnershipforCombatingDesertificationintheArabregion15
In1993,ACSADGermanpartnershipthroughGTZforcombatingdesertificationwaslaunchedto
establishfavourableinstitutionalstructuresandensureadequatenationalconditionsforthe
implementationoftheUnitedNationsConventionforCombatingDesertificationUNCCD.(still
ongoing).
TheroleandfunctionofICARDAfortheARABRegion
(InternationalCenterforAgriculturalResearchintheDryAreas)16
ICARDAservesthenontropicaldryareasfortheimprovementofonfarmwateruseefficiency,
rangeland
and
small
ruminant
production.
In
the
Central
and
West
Asia
and
North
Africa
(CWANA)
region,ICARDAcontributestotheimprovementofwheats,kabulichickpea,pastureandforage
legumesandassociatedfarmingsystems.Italsoworksonimprovedlandmanagement,
diversificationofproductionsystems,andvalueaddedcropandlivestockproducts.Social,
economicandpolicyresearchisanintegralcomponentofICARDA'sresearchtobettertarget
povertyandtoenhancetheuptakeandmaximizeimpactoftheresearchoutputs.
ResearchLessonsintheArabRegion:
Therearesuccessstoriesinthefieldsofsoilandwaterconservation,waterresourcemanagement,
integrationofconservationagriculture,livestockandrangemanagement,conservationagriculture,communitybasednaturalresourceandriskmanagement,mainstreamingDLDDinspatialplanning
(Tunisia,Morocco),research(ICARDA,ACSAD),monitoringanddecisionsupportsystemsandlocal
institutionbuilding,securingpastoralsresourcerights(Mauretania),GIStechnologyfortrend
analysisandearlywarning(ACSAD).Indicatorsofsuccessincludelongtermincreasesin
productivity;increaseddroughtresilienceofruralproductionsystemsandincreaseincapacities.
14 http://www.acsad.org/
15 http://www.acsad.org/gtz/gtz.pdf
16 www.icarda.org
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ScienceGaps
Althoughthecountriesintheregionareextremelydiverseintermsofsurfacearea,populationand
oilandgasreserves,theidentificationanddiscussionofasetofScienceGapsfromanArab
regionalperspectiveisproposed:
12.Withfewexceptions,thepoliticaleconomyinArabcountriesincludenarrow,sectoral,
centralized,authoritarian,andtechnocraticapproaches;lackofaccessoraffordabilityof
requiredinputs;lackofcongruencewithand/orsupportfromgovernmentpriorities,policies,
andincentives;insufficientinfrastructureandinstitutions;lackoftrust;lackoflocalcommunity
involvementandcommitment;.Howcansciencecontributetobetterunderstandthe
extremelydiversepoliticalandadministrativesystemsintheArabregionandtosupportan
enablingpolicyandadministrativeenvironmentforimplementingtheUNCCD?
13.MoreresearchisrequiredforanalysingthespecificinterdependenciesintheArabregion
betweentheprocessofdesertification,governanceinArabcountries,securityaspects,climate
change,waterscarcity,migration/urbanisation,foodsecurity,andpovertyeradicationfor
policyorientationandcoherentmeasures.
14.Increasingtheunderstandingofdrylandagriculturalandnaturalecosystemsandthe
degreetowhichcarryingcapacitycanbesustainablyenhancedthroughintegratedcroptree
livestocksystems,conservationagriculture,increasedsoilfertility,improvedwater
managementandSLM
15.Insteadoffixedtechnologies,themainresearchoutcomesareknowledge,expertise,
strategies,methods,modelsandapproaches.Portfoliosofoptionsshouldbedevelopedrather
thanrecipelikesolutions.Closerpartnershipswithnongovernmentalorganizations,
cooperatives,
and
other
development
agents
can
magnify
the
leverage
of
research
and
developmentinstitutionsinwaysthatmakemasscustomizationpractical.Optionsof
promisingParticipatoryDevelopmentMethodsshouldbestudiedandidentified.
16.ResultsofpastresearchprojectsintheArabregionhavenotbyitselfsupportedthescaling
upofgoodresults,lessonslearnedandtheinstitutionalisingofknowhow.Harvestingexisting
researchresultsandaddingvaluebycreatingsynergies,integrationintothebroaderpicture,
integratingintoongoingdesignofprojectsandprograms,usingasastartingpointfor
complementaryareasofsciencecouldbeapromisingresearchcomponent.
17.Arabcountrieshavemadeonlymodesteffortstotransferknowledgetothegeneralpublic
ortotransfereitherlocallyproducedknowledgeorimportedknowledgetotheproductivesector.Themechanismsofknowledgetransferremainverylimited.Whatistheroleofscience
indevelopingalternativemechanismforimprovedknowledgemanagementandtransferto
allstakeholdersinvolvedintheimplementationofUNCCD?
18.Arabcountriesingeneralhaveneitherupdatedtheirlandpolicyorientationnorreformed
theirnormativeframeworkforimprovingtenuresecurityoflandandnaturalresourceandfor
rulebasedaccesstolandandwater.Sustainablelandmanagementisdefinedinanarrow
mannerwithintheUNCCD.Thesociolegalandsocioeconomicaspectsofland(landtenure
security,landrights,accesstoland,landeconomics,landpolicy)requiremuchmoreattention
andshouldbeanintegralcomponentofSLM.MuchmoreresearchisrequiredintheArab
regionforassessingthelandtenurearrangementforrangelandmanagement,thelandtenure/
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19.Thereisanenormousinefficiencyinwaterconsumptioninagriculture,industryandurban
areasintheregion.Sincethereisnopricingpolicy(protectionmoney),thereisnoincentivefor
farmersforinvestinginmodernandconsumptionefficientirrigationtechniques.Howcan
sciencecontributeforimprovingpoliciesandmeasuresforanincreasedwaterconsumption
efficiencyintheregion?
Regionalassessment2:CentralAsia
PleaseseetheFullVersionoftheScopingPaper.
4.2Crosscuttingissues
4.2.1.LandGovernance
TheUNCCDcallsforgoodgovernanceasindispensableconditionformeasurestocombat
desertification.However,thereisawideknowledgeandpolicygapbetweenrhetoricandthe
realitiesontheground. OperationalisingdefinedgovernanceprinciplesforSLMindrylandsand
theUNCCDimplementationandimprovingcompliancewiththeseremainsanopenquestion.
Currentgovernanceresearchappliestheconceptualmodelsofthesocialecologicalsystem
(Ostrom2007,2009)andmultilevelgovernancementionedabove.Theseconceptsbringafocus
ontotherespectiverolesandfunctionsofdifferentactors,e.g.government,civilsocietyorprivate
sectoractors,indifferentinstitutionalsettings.Governancescholarsaddressthequestionsofco
operationbetweenstateandcivilsocietyindifferentpoliticalsystems;policycoherence;
decentralisationdynamics;compliancetoconvention;leadership/ownership; democratic
decisionmaking,participation; controlofcorruption,transparency,accountability;local
empowerment.Iinviewofthelargegovernancechallengesfacedbyasignificantnumberof
drylandstates,thereisanidentifiedneedforresearchonDLDDimpactsinweakgovernedstates,
onpreventionofconflictandonmigration.
Thepasttwodecadesofresearchinnaturalresourcemanagement,asbeenasortofrenaissance
forcommonlandsandcustomarytenure,asmanystudieshaveshownthatinagivencontext
communaltenureisbothsecureandmoreproductivethanprivatetenureorlandtitling.These
findingsshouldnotbemisinterpretedtomeanthatcustomarytenureissuperiorinallinstances,
justaspriorprejudicesabouttheTragedyoftheCommonswereequallyfalse.Adifferentiated,
andcontextualisedapproachtolandtenurestillleavesthequestion,inthecontextofmitigating
DLDD,whichmechanismscanhelptoovercomelandgovernanceproblems?Theremanyoptions,
asdiscussedwithrespecttobiofuelsinSection2.6.Theseincludetherecognitionofcustomary
landrightsorcodepastoral,localuseragreements,comanagementmodelslanddispute
resolution,gender
responsive
tenure,
corporate
social
responsibility
(CSR),
certification
(FDI),
publiclandreform(public/privat