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A CASE STUDY OF STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY MERCER UNIVERSITY
LEADERSHIP DURING ITS TRANSFORMATION FROM A LIBERAL ARTS
INSTITUTION INTO A COMPREHENSIVE UNIVERSITY
by
Connie L. Nelson
DONALD MACINTYRE, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair
CHRISTOPHER RASMUSSEN, PhD, Committee Member
JOHN DUNBAR, PhD, Committee Member
Barbara Butts Williams, PhD, Dean, School of Education
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
September 2011
ii
ABSTRACT
The study examined the transformation of Mercer University from a small liberal arts
school into a comprehensive institution. The purpose of the study was to explore the
historical transformation of Mercer University and the role of leadership throughout the
process. The qualitative study was a historical case study of Mercer University based on
archival data retrieved from Mercer’s Jack Tarver library, institutional data available on
Mercer’s website, and interviews of 21 administrators, faculty, and staff including former
president, Dr. Kirby Godsey, and current president, Dr. William Underwood.
Participants were asked open-ended questions regarding the overall transformation of
Mercer University, the role of leadership, and challenges faced by leadership.
Additionally, secondary sources including books and articles were used. Resources
depicted the strong Baptist foundation of Mercer in 1828 as a manual labor school to
prepare young men for ministry. The study revealed that during President Godsey’s
tenure from 1979 to 2006, dramatic transformation occurred as Mercer grew from 3,800
to 7,300 students, from an endowment of $16.5 to $225 million, and expanded from four
to 11 schools and colleges spread across three major campuses and three regional
academic centers (Mercer University Board of Trustees, 2010). The study identified
several challenges faced by Mercer leaders during transformation. Respondents
described the dissent faced by leadership as it implemented transformative efforts
beginning with President Godsey’s decision to open a medical school to serve the
previously unmet medical needs of rural southern Georgians. Increased diversity and
complexity also challenged leaders to maintain a cohesive university. Additionally,
finances challenged Mercer’s leaders, often creating a sense of competition for resources
iii
amongst colleges and schools. Lastly, the preservation of Mercer’s founding values
challenged leaders as they have made transformative changes to ensure the institution
remains attractive to students. Former president Godsey’s expansion of Mercer in order
to fulfill the institution’s Baptist-oriented mission and current president Underwoods’
continuation of this vision was attributed to: creating and maintaining a clear vision,
facilitating shared governance, imposing high expectations, taking entrepreneurial
actions, appreciating and managing dissent, role modeling, obtaining the support of the
Board of Trustees, and building positive external relationships.
iv
Acknowledgments
Without Dr. Donald MacIntyre, my dissertation mentor, this dream would not be
a reality. His commitment, enthusiasm, and, most importantly, patience have guided me
through this process. I would also like to thank Dr. Christopher Rasmussen and Dr. John
Dunbar for the feedback, advice, and support they have provided as members of my
dissertation committee.
The Mercer family has welcomed me as I have probed through their history in
order to highlight transformative leadership efforts. Dr. Wallace Daniel, Provost, has
anchored my efforts by providing me with access to Mercer archives and participants for
my study. Most importantly, both Provost Daniel and President Underwood have
enthusiastically encouraged me to complete this historical study of Mercer University.
v
Table of Contents
CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study 1
Statement of the Problem 2
Purpose of the Study 5
Rationale of the Study 6
Research Questions 7
Nature of the Study 7
Significance of the Study 8
Definition of Terms 10
Assumptions and Limitations 10
Conclusion 12
2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction to Higher Education, Leadership, and Change 13
From Liberal Education to Professional Education 18
Leading Change in Higher Education 48
Conclusion 96
3: THE METHODOLOGY
Theoretical Framework: Initial Research Questions and Objectives 97
Focus of the Study 97
Research Design Strategy 98
Measures 102
vi
Data Collection Procedures 103
Data Analysis Procedures 106
Validity and Reliability of Measures 107
Ethical Considerations 111
Other Factors that May Impact the Research 112
Conclusion 113
4: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Introduction 114
Sample 115
Presentation of Data and Results 115
Mercer University History: 1803 to 1979 116
Mercer University History: 1979 to Present 129
Reasons for Growth During Godsey’s Presidency 139
From President Godsey to President Underwood 140
Leadership’s Challenges Resulting from Mercer’s Transformation 142
Measures to Maintain Values with Changing Demands 163
Leadership and Success 191
Conclusion 210
5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction 212
Discussion of the Results 213
Recommendations for Leaders of Liberal Arts Institutions 221
Limitations 229
vii
Recommendations for Further Research 229
Summary of the Results 230
Conclusion 231
REFERENCES 233
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Higher education is expected to evolve with society’s ever-changing demands.
Kezar and Eckel (2002) and Keenan and Marchel (2007) identified external influences
driving change, including increasing accountability for providing high quality, relevant
educational experiences, increasing global competition, technological advancements,
financial pressures, evolving demographics, increasing methods of acquiring knowledge,
and an increasing overall rate of change throughout the world. The aging population,
global vulnerability in math and science, and increased challenges to social mobility also
promote change (Yankelovish, 2005). These demands fluctuate as national and global
situations change. Leaders of higher education are faced with the challenge of meeting
the needs of society while supporting existing organizational frameworks and traditions
by maintaining established institutional values. However, as noted by scholars including
Schneider (2003), Weisbuch (2005), and Brint, Riddle, Turk-Bicakci, and Levy (2005),
the rigidity of higher education institutions often appears contradictory to our ever-
changing society. Taylor, De Lourdes, and Peterson (2008) argued that leaders of higher
education institutions are responsible for managing this dilemma and that “Effective
leadership is a vehicle for transitioning the higher education institution from a static focus
on its present circumstances to a more dynamic emphasis on its future state” (p. 372).
In response to these societal dynamics, an increasing number of campuses are
attempting transformational change (Kezar & Eckel, 2002) and it is the leaders of these
institutions who are called upon to lead and create opportunities for their institutions to
2
enact transformational change. Roads and Tierney (1992) suggested that every higher
educational institution exists as a distinct culture and, as argued by Burns (1978) and
Schein (1992), leaders play a significant role in the development of culture. Any
transformative process, operating within the context of the distinctive culture of a higher
education institution, has to have an appreciation of the values and missions embedded in
the institutional culture. Transformational change poses a particular challenge to leaders
of liberal arts institutions as they have to develop a balance between their institution’s
foundational values and the values embedded in any new programs that would be added
to the institution’s curriculum in response to pressing societal demands. In addition, as
with the leaders of any academic institution, these leaders have to be aware of such
institutional variables as shared governance (Fullan, 2001; Kemper, 2003; Kinzie & Kuh,
2004; Salguero, 2010) and a culture of entrepreneurialism (Godwyn, 2009; Karp, 2006;
Kezar, Carducci, & Contreras-McGavin, 2006; Vaira, 2004) and how to leverage them
effectively to transform their institutions in a manner that prepares students optimally for
an information-based society. They also have to be aware of how the bureaucratic and
traditionalist tendencies of higher education institutions often conflict with these
institutional variables (Bolden, Petrov, and Gosling, 2008).
Statement of the Problem
Liberal arts institutions today are faced with the problem of how to respond to the
changing demands of society while, at the same time, preserving and staying true to the
liberal arts values that have long informed their vision and mission. In response to an
information-oriented society and increased focus on personal financial health and social
3
status, students increasingly desire college experiences designed explicitly for
professional preparation (Godwyn, 2008; Sullivan & Rosin, 2008; White, 2004).
According to these scholars, professional program experiences are increasingly preferred
because they are believed to be more relevant to students’ lives beyond college.
Schneider (2003) argued, however, that liberal education institutions have failed to
modify programs to meet this student demand. Therein lies the problem for many liberal
arts institutions: how to transform themselves without sacrificing their core values.
The American Association of Colleges and Universities (2010) defined liberal
education as one that:
prepares us to live responsible, productive, and creative lives in a dramatically changing world. It is an education that fosters a well-grounded intellectual resilience, a disposition toward lifelong learning, and an acceptance of responsibility for the ethical consequences of our ideas and actions. (p. 1)
This organization further defined learning as comprehensive, and not confined to specific
fields of study. In its view, liberal education aims holistically to build universal skills
including critical thinking and self-awareness through the appreciation of a variety of
disciplines.
When analyzing degree completion statistics, it is clear that demand for a liberal
arts education trails demand for professional preparation (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2008). According to a National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) study
statistical analysis report published in 2008, in 2004, career education bachelor’s degrees
composed 60 percent of degrees sought while 30.1 percent of degrees sought were
academic degrees. As a result, the number of pure liberal arts institutions has decreased
4
in recent years. Some have modified curricula to include professional programs,
modifying their Carnegie classification, while others have actually closed their doors
(Breneman, 1990). Cohen (1998) found that twice as many liberal arts institutions closed
between 1971 and 1975 as had opened the prior 25 years. In his earlier study, Breneman
(1990) found that of an estimated 500 liberal arts institutions that were once in existence,
only 212 remained at the time of his report. Baker and Baldwin (2009) continued
Breneman’s study of the decreasing number of liberal arts institutions, concluding that of
the 212 institutions identified as liberal arts by Breneman, only 137 remain. According to
Sullivan and Rosin (2008), liberal arts institutions feel pressure to prove they are more
“practical” and “relevant” in order to survive. There are those, however, who opposed
this shift to more professionally-oriented programs and they claim that society will suffer
a loss of individuals with the ability and desire to contribute to society (American
Association of Colleges and Universities, 2007; Colby & Sullivan, 2009; Nussbaum,
2010; Wu, 2005). This argument harkens back to a report issued by Yale College in 1828
that students should be urged, not only to undergo personal pursuits, but also to actively
participate in societal endeavors (Yale College, 1828). In addition, some feared that a
standardization of higher education will result as institutions place greater emphasis on
professional education and that the diversity of educational opportunities available to
students will diminish (Gardner, 1990; Morphew, 2009).
Similarly, students who are not prepared to handle workplace conditions may be
negatively impacted by a narrowing of curricula. Their lack of skills in collaboration and
problem solving and their limited ability to assess situations critically may hinder
5
employment success (American Association of Colleges and Universities, 2007;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Employers have indicated a decrease in readiness to
function effectively in the competitive and dynamic business environment due to the lack
of a comprehensive education to prepare students for employment (Chen, Donahue, &
Klimoski, 2004; Conference Board et al.; Dudka, 2006; Le & Kazis, 2009). In addition,
as noted by Blumenstyk (2009), the highly specialized degrees earned may become
obsolete in this quickly evolving labor market.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to explore how a traditional liberal arts institution
transformed itself into a comprehensive university, while still preserving its founding
core liberal arts values. While liberal education values remain desirable for many in
American society, pressure has been building for leaders of liberal arts institutions to
consider integrating more practice-oriented curricula into their existing curricular
offerings. Because liberal arts institutions are largely dependent on enrollments for their
revenues, one way for them to increase their enrollments is to implement professional
programs of study. However, this process presents a challenge to leaders as they attempt
to preserve liberal educational values while maintaining and building their competitive
edge.
As a case study, Mercer University serves as an example of how a liberal arts
institution can transform itself by successfully integrating professional programs into
course offerings without losing sight of liberal education values. By examining the
6
history of the transformation of Mercer University from its foundation to the present, a
better understanding of effective leadership efforts may be developed. By exploring the
transformative processes used by Mercer University’s successful leaders, effective
attributes and strategies may be identified, thereby providing leaders of other liberal arts
institutions facing similar competitive challenges with insights into the transformative
leadership process. As liberal education leaders are challenged to prove their institutions’
worth to students, they may use this understanding to develop transformative efforts to
balance the traditional values of these institutions with the changing demands of students.
Rationale for the Study
Much research has been conducted in the area of transformative leadership in
higher education and there have been case studies done of liberal arts institutions that
have gone through a transformative process. George Keller’s (2004) study of Elon
College stands out as an example of one such study. At the same time, our understanding
of the challenges posed by a liberal arts institution that attempts to maintain its traditional
core, liberal arts values while undergoing a major transformation will only be enriched by
a historical case study of Mercer University. Many theories about effective leadership
practices in general exist. The proposed study of the leadership attributes and strategies
that led to the successful transformation of Mercer University into a comprehensive
university centered on liberal arts values is intended to assist leaders of other liberal
education institutions who are going through or who are contemplating a major
transformative effort.
7
Research Questions
What leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer University’s leadership over its
long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts college into a comprehensive
university?
Sub-Question 1: How did Mercer University’s leaders balance the institution’s
liberal education values and goals while, at the same time, introducing
professionally-oriented programs?
Sub-Question 2: What obstacles did Mercer University’s leaders encounter during
the process of transformation and how did they overcome these obstacles?
Nature of the Study
A historical case study of Mercer University will be conducted to explore its
transformation from a liberal arts institution at its foundation to a comprehensive
institution that it is today.
History is a discipline that has developed a set of methods and concepts by which
evidence of past events are collected, evaluated, and presented in a meaningful narrative
(Shafer, 1974). Using the historical method, records and survivals of the past are
critically examined and analyzed. Through this process, the authenticity, credibility, and
significance of evidence is determined in order to allow the researcher to synthesize as
close an approximation to the truth about the past as mental images will allow, realizing it
is a subjective process in regards to a perished, objective reality (Gottschalk, 1950). The
8
result of the proposed study will produce a meaningful reconstruction of events based on
available records, personal testimonies, and inferences related to Mercer University’s
transformation through time.
Case study methodology will be used because its qualitative nature enables the
researcher to explore problems in order to develop a deeper understanding. The
researcher may develop a holistic and meaningful understanding of complex
organizational processes such as the transformation of Mercer University from a liberal
arts institution to a comprehensive university (Yin, 2009). The combination of historical
methodology and case study methodology enables the researcher to build the
understanding of Mercer University leadership processes through transformation due to
the melding of historical and contemporary evidence.
Significance of the Study
One finds in the literature a strong case being made that liberal arts institutions
must implement practical learning to survive. While not going so far as to advocate that
liberal arts colleges create professionally-oriented programs, Devitis, Johns, and Simpson
(1998) believed that these institutions can create a linkage between liberal and service-
learning, thereby promoting critical reflection in whatever settings or callings students
choose to enter. By doing so, they argue, a liberal education will be seen as more
relevant to society. In order to do this, they further argued, liberal education proponents
need to steer away from still dominant nineteenth century conceptions of learning by
incorporating themes relevant to critical pedagogy, feminist theory, as well as viewing
9
the goal of education as preparing one for the callings or vocations of life. As a result,
students will learn to critically examine service, helping, and intervention. These authors
contended that this cannot be taught through didactic methods, but that the experience of
confronting individuals and group challenges will prepare students for real-life situations.
In the same vein, Sullivan and Rosin (2008) claimed that the connecting of
analytic insight with practical judgment and action will enable students selectively and
effectively to enter situations, sustain goals despite changing circumstances, and frame
and reframe purposes while seeking a common good. Mulcahy (2009) agreed that liberal
education needs redefining, but, at the same time, boasted that liberal education, as it has
evolved over time, is rich and powerful. He argued:
It needs to be recast in a way that retains its emphasis on what Newman called cultivation of intellect, recognizes the importance of practical knowledge and education for action, accommodates the view that education of the whole person brings into play emotional, moral, and spiritual formation, and adopts a pedagogical stance that gives full recognition to the experience, capacities, and interests of the individual. (p. 6)
Liberal arts institutions are being called upon to respond to the changing demands of
society. Leaders of these institutions are faced with many challenges as they respond to
these demands and they play a critical role during this change process.
One such institution, Mercer University, has responded to this challenge. By
studying its evolution from a small liberal arts college to a comprehensive university, one
will hopefully gain insight into the leadership attributes and strategies necessary for
college leaders to ensure successful implementation of the type of institutional
10
transformation that often accompanies the adoption of professionally-oriented programs
by a traditional liberal arts college.
Definition of Terms
Schneider (2003) provided the following definitions that are applicable to this study.
General education: The part of a liberal education curriculum shared by all students. It
provides broad exposure to multiple disciplines and forms the basis for developing
important intellectual and civic capacities.
Liberal arts: Specific disciplines in the arts, humanities, social sciences, and sciences that
are distinct from professional fields such as business, engineering, and social work.
Liberal arts colleges: A particular institutional type—often small, often residential—that
facilitates close interaction between faculty and students, while grounding its curriculum
in the liberal arts disciplines.
Liberal education: A philosophy of education that empowers individuals, liberates the
mind from ignorance, and cultivates social responsibility. Characterized by challenging
encounters with important issues and more a way of studying than specific content,
liberal education can occur at all types of colleges and universities.
Assumptions and Limitations
Since historical research methodology is limited by evidence available, one of the
key assumptions of this study is that the researcher will gain access to sufficient historical
data needed to complete the study. Presence of or access to documents containing
11
relevant data may be limited. Further, the narratives of pertinent individuals in the
transformative change of Mercer University since its foundation in 1833 may limit the
evidence available. According to Gottschalk (1950), only a small part of what happened
was ever observed, only a part of what was observed was remembered, only a small part
of what was remembered was recorded, only a small part of what was recorded was
preserved, only a small part of what was preserved comes to the researcher’s attention,
only a small part of what is determined as credible is found valuable and grasped by the
researcher, and only a small part of what is grasped is narrated by the researcher. Thus,
history can only be told as a history-as-record, not a history-as-actuality.
Testimonials may present misleading or inaccurate data either intentionally or
unintentionally. For example, documents and witnesses may provide misleading data due
to semantic or hermeneutics. Semantics may create a problem of meaning when
determining the meaning of contents of a document or a statement made in a personal
testimony of a witness due to varying definitions of terms. Hermeneutics may prevent
the accurate decoding of text and narratives due to the use of ambiguous terms
(Gottschalk, 1950). The ability of the witness to depict transformative processes from
Mercer University’s history accurately and completely may be limited.
Researcher misinterpretation and bias may also limit this study. The deciphering
of testimonials by the researcher may limit the validity of results. Gottschalk (1950)
emphasized this notion by stating that testimonies are mere facts of meaning. They are
symbolic and representative of something that once was real but, that has no objective
reality of its own, leaving room for researcher error (p. 46). The researcher may over or
12
underemphasize certain evidence, providing misleading perspective by assigning a
heightened or lessened value inaccurately. Determination of the degree of influence of an
event, individual, or object may also limit research. According to Gottschalk, the degree
of influence is not uniform, often incomparable, and often immeasurable, leading the
researcher to determine relative strength subjectively. This may result in researcher bias
because personal judgment has played a role in the evaluation of evidence.
Conclusion
Liberal arts institutions are transforming curricula in order to meet the demands of
our ever-changing society. The success of such transformations is significantly impacted
by institutional leadership. By studying the leadership of Mercer University, an
institution that has successfully incorporated professional programs into its existing
liberal arts curriculum, an understanding of the leadership strategies implemented may be
developed and offered to leaders of other institutions experiencing similar challenges.
13
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction to Higher Education, Leadership, and Change
President Barack Obama’s rallying cry has been consistent: “leadership for
change” (Eisler & Carter, 2010). This is a response to our rapidly changing world,
highlighted by a variety of crises. Higher education has not been unaffected by the
rapidly changing world in which it finds itself, but, at the same time, its role has remained
steady. At the same time, there has long been debate about higher education’s role in
contributing to the “national good” of economic competitiveness and development and its
role in advancing the “universal good” of knowledge for its own sake (Drucker, 1993).
As noted by Lemann (2004), “American universities have benefited from conceptual
unclarity: they are many things to many people” (p. 1). This review of the literature
intends to explore existing authors’ findings and opinions relevant to higher education,
leadership, and change.
In order to reach goals based on societal demands, institutions initiate change.
Taylor et al. (2008) argued that “Effective leadership is a vehicle for transitioning the
higher education institution from a static focus on its present circumstances to a more
dynamic emphasis on its future state” (p. 372). Drucker (1954) used an orchestra
analogy to clearly illustrate the difficulty of attempting to fulfill this expectation stating
that orchestras are composed of individuals striving to reach a common goal, a beautiful
musical performance. The constituents of higher education institutions, too, aim to reach
objectives collectively. However, unlike an orchestra that has the walls of theatres
14
blocking external disturbances such as noisy, distracting sirens, higher education
institutions are constantly bombarded by internal and external forces that, if not
addressed effectively, may inhibit the ability to reach goals.
Societal dynamics cause many of these disturbances. Kezar and Eckel (2002) and
Keenan and Marchel (2007) identified a number of external influences driving change:
increasing accountability for providing high quality and relevant educational experiences,
increasing global competition, technological advancements, financial pressures, evolving
demographics, increasing methods of acquiring knowledge, and an increasing overall rate
of change throughout the world. To this list, Yankelovish (2005) added the aging
population, global vulnerability in math and science, and increased challenges to social
mobility. According to Sebalji et al. (2007), institutional obstacles also create
complications: weak internal dynamics including loss of networks, poor communication,
failure to reach goals, positioning and power struggles, lack of common policies and
procedures, and internal competition for resources.
These continuous changes presented by society, coupled with institutional
weaknesses, require an accompanying cycle of responses in the form of institutional
change. Kezar and Eckel (2002) found that an increasing number of campuses are
attempting transformational change. Perkins, Bess, Cooper, Jones, Armstead, and Speer
(2007) categorized change as first-order, incremental or authoritative changes, or second-
order, transformative change, with the latter tending to characterize higher education
change in response to societal demands. As Jones, Harris, and Santana (2008) noted,
transformative change occurs when a system (or people composing the system) does not
15
return to previous ways of doing things. Keenan and Marchel (2007) argued that despite
the evolving multitude of change drivers and increasing number of campuses attempting
to create transformational change, the pace of change in higher education institutions is
relatively slow.
Any transformative change, however slow, requires leaders with effective change
strategies and, as Astin and Astin (2000) argued, leaders are change agents. Cornwall
(2003) and Fisher and Koch (2004) concurred and stated that higher education leaders
have the responsibility to create opportunities for their institutions. According to Taylor
et al. (2008), it is these opportunities that move institutions forward in an effective
manner, guiding them from current mission-states to new and better vision-states. To
lead change, Fullan (2001) argued that higher education leaders must develop the
capacity to seek, critically assess, and selectively incorporate practices constantly, both
internally and externally. Navahandi (2004) went further and argued that, because a
multitude of stakeholders play a role in higher educational institutional functions, they
have to be incorporated into leadership processes; a leader influences individuals and
groups in an organization and this facilitates the production of objectives and directs the
actions toward the attainment of objectives.
While Taylor et al. (2008) noted that those holding more traditional, hierarchical
views have identified leadership as a position, Gronn and Spillane (2006) argued that
leadership should be viewed as a process. Astin and Astin (2000) concurred, stressing
that leadership is a process ultimately concerned with fostering change, that it is a
movement, not a managerial task designed to preserve or maintain established
16
organizational norms or functions. Changes, they further contended, are intentional, not
random, and therefore, leadership is a purposeful process which is inherently value-
based.
According to Pettigrew (1997), situations are not objective realities to which
leaders simply respond. Rather, situations are interpreted by leaders in a sequential
manner. In their study, Antonakis, Avolio, and Sivasubramaniam (2003) observed
leadership patterns of leaders through time. Their results concurred with the views of
leadership as a process by concluding that leadership involves a sequence of activities,
not random occurrences. In their view, the result is cyclical leadership patterns,
indicating that leadership is a process, not a position.
Kezar et al. (2006) noted that minimized resources, increased accountability and
assessment, globalization, and competition are pressures challenging higher education
leaders. In addition, they argued that the massification of universities and the complexity
of university decision-making are forcing leaders to develop and implement new strategic
management practices. As a result, they noted that scholars are studying how higher
education leaders are responding to these pressures and new perspectives about
leadership are emerging. They further claimed that leadership is:
moving away from static, highly structured, and value-neutral leadership frameworks. Contemporary scholars have embraced dynamic, globalized, and process-oriented perspectives of leadership that emphasize cross-cultural understanding, collaboration, and social responsibility for others. (p. 2)
These authors, and they argued others as well, no longer view higher education
leadership from a scientific perspective, but, rather, as an art, craft, or spiritual practice.
17
As a result, they contended that a positivist approach to studying leadership has given
way to studies from the perspective of social constructivist, postmodern, and critical
paradigms.
Astin and Leland (1991) argued that the vision of leaders in higher education has
shifted from social control to social change. Garner’s (2004) study of minority leaders
concurred with this notion. He noted that a leader’s desire to compel others to fulfill a
common goal that is beneficial to all. Kezar et al. (2006) argued that a constructivist
view of leadership has replaced a functionalist view and this is evident in cultural and
cognitive leadership theories which encourage stakeholders to embrace change rather
than view it as a task.
At the same time, some scholars suggested that the quality of leadership in
general has been eroding in recent years. Astin and Astin (2000) cited shaky race
relations, growing economic disparities and inequities, excessive materialism, decaying
inner cities, a deteriorating infrastructure, a weakening public school system, an
irresponsible mass media, declining civic engagement, and the increasing ineffectiveness
of government as problems putting more and more pressure on leaders. Lastly, they
argued, citizen disengagement cripples our capacity to deal with internal and external
problems, hindering leadership progress.
Leaders of higher education institutions are expected to reach an endless series of
goals. They have to evaluate whether individual change initiatives are necessary. By
considering the implications of choices made in response to internal and external
18
pressures requiring institutional transformation, they have to determine whether or not
specific transformative efforts will truly benefit the institution. To determine the value of
a change initiative, Cohen (2003) encouraged leaders of higher education institutions to
consider the following formula: change occurs when dissatisfaction with the status quo
and vision of the future and the understood procedures and pathways to accomplish the
change and support from key players is greater than the cost of the change. Like algebra,
if any of these variables are zero, change will not occur.
In Leading Change, Kotter (1996) presented an eight step transformational
process: the building of a sense of urgency, the creation of a supportive coalition, the
development and communication of a vision and strategy, the empowerment of
employees, the generation of short-term wins, the fusion of successes leading to the
production of additional changes, and the acceptance of new approaches into the
institution’s culture.
Higher education scholars have expressed the importance of leadership during
transformative change, exposing various views. The gradient of institutional change, role
of leaders, and views of leadership within higher education institutions has been debated.
However, most scholars view effective leadership as a necessary component of successful
transformation.
From Liberal Education to Professional Education
In reviewing the current higher education literature, it is clear that more and more
colleges are adding professional programs to their circular offerings in response to
19
societal demands. Professional programs are generally defined as those that provide
skills and training to prepare students for a specific vocation or career. Historically,
liberal arts institutions have focused more on providing a holistic educational experience
and less on preparing students for specific careers. Many are now faced with the
challenge of altering their traditional missions and adding more career-focused programs.
The American Association of Colleges and Universities (AACU) (2009b) revealed in a
study of member institutions that 98 percent have specified field-specific learning
outcomes, aimed at developing skills relevant to a particular career in at least some of
their departments, 65 percent have identified these outcomes in all departments.
According to Sullivan and Rosin (2008), liberal arts institutions feel pressure to prove
that they are more “practical” and “relevant,” while professional schools are increasingly
encouraged to confine training to the technical aspects of their fields. Some liberal arts
institutions have responded by integrating professional curricula into existing programs.
Some have converted completely into professional schools, others have implemented
professional programs while maintaining existing liberal education programs. As will be
discussed subsequently, various views of the transition toward professional education
have emerged. Before looking at these divergent views, it is important to trace briefly the
evolution of liberal education.
The founding theories and evolution of liberal education provide a deeper
understanding of its intended role in society as well as the implications of its potential
decreasing availability in lieu of professional programs. Definitions of liberal education
vary. However, as noted by Lemann (2004), it is often idealized as:
20
education that liberates, that frees the mind from the constraints of a particular moment and set of circumstances, that permits one to see possibilities that are not immediately apparent, to understand things in a larger context, to think about situations conceptually and analytically, to draw upon a base of master knowledge when faced with specific situations. (p. 13)
The AACU (2009a) indicated that liberal education requires the understanding of the
foundations of knowledge and inquiry about nature, culture and society as well as the
mastery of perception, analysis, and expression. Additionally, respect for the truth,
recognition of historical and cultural contexts, and exploration of interdisciplinary
connections and well as relationships between education and citizenship and real-world
activities are valued. Many liberal arts institutions, noted AACU, have built a tradition of
student-student and student-faculty interaction allowing participants to advance skills
beyond those offered by professional and vocational programs. AACU (2010) further
argued that “The ability to think, to learn, and to express oneself both rigorously and
creatively, the capacity to understand ideas and issues in context, the commitment to live
in society, and yearning for truth are fundamental features of humanity” (p. 1). Thus, the
AACU (2010) posited that liberal education is society’s best investment in our shared
future. Sullivan and Rosin (2008) argued that:
Liberal education provides students with orientation, the intellectual capacity to make sense of their environment and to locate themselves reflectively within the complex influences of their time and place. The aim of such teaching is often described as developing students’ ability to assume responsibility for their purposes and identity. (p. 3)
Hadley (2009) defined liberal arts as focusing on individuals’ actions. In her
description, the ear is emphasized because listening is one of the most public and most
personal human means of interacting with the world, allowing discernment of the
importance of various ideas and thoughts. She continued by stating that reading and
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comprehending a diverse range of texts demands an interpretive eye. In addition, the
decoding of vital nonverbal communication occurs. Hands refer to actions that
communicate ideas and thoughts the mouth cannot. Students are urged to open
themselves up to examine and challenge their own natural beliefs through heart, rather
than solely through the mind. The expansive vocabulary made possible by
communication through the mouth provides the ability to participate in the exploration of
the diverse mysteries of our world. However, listening is emphasized over speaking.
Lastly, she contended that the mind is to be used to take a stance, leaving oneself
vulnerable through a constructive, rather than competitive, drive.
Historical Evolution of Liberal Education in America
A review of the influences on liberal education through American history clearly
indicates the challenges faced by these institutions. According to Bok (2006), “Only
through acquaintance with this history can one tell whether critics are correct in asserting
that the quality of liberal education is in serious decline” (p. 11). He argued that the
overall pattern of change as well as specific influences and outcomes are essential to an
understanding of the evolution of liberal education.
Brint et al. (2005) conducted a longitudinal study of the historical progression of
liberal education. They concluded that the evolution of liberal education can be seen in
short-term cyclical movements as well as an underlying trend toward professional and
occupational education. Often, cyclical movements toward vocational programs
coincided with economic depressions that triggered employment reductions and cyclical
movements toward liberal education, though few, occurred during times of prosperity. In
22
general, Brint et al. indicated that the overall number of professional programs has also
increased due to the increasing number of newly professionalized careers requiring
college credentials. For example, between 1915 and 1929, when teacher’s colleges
replaced normal schools, the number of bachelor’s degrees in education rose seven
percent.
According to the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) (2005),
the oldest form of higher education in the United States is the liberal arts college. Most
liberal arts institutions originally combined religious and liberal education. Moral and
civic education along Christian lines was a common aim of these early institutions. Until
the Civil War, the ASHE study notes, colleges resembled finishing schools more than
institutions of advanced education. The aim of a liberal education in these early years
was to provide a well-rounded, academic education to gentlemen prior to entering the
clergy, medical, or legal professions. These institutions were founded on an ideology that
favored morals over self-advancement, and advancing one’s ethos (ASHE, 2009). Scott
(2005) noted that they emphasized moral and intellectual growth dependent on mental
discipline. Bok (2006) stated that American colonial colleges, such as Harvard, offered a
liberal arts curriculum that stressed grammar, arithmetic, and ancient Greek and Latin,
with two objectives—training the intellect and building character.
According to Cohen (1998), 1790 marked the beginning of rapid expansion in the
number and type of higher education institutions. He stated that “The first state colleges
and the first technical institutes were formed shortly thereafter, and the curriculum was
opened well beyond the liberal arts to include broader emphases” (p. 5). However, this
23
author noted, the introduction of these institutions had a relatively minute impact on
liberal arts institutions at this time, but, henceforth, the dominance of liberal arts
institutions would be challenged.
Liberal Education in 19th Century America
As America grew, liberal education began to feel the demand to demonstrate the
value of its curriculum. In response, the Yale Report of 1828 served as the
groundbreaking document that defended the liberal arts philosophy. This report justified
the foundational values and resulting curricula provided by liberal arts institutions. It
presented an argument for the traditional way of teaching a fixed set of topics including
classical language and literature. According to the Report, education should not just be
instruction, but must be seen as a mental discipline and classical courses were ideal for
achieving this objective. For example, Yale College defended the teaching of ancient
languages by discussing their contribution to the prevalently used modern languages.
These connections would enable students to contribute to society successfully. Later in
the century, John Henry Newman also posed strong arguments for liberal education in his
classic text, The Idea of a University (1852). Cardinal Newman stated that the
combination of knowledge of theology, science, and literature with the ability to analyze
and reflect on the information would allow individuals to understand the world.
The end of the Civil War marked unprecedented reform higher education. A shift
to more secular studies occurred as America grew. The Morrill Act of 1862 was a very
important part of this transition. This act was passed by President Abraham Lincoln in
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order to create land grant colleges for the purpose of providing education related to
military, agricultural, and mechanical arts to support the needs on a rapidly growing
economy. The intent, according to Lucas (2006), was to revitalize already established
state universities struggling to survive, while providing training in fields deemed vital to
society. Further, Scott (2005) noted, philanthropy born of industrial fortunes such as
steel and oil tycoons contributed to the establishment of new institutions and
transformation of some existing ones. These new institutions were inspired by German
universities which emphasized exploration over knowledge, challenging liberal arts
institutional values. Thus, noted Bok (2006), leaders, including Charles W. Eliot,
Andrew White, William Rainey Harper, and Benjamin Gilman, encouraged research
focused on science, and introduced doctoral programs.
According to Bok (2006), undergraduate education began to experience a
significant shift in curriculum. Old classical curriculum was replaced with more practical
offerings. Modern languages and literature and natural sciences, including physics,
biology, and chemistry, were increasingly offered. Private institutions introduced
vocational subjects such as commerce and engineering. Public universities advanced this
trend further by offering domestic science, business administrative, sanitary science, and
physical education programs. Bok further noted that elective systems began to be
offered, increasing student choice. Even the most traditional liberal arts institutions, such
as Yale College, began introducing elective systems and a more diverse array of modern
scientific, social scientific, and humanistic courses to meet this increasing demand for
knowledge. Cornell and Stanford also implemented elective systems. According to Bok
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(2006), classroom posters could be found that read “Don’t let your studies interfere with
your education.” Based on this statement, he stated that social ambition became very
powerful and a more casual attitude toward higher education emerged.
Despite these attempts by liberal arts institutions to integrate a broader set of
disciplines during this period of great growth following the civil war, liberal arts
institutions and programs, notes Cohen (1998), came under attack because many believed
that they were too aristocratic and provided rigid and irrelevant experiences to individuals
or society. As Brint et al. (2005) noted an elitist connotation that marked liberal
education due to its correlation with the arts and sciences, thus these subjects were
viewed as pertinent only to the affluent.
Liberal Education in 20th Century America
After a decline created by the establishment of more public institutions, noted
Brint et al. (2005), liberal education towards the end of the 19th century and into the 20th
century once again grew in demand. Liberal arts degrees rose to about 55 percent during
this time. During the 1910s and 1920s, liberal arts institutions dominated. Higher
education, according to these authors, was still a preserve of the middle and upper class
that resembled English models of higher education institutions.
Traditional liberal arts programs began to show significant signs of strain
beginning in the 1930s and, as noted by Bok (2006), experimental scientists and scholars
of modern languages and literature overshadowed their colleagues in the classical
curricula. Additionally, found Brint et al. (2005), professional and occupational
26
programs increased in popularity and enrollments in liberal arts programs decreased.
According to the United States Department of the Interior Office of Education (1929,
1931, 1933, 1935, 1937, 1939, 1943), the proportion of professional degrees granted
spiked from about 32 percent to about 61 percent between 1928 and 1940 before
beginning a slight decline.
Post WWII through the 1950s presented a period of continued occupational and
professional program dominance over liberal education. The United States came out of
World War II as the most powerful nation on earth with a flourishing economy and an
expanding population—the so-called Baby Boom. The end of the war marked the
beginning of what some scholars have called the “massification” of the higher education
era. As Brint et al. (2005) found, an era of surging enrollments had begun as the
Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944, or the GI Bill, significantly increased access to
higher education for returning G.I.s. The authors contend these enrollment increases
were not realized proportionately by liberal arts institutions. However, according to
Cohen (1998), these older, nontraditional students desired programs that would prepare
them for employment and professional education heightened in popularity.
Brint et al. (2005) found that the influx of non-traditional students desiring
professionally-oriented degrees led to the creation of a variety of curricular models.
Public universities tended to offer a wide assortment of vocational majors along with
standard liberal arts concentrations. Conversely, with the exception of engineering and
business, private universities resisted occupational majors. A “status divide,” they state,
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resulted from this “functional divide” as liberal arts institutions continued to focus on
concentrated baccalaureate programs with strong academic profiles.
In 1947, in response to the increasing preference for professional education, the
Truman Commission on Higher Education assigned liberal education to general
education courses to be taken during the first two years of college. The report that
presented these sanctions, Higher Education for American Democracy: A Report of the
President’s Commission on Higher Education, noted Bok (2006), expressed the necessity
of “nonvocational” aspects of learning (President’s Commission on Higher Education,
1947). Despite this effort, it seemed the new population of students was more interested
in job preparation than acquiring a broad liberal arts education. Further, Bok stated that
community colleges (of Junior Colleges as many of them were known by in this era)
began to emerge and flourish. In addition, existing institutions increasingly incorporated
vocational programs. The number of students choosing vocational majors quickly
exceeded traditional arts and sciences degrees, demonstrating the continuous growth of
professional programs.
The success of the Soviet spacecraft Sputnik in 1957 shocked the American
public and prompted Congress to pass the National Defense Education Act. Millions of
dollars were now allocated to teaching math, science, and foreign languages—long the
staples of liberal education. As a result, noted Brint et al. (2005), the 1960s witnessed a
resurgence in liberal education with 55 percent of degrees being awarded by liberal arts
institutions. This resurgence in liberal education did not survive into the 1970s as a trend
toward occupational and professional training re-emerged. As Brint et al. (2005) noted:
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During a period in which graduates nearly doubled, almost every field which constituted the old liberal arts core of the undergraduate college was in absolute decline as measured by numbers of graduates. This includes not only all of the humanities and social sciences (except psychology), but also the physical sciences and mathematics. (p. 159)
Eventually, noted an ASHE (2009) report, liberal arts colleges became vulnerable due to
declining enrollments, austerity, and inflation. In response, many liberal arts institutions
responded by modifying programs to increase competition with other types of
institutions. This trend has continued through to the present and is projected to persist.
While many liberal arts institutions successfully managed the transition from a
singular focus on liberal learning, a significant number did not. Cohen (1998) found that
twice as many liberal arts institutions closed between 1971 and 1975 as had opened the
prior 25 years. They could not compete with lower-cost, publicly supported state
colleges and community colleges created by the Morrill Act as well as the increased
demand for trade-specific programs.
Liberal versus Professional Education
Brint et al. (2005) noted that the trend toward professional and occupational
education persists today. They stated that “One could say that all of the traditional arts
and sciences fields, except those closely linked to health careers, have a receding profile
in today’s colleges and universities” (p. 159). In the time frame of their study, they
discovered that 58 percent of degrees were awarded in professional programs. They
argued that the weakening desire for liberal education has continued to be fueled by the
29
view of liberal education as elitist due to its prevalence at the most selective colleges and
universities.
During the past three decades, noted an ASHE (2005) report, the tension between
liberal and professional education has changed form from an either/or approach to more
of a synthesis of the types of education offered. It found this approach promising for
both types of education as the tension moved “into a direction of mutual reinforcement, a
potential boon for both liberal arts and vocationally oriented education” (p. 8).
As societal demands and the student population grew and diversified, scrutiny of
the ability to prepare students effectively to make societal contributions has prompted a
debate based on traditional views of liberal education. Even in his own day, John Henry
Newman modified his stance on the essence of liberal education, claiming that the
abstract learning prevalent in these programs do not enable graduates to handle concrete
situations. He argued that experiential knowledge and practical reasoning was necessary
in concrete affairs.
A 20th century advocate of liberal education, Paul Hirst (1974), also expressed the
need for practical educational experiences. He argued that practical knowledge is more
fundamental than theoretical knowledge. Jay Newman (1986), not to be confused with
John Henry Newman, concurred, claiming that the common man’s judgment is ignored at
the expense of judgment of philosophers, intellectuals, and rationalists through liberal
education.
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Today the debate rages on with a wide variety of shades and nuances. In 2006,
Debra Humphreys (2006) introduced a broadened view of liberal education that includes
creative thinking, teamwork and problem solving, civic knowledge and engagement,
ethical reasoning and action, and synthesis and advanced accomplishment across general
and specialized studies. In a contrary mode, Schneider (2003) believed that liberal
education’s rigidity prevents effective adaptation to modern demands. Weisbuch (2005)
put it rather bluntly. “The world has not abandoned the liberal arts; the academic liberal
arts have abandoned the world” (p. 93). Raelin (2007) argued that the objective means
of inquiry provided by professional programs are advancements over the volatile
knowledge obtained from feelings and values, often integrated into liberal arts programs.
Jane Roland Martin (1994) proposed a conflicting view, suggesting that liberal arts
educations exclude values including feelings and emotions, care, concern, and making
connections. These values, while extremely important in the development of students,
are ignored by liberal education due to the focus on the nature, structure, and uses of
knowledge, rather than educational goals to prepare students for life beyond college.
John White (2004) developed the concept of the “primacy of the practical” to depict this
view of curriculum. He argued that the human being is an agent, not a knower; therefore,
curriculum should be practically-oriented. Sullivan and Rosin (2008) argued that current
professional higher education institutions are charged with providing the knowledge
essential to a particular field or endeavor. This experience cannot be based on
observation and theory. Thus, these institutions should aim to provide students with
access to actual practices, promoting engagement and responsibility for clients. Godwyn
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(2009) maintained that first generation, low income, and adult learners need job training
rather than intellectual development. Students find educational experiences that provide
training for specific vocations more relevant. Thus, professional education is more likely
to sell. Student objectives revolve around competence and commitment to a profession.
Overall, liberal arts institutions have faced three challenges according to ASHE
(2005). First, as previously discussed, the increased focus of postsecondary education on
vocational education has limited the ability of liberal arts institutions to compete for
students. Second, the public lacks an understanding of and appreciation for liberal
education and how it can develop career skills. Often, a complete misperception of
liberal arts colleges exists. Last, there is a public notion that liberal education is a luxury
educational experience only suitable for the wealthy. Barker (2000) stated that “learning
for the sake of learning” is not a viable option for most students is a common view of the
public. Many feel liberal education will not provide an education that will support them
financially.
Student Indicators of Professional Program Preference
Research studies and enrollment numbers indicate that students have increasingly
believed that a liberal arts education will not fully prepare them for the workplace.
Program choice clearly shows that professional programs are favored. Of 1.6 million
bachelor’s degrees awarded in the 2007-2008 academic year, at least 65 percent were in
professional fields of study (NCES, 2010). The greatest increase from the 1997-1998
academic year to the 2007-2008 academic year, 94 percent, was in the field of parks,
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recreation, leisure, and fitness studies, a professional degree. Visual and performing arts
and communication and communication technology, also professional fields, presented
the next largest increases. The National Center for Education Statistics (2008) reported
that, in 2004, career education bachelor’s degrees composed 60 percent of degrees sought
compared to 30.1 percent for academic degrees. More specifically, during the 2006-2007
academic year, degrees in the field of business, a vocationally-based field of study, made
up 21 percent of all bachelor’s degrees earned. This significant proportion represents an
increase of 44 percent from the 1996-1997 academic year.
Peter D. Hart Research Associates (2004) conducted a focus group comprised of
college and college-bound high school students. Participants in the focus group were
asked to select the most and least important reasons people may give for attending
college from a list of ten. While some results indicated a preference for outcomes
resembling goals of liberal education, the overwhelming majority of responses
emphasized professional education outcomes. Ranking at the bottom of reasons to attend
college were the opportunity to learn about and from people and cultures different from
one’s own and to prepare for a life of civic responsibility and leadership, both defining
features of liberal education. Thus, these researchers concluded that society, based on
student responses, views liberal education as the “nonvocational” or “less marketable”
part of curriculum. Godwyn (2009), a proponent of professional education based on
student success in the workforce, found that students are concerned about post-college
debt and increasing competition for employment. They are more concerned about their
financial well-being by developing occupational skills than about obtaining the holistic
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skills valued by liberal arts educations. ASHE (2005) reported similar findings regarding
student economic concerns. However, their report stressed the role of parental economic
concerns. They claim that because parents of today’s traditional-age students were of
traditional college age during the 1970s, a time of increased emphasis on professional
education, their views of education affect the decisions of their children.
The Hart study also found concern about competition for jobs among the students
in its focus group. The most frequent responses that the researchers heard were “a
college education will bring more career choices and a greater number of job
opportunities” and “a college education will provide specific skills and knowledge
required in the field in which I hope to work” (Peter D. Hart Research Associates, 2004).
Further, this study concluded that, while students indicate specific college outcomes such
as gaining a sense of maturity, time-management skills, strong work habits, self-
discipline, and teamwork skills, these skills are not viewed as a part of curriculum, but
rather, as part of the college experience as a whole. Thus, despite liberal education’s
emphasis on these outcomes, the Hart study found that students do not connect their
achievement with liberal learning’s outcomes.
An ASHE study conducted in 2009 found that a decline in student awareness of
the arts and sciences that occurred between the 1960s and 1990s may well have guided
them toward occupational programs. Freeland (2009) agreed, noting that many liberal
arts students are not aware of the values of liberal education and how it differs from
occupationally-oriented programs. The study also asked students to define what liberal
education means to them. Most of the high school and college students were not able to
34
provide an accurate definition. The research group then provided the focus group
participants with a description of the content and goals of liberal education. While high
school students were interested in liberal education, college students demonstrated
skepticism and were displeased with the requirement of taking general education courses
at their college.
Institutional Indicators of Professional Program Transition
Scholars have also studied the number of liberal arts institutions that have
implemented professional programs in addition to or in lieu of traditional liberal arts
coursework. Breneman (1990, 1994) found in his studies of liberal arts colleges that
most had become “small professional schools with a liberal arts tradition, but little of the
reality of a traditional liberal college.” He concluded that of the 540 institutions earning
a Carnegie Classification as liberal arts colleges, only 212 actually deserved the
distinction, a distinction that he based classification on the percentage of degrees awarded
in liberal arts disciplines and the source of institutional revenue. He considered
institutions that granted fewer than 40 percent of their degrees to students in liberal arts
disciplines and finances based on professional and graduate programs as “small
professional colleges.” Further, between 1972 and 1988, Breneman discovered that the
proportion of professional degrees increased from 11 percent to 24 percent in the elite
colleges and from 41 percent to 64 percent in the rest. These results indicated that liberal
arts institutions were not only being lost through closures, but also through transition to a
different type of institution. He noted that, while some actually closed their doors, others
had made a conversion to professional education through program modifications. He
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questioned, however, whether this phenomenon was a redefinition or a complete
transition away from liberal education.
Writing 17 years later, Raelin (2007) stated that programs have been adapted or
added in order to compete with the diverse range of educational providers including
online and for-profit institutions. Similarly, Dimaria (2010) argued that, in order to
survive, all organizations must adapt. Therefore, he too pondered whether or not liberal
arts colleges are truly disappearing as noted and discussed previously by Breneman.
Updating Breneman’s findings, Baker and Balwin (2009) revealed that of the 212
institutions identified by Breneman, only 137 remain traditional liberal arts institutions.
Many evolved into “professional colleges.” They pointed out that these transitions away
from a liberal arts mission may have been conscious or unconscious. Based on Baldwin
and Baker’s study, DiMaria (2010) proposed that the transition to a knowledge and
service-based economy has prompted today’s students to demand more specialized
educations. In their earlier work, Brint et al. (2005) viewed such shifts can be interpreted
as indicators of the state of the relationship between market forces and cultural idealism,
proving the significant impact of societal changes on higher education institutions.
Some would argue that a new definition of liberal education is emerging.
Humphreys (2006), for example, redefined liberal education to include creative thinking,
teamwork and problem solving, civic knowledge and engagement, ethical reasoning and
action, synthesis and advanced accomplishment across general and specialized studies (p.
3). This definition has evolved to include specialized education and experiential
36
education. Delucchi (1997) criticized Breneman’s view that liberal arts institutions were
merely evolving. He argued that there is a “liberal arts myth” that attempts to legitimate
efforts to maintain liberal arts practices while incorporating other educational pursuits.
Brint et al. (2005) predicted this trend will continue and that we will eventually arrive at a
point where the bachelor’s degree becomes a preparatory degree for further studies rather
than its currently predominant role as a terminal degree.
Prestige has also been linked to the liberal arts institutional transformation.
Prestige, in relationship to higher education, is defined as an asset that conveys nonprice
information to customers (Brewer, Gates, & Goldman, 2002). Prestige allows customers
to evaluate the extent to which an institution will meet their needs. According to Brewer
et al. (2002), this information is important especially in markets where the quality of a
good or service is difficult to assess prior to a commitment. It is directly related to an
institution’s ability to meet consistently a set of specific customer demands. Due to the
importance of prestige, some institutions desire an “upward drift” leading to a higher
Carnegie classification in order to increase competitive strength. In his study of four
Georgia institutions, Toma (2008) identified the unique features boasted by each
institution, but noted their common strategies to increase prestige. Toma concluded that
diverse institutions have a common aspiration-to improve their image. They believed
that by gaining greater legitimacy, they will ultimately increase their competitive edge,
leading to the availability of more resources. As has been noted, some liberal arts
institutions have incorporated professional programs in order to gain prestige, and to
sharpen their competitive edge.
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In their study of institutions undergoing transformative change, Brint et al. (2005)
concluded that less prestigious liberal arts institutions were more likely to convert to
“practical arts” institutions than those identified as prestigious. They attributed this
pattern to the lack of need for highly successful prestigious institutions to make changes.
Therefore, the increasing transformation of liberal arts institutions into more
professionally-oriented institutions has been driven by less prestigious institutions. In a
2009 report, ASHE found that less prestigious schools have implemented entrepreneurial
agendas and strategies in order to compete and to survive. Baker and Baldwin (2009),
however, argued that institutions aiming to increase prestige by moving to a higher
Carnegie classification concurrently experience a decline in their reputation, thus
rendering their efforts as less than worthwhile.
Other trends have also challenged liberal arts leaders. For example, in recent
years, small shifts in enrollment from private to public institutions have occurred
(Altbach, Berdahl, & Gumport, 2005). Burrell (2008) identified rising costs, decreased
state and federal government funding and changing demographics as environmental
factors putting pressure on liberal arts institutions. Additionally, noted Levine (2000),
new technology and the growth of for-profit and on line institutions continue to challenge
liberal arts institutions.
Opposition to the Professional Program Dominance
Despite the strength of the trend toward the dominance of professional programs
in higher education, several challenges to the transition to professional education have
38
been identified by scholars. Many claims made by liberal arts education proponents have
not been empirically substantiated. These supporters often claim that the benefits of
liberal education are self-evident, thus no empirical justification is necessary (ASHE,
2005). As poignantly stated by Nussbaum (2010), “We are in a crisis of massive
proportions and grave global significance. Producing generations of useful machines,
rather than complete citizens who can think for themselves” (p. 1). The AAUP’s (2007)
publication urging the incorporation of liberal education into all program types is based
on the premise that the short-sighted purpose of obtaining an education specific to a
chosen career will result in limited prospects for students and society.
Opponents argue that, in general, education’s moral, civic, and intellectual
purposes are undermined when liberal education values are not incorporated into
programs. Some students and scholars continue to argue for the importance of individual
development of holistic skills. According to Colby and Sullivan (2009), analytical
thinking “involves framing the particularity of actual experiences and terms of categories
at a higher level of abstraction” (p. 1). Thus, they argued, analytical thinking requires
both the mastery of substantive content, which focuses on knowledge, and the
humanities, which incorporates meaning and value. However, they further argued,
analytical thinking is increasingly viewed as the understanding of facts, which is
beginning to be viewed as the only kind of knowledge worth having. They viewed this
development as one of the negative consequences of the emphasis on professional
programs. They contended that the current understanding of analytical reasoning must be
replaced by an emphasis on practical reasoning. Students need to develop a sense of
39
purpose and responsibility as they increase knowledge and practical skills, thereby
producing a bridge between “pure” and “applied” learning. Sullivan and Rosin (2008)
saw critical thinking as a necessary component of learning but not sufficient for
responsible judgment. Thus, experiences must engage students in the world more
mindfully.
According to the AAUP (2007), those who believe that a narrow “marketable”
college degree is the key to future economic success are blind to the realities of the new
global economy. In this report it is further stated that:
Only a few years ago, Americans envisioned a future in which this nation would be the world’s only superpower. Today it is clear that the United States—and individual Americans—will be challenged to engage in unprecedented ways with the global community, collaboratively and competitively. (p. 15)
Globally, today’s American college graduates lack the knowledge and experience to
compete. Taking its argument further, the AAUP contends that to succeed in today’s
environment, graduates need to be intellectually resilient, cross-culturally and
scientifically literate, technologically adept, appreciate ethics, and prepared for lifelong,
multi- and cross-disciplinary learning. According to Schneider (2003), as higher
education becomes more market-oriented, opponents to professional education argue that
the short-term outcomes desired by society are not fulfilled using learning that is intended
to pay off over a lifetime.
In his book, Our Underachieving Colleges: A Candid Look at How Much
Students Learn and Why They Should Be Learning More, Bok (2006) argued that the
original aim of undergraduate professional programs to do concentrated work in a field
40
has impeded the development of capacities for thinking, problem solving, and other
habits of thought, including writing, that could be used profitably later in life. Colby and
Sullivan (2009) stressed that colleges should aim to teach students to use knowledge not
only as an end in itself, but as a means toward responsible engagement. They noted that
many institutions claim to prepare graduates to live discerning and responsible lives, but
fail to provide direction in the form of personal meaning and purpose and this, in turn,
leads to too narrow of a pursuit of analytical thinking. While often viewed as
impractical, liberal education, according to Lemann (2004), equips students for a richer
and more complete life than an education whose sole aim is to be useful.
In 2005, ASHE published an analysis of data collected by the National Study of
Student Learning and the Appalachian College Association from more than 40
institutions located throughout the United States. Based on its analysis, ASHE
determined that liberal education more effectively develops intellectual and personal
features of students based on most measures than counterparts at regional institutions and
research universities. The ASHE study found that liberal arts institutions foster
empirically validated good practices in undergraduate education. Using measurements of
psychosocial and attitudinal development, it identified that liberal arts students grew
more in these areas than students of both public regional institutions and research
universities. For example, liberal arts students revealed greater average gains in openness
to diversity and learning for self-understanding. Students also experienced gains in
positive attitudes toward literacy and in writing skills. On the other hand, compared to
competitors, liberal arts students made less progress in the areas of mathematics and
41
science reasoning. The ASHE study further found that, i n terms of overall cognitive
skills, liberal arts institutions’ students made distinctly higher improvements than
regional institutions that were comparable to research universities.
When the researchers at ASHE studied the data related to the long-term effects of
liberal education in comparison to competitors, other advantages also emerged.
Compared to public regional institutions, graduates of liberal arts institutions had higher
levels of degree attainment (1.27 times more likely), were more likely to be employed in
a nonprofit organization, took more continuing education courses for personal
development, and were more likely to indicate that their undergraduate education
prepared them for employment. They were also more likely to report that learning and
intellectual development, personal and spiritual growth, and responsible citizenship were
important to them. The ASHE report concludes that, overall, both labor market outcomes
and personal life outcomes favor liberal arts graduates. Students earned higher annual
salaries and household incomes. Students also reported a higher rate of satisfaction with
the college experience. This, the Report noted, may be partially attributed to institutional
size and incoming student attributes.
Seifert et al. (2008) studied the practices and conditions of a liberal education that
leads to the desired outcomes of liberally educated students. Their study aimed to build
on Pascarella, Wolniak, Seifert, Cruce, and Blaich’s (2005) findings that a relationship
exists between liberal education and educational outcomes. In support of the previous
study’s findings, Seifert et al. found a consistent, positive relationship between students’
liberal arts experiences and several measures of student learning. They concluded that
42
practices and conditions embodied in liberal arts experiences are in actuality those that
promoted the development of students’ intercultural effectiveness, inclination to inquire
and learn for a lifetime, psychological well-being, and leadership. In addition, they noted
that the campus environment is not comprised of isolated segments and suggested that
this holistic “overlap and blending” is a key feature of the array of experiences, practices,
and conditions that characterizes and differentiates liberal arts education. Their findings
most importantly suggest that liberal educations’ institutional focus on good teaching and
student engagement in an active, collaborative, and supportive environment positively
affects student learning and development. Further, any institution possessing the
organizational will to place student learning at the center can create a culture that
maximizes liberal arts experiences, and thus, the development of liberal arts outcomes.
According to Peter D. Hart Research Associates (2004), students often indicate
an appreciation of the values advocated by liberal education. They found that “High
school and college students view the college experience as a period of self-development
and maturation, and first and foremost they say they want a college degree to give them a
strong sense of achievement” ( p. 6). The most frequent responses included “college will
help me gain more knowledge that will be helpful throughout life—both on and off the
job” and “a college education will provide me with the knowledge, capabilities, ethics,
and values that are essential to having professional success.” “A college education will
help to ensure a higher paying job” was a least frequent response favoring liberal
education. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) concurred, noting that students of liberal arts
institution appear to value liberal education and the resulting educational rewards and
43
when high school students were given a description of the content and goals of liberal
education, they found it appealing. However, as previously noted, this study concluded,
due to overall results, that students prefer professional education.
In a study of undergraduate member institutions it conducted, AACU (2009b)
found 73 percent of the responding institutions indicated they believed their institution
should place more emphasis on applied knowledge by increasing opportunities for
internships and hands-on experiences. However, the sample indicated the following
variables, measured individually, are owed equal emphasis: critical thinking and
analytical reasoning skills, communication skills, and global issues. Some questioned
whether their students understood the desired learning outcomes they had set for
undergraduates. Of institutions that have set learning outcomes for undergraduates, only
five percent believed that almost all students understand their institution’s intended
learning outcomes. This raised the question for the AACU of whether students are
informed enough to select institutions that will enable them to reach goals, whether those
are professional or liberal education goals.
In looking at employers, Dudka (2006) noted that many employers are often
opposed to the increasing emphasis on professional education. He stated “As corporate
consultants know, though, critical issues unsolvable by technology—team interaction,
workflow management, tough persuasion—go begging for the very skills that are
developed through a liberal education” (p. 34). Through interviews conducted within
their study of the importance of liberal education in a global world, the AAUP (2007)
found consistent responses from business leaders suggesting an urgent need for graduates
44
who are broadly prepared and who possess analytical and practical skills essential for
innovation and organizational effectiveness. As Blumenstyk (2009) noted, liberal arts
institutions pride themselves on supporting today’s society and economy by incorporating
broader skills into educational experiences rather than the now popular narrow training
offered by professional programs.
In a similar vein, Le and Kazis (2009) found that employers are demanding a
broad set of skills including critical thinking, creativity, problem solving, time
management, and cooperative skills. Hence, many employers prefer the comprehensive
experience provided by private liberal arts programs. They feel increased responsiveness
to the competitive and dynamic business environment results from the understanding of a
broad array of disciplines. Arenella, Davi, Vesser, and Wiggins (2009) came to a similar
conclusion that employers desire a broader set of skills and attitudes to improve
innovation, communication, and diversity. Lastly, the Carnegie Foundation (n.d.b)
argued that business curricula need to be broadened in scope to include liberal arts
values. This will provide the depth necessary to become morally engaged citizens and
intellectually agile workers.
Focusing on worker readiness, the Conference Board, Partnership for 21st Century
Skills, Corporate Voices for Working Families, and Society for Human Resource
Management (2006) conducted a joint study of 400 employers’ views of entry-level
employee readiness to work to determine whether entry-level employees meet the initial
expectations of employers. The study revealed gaps between employer expectations and
graduates’ abilities to meet these expectations.
45
• Of the responding CEOs, 57 percent reported that education and
workforce preparedness is a “very important” or the “most important”
policy issue.
• Four-year college graduates presented the only population yielding more
“excellent” than “deficient” classifications in the contexts studied in
comparison to high school and two-year and technical college graduates.
• Four-year college graduates were considered “deficient” in both writing in
English and written communication. 26.2 percent and 27.8 percent,
respectively, indicated “deficiency” in these two areas, areas deemed as
very important by 89.7 percent and 93.1 percent of respondents.
• 81.8 percent of CEOs rated leadership as a “very important” applied skill.
However, 23.8 percent reported entry-level employees are “deficient” in
this area.
• 63.3 percent stated that knowledge of foreign languages will “increase in
importance” in the next five years, more than any basic skill.
• 76.1 percent rated making appropriate choices concerning health and
wellness as their number one emerging concern.
It seems quite clear that the CEOs surveyed place a high value on what has historically
been the focus of a liberal education.
Chen et al. (2004) found that new organizational realities have led companies to
increasingly seek job candidates who possess relevant teamwork knowledge, skills, and
abilities in addition to the ability to complete job-related tasks. Their study of the
46
effectiveness of undergraduate leadership development courses was grounded on the
premise that there is “a pressing need for systematic development of teamwork skills in
educational setting to create higher workforce readiness” (p. 27).
Other scholars have looked at how the increased emphasis on occupational
education can negatively impact society. In keeping with Dewey’s (1916) ideal of a
democratic education as “an industrial intelligence based on science and a knowledge of
social problems and conditions” (p. 411), Wu (2005) argued that students may be less
likely to contribute to society if not exposed to the values of liberal education. In
agreement, Colby and Sullivan (2009) questioned the relative lack of higher education’s
investment in the development of personal and social responsibility obvious through the
widespread assumption that the disconnect between academic content knowledge and
analytic thinking is acceptable.
In its 2007 study, AAUP noted that the nature of work has continually shifted
from occupations founded on industrial production to occupations valuing knowledge and
information. As a result, higher order skills, including communication skills, problem
solving, and reasoning, are of great importance. Further, careers themselves are volatile.
This volatility, coupled with the fast rate of change that make specific work skills quickly
obsolete, promotes the values of a liberal arts education. Thus, the AAUP study noted,
students with highly-specific degrees are less able to adapt to changing career options.
DiMaria (2010) argued that the specialized educations obtained by students will become
obsolete due to the rapidly changing nature of jobs in the marketplace and that liberal arts
47
institutions provide a more reliable education that will withstand fluctuations in
employment patterns.
In 1990, John Gardner expressed the concern that over standardization may lead
to a sense of complacency. According to Gardner, over standardization occurs when
organizations implement identical strategies over too wide a territory. Rigidity results,
disabling adaptability to societal changes and hindering the innovative ideals higher
education was founded upon. Gardner believed that society values diverse education
opportunities and that institutions of higher education gain competitive edges through
differentiation. Thus, over standardized educational programs, according to Gardner,
negatively impact both society and the institutions themselves due to both lack of
innovation and access to a diverse range of educational opportunities.
To support Gardner’s fear of over standardization, Morphew (2009) found that
institutional diversity experienced zero to negative growth between 1972 and 2002.
DiMaria (2010) believed that the lack of diverse educational options will lead to fewer
students furthering their education beyond high school. Students opting for a customized
educational experience will not have access to the deep, broad, interdisciplinary, and
extracurricular features of liberal arts institutions. In order to prevent the negative
implications of over standardization, Baker and Baldwin (2009) questioned if higher
education should continue a Darwinian “survival of the fittest” course. They suggested
intervention to preserve and update valued types of educational institutions because of the
important roles they play in serving our pluralistic society.
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Grubb and Lazerson (2005) expressed concern over the excessive power given to
employers and students in the development and implementation of curriculum and that
the conversion to professional programs based on student enrollment decisions has
allowed vocational aspirations to mold higher education. Further, Schneider (2010)
considered professional education a “faux reform.” He stated that these programs use
curricular downsizing to entice students. He criticized occupationally-oriented programs
for operating with no framework resulting in:
no vision of necessary knowledge. No conception of how far students now are from meaningful competence in writing, critical thinking, problem solving, and quantitative reasoning. No sense that a democracy needs knowledgeable and ethical citizens. No recognition that our graduates play a disproportionate role in deciding whether global problems are seriously addressed or left to fester and deepen. No serious understanding of scientific inquiry and literacy. (p. 2)
Schneider claimed that by every possible measure—outcomes studies, employer
assessments, faculty reports, and proficiency levels on standardized tests—students are
falling short of expectations.
Leading Change in Higher Education
The researcher recognizes that there is vast literature on organizational change
and that there are many elements that go into successful organizational change. The
focus of this study is on one key aspect of organizational change: leadership attributes
and strategies. This section, therefore, focuses on the various theories of leadership by
scholars in the field and their application to leading change in institutions of higher
learning. In reviewing the leadership literature, one finds that a number of themes
emerge: behavioral features, marketing movements, the impact of contingency, power
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and influence implications, relational aspects, cultural influences, cognitive processes,
and institutional capacity. Each of these themes will be addressed in the following
sections.
Behavioral Considerations
Bensimon, Neumann, and Birnbaum (1989) found that scholars of leadership have
developed a number of behavioral theories and have used these to examine the roles of
leaders and classify behaviors and tasks associated with leadership such as strategic
planning, accepting accountability, motivating, communicating, and managing resistance
and conflict. Montez (2003) developed an instrument for assessing five dimensions of
leadership behaviors relevant to higher educational settings. The dimensions are:
• integral—measures the ability to build effective organizational
relationships
• relational—addresses the leader’s ability to build effective personal
relationships
• credibility—determines the accountability of the leader
• competence—considers work ethic
• guidance—exemplifies the leader’s ability to direct a group toward a
common vision.
These dimensions are prevalent throughout studies and analyses of higher education
leadership effectiveness during a period of transformation.
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Motivating stakeholders. Two of the leading scholars in studying leadership and
human behavior, Argyris and Schon (1974), developed the theory of action and the
theory-in-use to address the common incongruence between an individual’s
communicated goals and his or her actual acts. They argued that theories-in-use must be
accompanied by a willingness to change behavior in order to complement the goals
expressed by the individual. An individual may be aware of the need for change, but
unmotivated to act accordingly. In addition, they stated that people possess “self-
actualization trends” that override organizational desires. These individuals must be
motivated to advance from theory of action to theory-in-use as well as choose actions to
benefit the institution rather than to suit personal interests. Further, as Karp (2006) noted,
human beings in organizations are not rational. They behave and react in unpredictable
ways.
Individual change processes also reveal patterns affecting transformation. Lewin
(1952), a pioneer in the field, provided a universal description of the progression of
individuals as they participate in transformative processes. According to Lewin,
individuals undergo a transition from a pre-contemplation stage, when the need for
change has not yet been perceived, to attempting new behaviors that replace old
behaviors. Schein (1996), based on Lewin’s description of individual change processes,
described the stages of this transition as unfreezing and refreezing. During unfreezing,
disconfirmation inspires the individual to change. To enter the unfreezing stage, leaders
create and communicate a rationale and context for change (Schein, n.d.). To ensure that
constituents take ownership of the change initiative, a small set of specifications
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including ground rules, principles, and shared assumptions should be identified.
According to Karp (2006), this will leave room for individual interpretation and, further,
leadership traits, such as charisma, may motivate constituents to contribute to change
initiatives.
According to Schein (n.d.), leaders are required to provide evidence of the need
for change in order to create this sense of disconfirmation. Cohen (2003) noted that this
motivator works in a linear fashion. Those who are not at all dissatisfied see no reason to
change while those too deeply dissatisfied are too frustrated to put effort into change.
However, once the value of the transformation is realized by the individual, and
unfreezing has occurred, he or she is open to learning new concepts, meanings, and
standards. These ideas, argued Cohen, will become increasingly incorporated into
individuals’ self-concepts, identities, and relationships. Argyris and Schon argued that
individuals must be presented with personally relevant reasons to change, such as a sense
of discomfort created by lack of organizational productivity, before taking desired
actions.
Upon the full internalization of these new concepts and situations, the individual
enters the refreezing stage (Lewin, 1952; Schein, 1996). Behaviors reflective and
supportive of the revised organizational mission are exhibited. Faculty members, for
example, will not only acknowledge the value of the change, but take action to implement
change processes. As Jones et al. (2008) argued, by deepening purposefulness, a
common goal can be developed. Refreezing, however, only occurs when those new
behaviors become a standard function of an organization. Thus, according to Schein,
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leaders are required to develop strategies to ensure practices are not only learned, but that
they become an integral component of institution functions. According to Karp (2006),
the institution is then responsible for the maintenance of these theories-in-use by
providing convenient training opportunities. In addition, short-term wins should be
celebrated to boost morale and motivate and it is these supportive measures that will
promote the modification and establishment of behaviors necessary for transformation.
Communication. Communication is frequently credited as the means for leading
groups to high achievement levels. For Gardner (1990), “If one had to name a single, all-
purpose instrument of leadership, it would be communication” (p. 166). Kezar (2009)
stated that leaders of higher education institutions have to rely on effective
communication to implement transformative efforts since, in some cases, stakeholders are
often unaware of change initiatives. According to Bolman and Deal (2003),
communication is used to transmit facts, information, needs, and feelings, to influence
others, and to tell stories. Despite the simplicity of these tasks, they note, campus
communities often struggle to complete them effectively and, as a result, transformation
is often unsuccessful.
When examining styles and approaches associated with effective leadership,
Bryman (2007) consistently noted the need for effective communication. Both lateral
and hierarchical communication channels were necessary in the transformative alliance
creation studied by Sebalji, Hudson, Ryan, and Wight-Boycott (2007). In fact, poor
communication amongst stakeholders prompted the alliance formation. Leaders of these
institutions repeated messages at different forums through various mediums consistently.
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A harmonizing stability, Bryman noted, results from this standardized and consistent
multi-directional communication. Cohen (2003) stated that distribution of information
usually reduces the anxiety created by change. Gardner’s (1990) emphasis on two-way
communication also focuses on the establishment of open dialogue. He noted, however,
that the division of labor and specialization presented by higher education institutions
inhibits this form of communication.
Communication is a two-way process. Messages are sent and received. Thus, a
leader’s giving of information and expression of thoughts is not the sole component.
Listening is also a critical factor in this process. Ramsden (1998) found that studies have
shown that listening skills are essential to leaders of higher educational institutions
world-wide and that effective leaders actively listen to their constituents. Multimodal
communication, including behavior, actions, and decisions is also powerful
communication methods (Blagg & Young, 2001). Recent technological advancements
such as web-based media are serving to effectively diversify communication efforts
(Mazzarol & Soutar, 2001).
Bolman and Deal (2003) argued that individuals presenting conflicting ideas must
be given opportunities to share their views. Sullivan and Rosin (2008) found that
challenges to ideas should be used to develop analogies to build a common purpose
through dialogue. On the other hand, Miller and Nadler (2009) found that poor
constituent communication skills may be the actual cause of conflict and that this may be
due to weak skills that need to be improved. Some individuals suffer from a condition
referred to as communication apprehension and results in social interaction hesitation
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which defines this inclination. Roby (2009) found that studies show that as
communication apprehension increases, the quality and quantity of communication
decreases and, therefore, in accordance with cognitive theories, teaching constituents
communication skills may benefit transformative efforts.
Managing resistance and conflict. Gardner (1990) argued that division of labor,
specialization, fixed roles, and defined ranks and status contribute to a sense of rivalry
and conflict and, regardless of its visibility, conflict can inhibit an organization’s ability
to obtain goals. According to Bolman and Deal (2003), “Change invariably creates
conflict” (p. 376). Conflict may quietly exist under the surface of organizational
processes or it may boldly present opposition and, although it often yields innovation and
creativity, it may also hinder the progress, morale, and integrity of the institution. They
continued by identifying four conditions of change that create conflict. First,
transformative efforts affect individuals’ ability to feel effective, valued, and in control.
A supportive and participatory strategy that provides training may minimize this feeling.
Change disrupts existing patterns of roles and relationships, producing confusion and
uncertainty. Thus, argue these authors, structural patterns need to be revised and
realigned to support a new direction. Change creates conflict between those who benefit
from change and those not feeling directly aided by it. Negotiation, facilitated by
providing arenas for dialogue as well as power distribution, will reduce this negative
form of competition. Finally, transformation creates a loss of meaning for recipients of
change who were not given ownership of the change. Transition rituals, recognition of
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the past, and celebrating the future will help people let go of old attachments and embrace
new ways of doing things.
Fullan (2001) argued that entrepreneurship is strengthened by resistance.
Entrepreneurial leaders often do not work with like-minded innovators. Rather, they
deliberately build on differences. He concluded that higher education leaders should
embrace disagreement by recognizing the value of opposing viewpoints as well as the
differences of opinion valued by democracies. This represents a democratic leadership,
as opposed to authoritative, because the leader seeks and listens to others, and focuses on
the building of relationships. This also represents the affiliative leadership style which
realizes the advantages of resistance.
Following the work of Fullan, Brown (2006) found that the statements of
institutional presidents indicated a consistent view that crises present opportunities.
When describing occurrences through which their most effective leadership practices and
styles were most evident, crises were often identified. Presidents valued adversity
because they provided opportunities for change and progress despite the increased risk of
failure it presents.
Marketing Movements
Salguero (2010) stated that higher education is a competitive service industry.
And, as such, it is expected to solve business-related problems and to integrate a market
view into higher education. Mazzarol and Soutar (2001) found that:
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Research into competitive advantage has focused on the need for an enterprise to achieve a superior market position in its industry. However, many enterprises that successfully achieve competitive advantage find their position eroded over time as competitors or market conditions change. (p. 72)
Taylor et al. (2008) found that governments are increasingly using market-style
mechanisms that do not complement functions of many higher education institutions,
heightening the need for strong marketing. According to Noftsinger (2002), today’s
postsecondary education system is expected to “solve business-related problems and
serve as a vehicle for economic development” (p. 22).
Morphew and Taylor (2011) noted the following:
Patterns among students and institutions suggest that the marketplace of American higher education is characterized by informational and material constraints linked to material resources, not by the featureless plain of opportunity assumed in a perfectly competitive marketplace. United States higher education markets exist as a product of the choices institutions and students make within particular situated contexts rather than in a vacuum in which they seek only to maximize utility. Ignoring the segmentation and imperfections of these markets may cause us to ignore the fact that these choices have consequences that undermine the productive, efficient nature of our higher education system. (p. 60)
They also noted that “American higher education is a large and diverse enterprise that
resists generalization—though that is often the treatment it receives” (p. 53). Therefore,
it presents unique market characteristics. Rather than consisting of one market of like-
minded consumers with similar access to identical goods, the United States higher
education system is comprised of many markets, with a diversity of colleges and
universities that produce and sell unique commodities to groups of consumers who may
or may not desire the same goods. Thus, according to Morphew and Taylor (2011), an
understanding of these markets is essential to higher education institutions. This is
especially true because this market is as diverse as the institutions seeking their
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enrollment. Because tuition, fees, and other sources related to student enrollments are the
largest source of revenue for most private institutions, understanding of the market for
students is critical to these institutions’ success.
Four forces have driven higher education to embrace marketing according to
Maringe and Gibbs (2009): massification, expansion and diversification; the growth of
heterogeneity of student bodies and course offerings and delivery mechanisms; and
increased competition of higher education. These forces must, therefore, be considered
when implementing strategies to increase student enrollment and compete with other
institutions.
Grubb and Lazerson (2005) argued that the transition to professional education
based on enrollment choices demonstrates students’ enormous influence on the program
offerings of higher education institutions. This power is consistent with the growing
number of occupations requiring specialized preparation. This has created a dilemma for
higher education. According to Maringe and Gibbs (2009), “The greatest fear academics
have about the use of the ‘customer’ label for students in higher education is the
underpinning business belief that ‘the customer is always right” (p. 35). This business-
like notion conflicts with the overall goals of higher education. They argued that one
cannot pursue a medical degree just because they fancy it like a new fashion. One has to
be actively engaged in the pursuit of a medical degree. They contended that education
extends beyond an ordinary purchase contract in spite of the payment of tuition and fees.
Students are more than customers.
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ASHE (2009) found that this emerging marketplace approach in higher education
is impacting liberal arts institutional leadership. In order to succeed, institutions must
present a product desirable to students in order to survive. This market economy is
characterized by competition for student enrollment. Thus, an emphasis on professional
programs prevails and the trend is to align liberal arts colleges with the marketplace by
offering professional degrees that are more attractive to students (ASHE, 2009).
Effective marketing. As with any organization that is competing for customers
(in this case students), the development of a sound marketing strategy is essential. Burell
(2008) claimed that the inability to implement market-oriented strategies in an
increasingly competitive environment is leading to the closing of small private liberal arts
institutions at alarming rates. Van der Werf (2000) agreed, noting that these institutions
are having difficulty attracting students because their leadership fails to develop creative
organizational cultures that understand the value and impact of marketing and innovation
on their programs and program delivery options.
While scholars have noted the need for strategic planning as part of institutional
transformation processes geared towards maintaining institutional competitiveness, it is
noted that changes related to higher education are not as limited and standardized as for
most businesses. As Salguero (2010) argued, this is due to the fact that they incorporate a
larger multitude of stakeholders, thereby increasing the complexity of processes. Taylor
et al. (2008) argued that this ongoing cycle challenges higher education leaders to stop
protecting their existing position and incorporate proactive and adaptive change strategies
that will encourage success within their competitive environment. In their study of the
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importance of strategic plans, they found that the development of a strategic plan led to
the effective creation of change. They concluded that a better understanding of the
institution and its mission, as well as a better perspective on priorities and goals fostered
by the strategic plan, facilitated transformation.
Barney (1986) identified methods for the development of sustainable competitive
advantages. He argued that strategies exploit opportunities while neutralizing threats and
are groundbreaking and rare in order to differentiate efforts from competitors. Mazzarol
and Soutar (2001) concurred, claiming that, in order to be competitive, unique programs
and offerings are essential. Second, they argued that effective strategies are difficult to
imitate making uniqueness essential when developing a strategic plan.
Lado, Boyd, and Wright (1992) argued that strategic plans must be sustainable
through time, regardless of environmental and internal changes, and to analyze the
sustainability of competitive advantages, they developed two models. Their resource-
based model focuses on external influences, focusing on opportunities and threats, while
their environmental-based model focuses on internal influences, including culture and
values and focuses on institutional strengths and weaknesses. The authors suggested both
external and internal factors should be integrated into strategic plans.
Burell (2008) asserted that the essence of private liberal arts institutional
leadership today is about adaptation, innovation, creativity, and management actions to
compete in a business-oriented world. His innovative organizational culture is grounded
on the premise that historical organizational paradigms and values must be adapted for
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liberal arts institutions to survive. Liberal arts institutions, he argued, need to identify a
clear niche that is accepted by all stakeholders. Kotter and Schlesinger (2008) referred to
this as an adaptive corporate culture. Rowley, Lujan, and Dolence (1997) argued that a
creative organizational leadership strategy for the future is not so much that of
determining where the organization is heading based on what the organization wants, but
is a method of coping with the competition and developing a culture that can adapt to the
changing external environment.
Maringe and Gibbs (2009) advocated a shift from product-based marketing to the
building of long-term relationships based on symbiotic a learning partnership within the
higher education market. They argued that this will counteract the shift from a focus on
social policy that construes education as a public good to the now prevalent notion of
higher education as part of a self-interested economic policy. As a result, marketing will
be directed toward the primary benefit to learners. They concluded that a learner
approach rather than a customer approach encourages institutions to create marketing
systems that engage in collaborative resource allocation instead of divisive market-driven
competition.
Concurrent with these collective action strategies, Burrell (2008) noted that it is
necessary for liberal arts colleges to foster and encourage employees to be innovators and
entrepreneurs on the job when addressing marketing, program offerings, and program
flexibility. Further, he believed that an understanding of how marketing can influence
success throughout campuses will benefit transformational leaders.
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When collectively engaging all stakeholders, Massy (2009) stated that values
must be considered when developing and implementing marketing strategies. Thus, the
consideration of individual interests is critical. Because higher education institutions are
value-driven, leaders are faced with the task of adapting to market shifts while
maintaining academic values. He continued by arguing that market behaviors are
problematic in higher education settings because they collectively promote the
preferences of many individuals, whereas the focus of higher education is on achieving
desired results resulting only through the abilities of individuals to understand and act
upon their expressed self-interest. Lack of information heightens this condition. Second,
noted Massy, market behavior often ignores externalities. When consequences of
individual actions are not considered, externalities occur. This leads to the poor
allocation of resources. Lastly, Massy stated that market-driven forces increase
segmentation despite the competition between institutions. For example, Grubb and
Lazerson (2005) argued that an abundance of high-level trade schools, resulting from the
increased demand for vocationally-oriented programs, has dramatically decreased the
population diversity of higher education institutions.
According to Mazzarol and Soutar (2001), creating value for the customer ensures
a strategy’s ability to sustain a competitive edge. Therefore, institutions are forced to
adapt to changes to maintain or improve competitive status. “Brand equity,” in the form
of a high reputation, is essential. In accordance with cognitive theory, they argue that, to
maintain competitiveness, institutions invest in their stakeholders in the form of training
and ensuring participation. Massy (2009) further argued that institutions must seek
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quality individuals from outside the institution and invest in top technology to ensure
stakeholders have necessary resources and develop a culture of continuous learning. In
addition, he argued that institutions weakly describe the quality of their offerings in
meaningful terms and fail to provide data necessary for individuals to match institutional
offerings with their needs.
Entrepreneurialism. Taking risks by engaging constituents in innovative,
unfamiliar, and often rare initiatives commonly defines entrepreneurship. Several
developments in higher education have promoted entrepreneurship. These include
increased emphasis on innovation through research, the restructuring of community
college programs to align with regional economies, and the growth of the for-profit
institution sector.
According to Karp (2006), the ability to experiment with new ideas and strategies
continues to be valued. As selective institutions challenge the status quo, they pursue the
best change ideas while building on past successes. Godwyn (2009) found that this is
especially evident in analyses of transformative efforts. Using what are commonly
viewed as risky, exciting, innovative, and fast-paced strategies, entrepreneurs engage
institutions with the outside world while attempting to use a vision to change it. Vaira
(2004) stated that the process of entrepreneurialization is enforced by engagement with a
knowledge-based society, one that provides higher education institutions with
legitimizing criteria of their roles, tasks, and institutional identity. Leaders are urged to
reduce complacency and to strive to set unfamiliar goals that can only be achieved by
using groundbreaking methods. Kezar et al. (2006) found that leaders lose their
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undesirable managerial roles by no longer simply maintaining the status quo. However,
this is not a comfortable process for educational leaders.
According to psychologist Dennis Fox (2008), a feeling of discomfort may result
from uncertainties created by entrepreneurial activities. He stated “But making people
uncomfortable is not all bad. For one thing, every revolutionary endeavor causes the kind
of discomfort for change” (p. 233). Kouzes and Posner (2003) maintained that leaders
must become facilitators and enablers of change. They argued that by challenging
established methods, processes, and paradigms, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others
to act, modeling desired practices, and appealing to emotions, entrepreneurial leaders will
find success. However, Keenan and Marchel (2007) warned that an appropriate balance
between innovation and tradition is necessary.
Following this theme, Harrison and Leitch (1994) argued that grassroots methods
of incorporating distributed power encourages innovation and risk-taking because a
diverse range of leaders, confident in their area of expertise, participate in transformative
processes. Similarly, Dess, Ireland, Zahra, Floyd, Janney, and Lane (2003) found that
entrepreneurial leaders specifically use creativity and innovation, spot and exploit
opportunities, find the resources and competencies required to translate opportunity into
action, build teams effectively, network, remain resilient when faced with adversity and
competition, engage in change, take risks, put stakeholders first, have control of their
organization, and create capital.
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Schneider (2003) argued that liberal education is called upon to translate twenty-
first century visions into innovations. When describing the conflicting natures of liberal
education and entrepreneurialism, Godwyn (2009) stated that:
a liberal education is associated with thinking and contemplation rather than praxis. Entrepreneurship, on the other hand, is almost always situated within the domain of business and involves some type of market exchange, giving it immediate economic importance. (p. 36)
On the other hand, Hines (2005) argued that “a liberal arts education might be viewed as
a metaphor for entrepreneurship” (p. 1). He claimed that liberal education and
entrepreneurialism are strongly connected. Godwyn (2009) agreed, suggesting that the
integration of entrepreneurism into liberal education is natural due to similar founding
values. She claimed that they share critical, forward-thinking orientations. Further, she
noted that the lack of emphasis on material benefits and social status presented by
professional education is congruent with entrepreneurs’ motivations, which extend
beyond simply making a profit. The integration of liberal education and
entrepreneurship, she further argued, will legitimate the practical, material dimension
increasingly implemented into liberal education in the form of professional programs by
demonstrating a commitment to self-expression, debate, creativity, problem solving,
social responsibility, and personal identity.
In its study, ASHE (2009) found that, regardless of connectedness, liberal
education has become increasingly entrepreneurial in responding to changing demands
and the needs presented by society, the economy, and students. Agendas have been
developed and implemented in response to “the pressures inherent in the neoliberal
economic agenda, issues tied to shifting patterns in resource allocations, and steep
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competition for student enrollment” (p. 26). By adding professional programs to their
academic offerings, liberal arts institutions are making themselves more relevant to the
marketplace and attractive to students, an entrepreneurial effort.
Some scholars have questioned a sole reliance on entrepreneurial strategies and
that institutional change requires more than ideas and innovation. Beckman and
Cherwitz (2009) challenged the proponents of entrepreneurship and suggest that
garnering faculty support through visionary leadership, considering humanistic needs,
and innovative curricula is necessary when implementing entrepreneurial leadership.
Thus, they call for “intelligent entrepreneurship,” defined by Beckman and Cherwitz as
engagement for the purpose of changing students’ lives. This method focuses on creating
cross-disciplinary and multi-institutional collaborations using innovative, creative
methods rather than ideas and innovation alone. Further, as noted by Beckman and
Cherwitz, an absence of rigor in research efforts and support by the foundational theory
of entrepreneurship leads to doubts about its usefulness in higher education settings.
Rae, Gee, and Moon (2009) conducted a case study of a teaching team that acted
as entrepreneurs for five years to stimulate enterprising learning across their university,
the University of Derby. Their exploration was grounded on the premise that the role of
the enterprising academic in stimulating cultural change is often overlooked. Their
appointed enterprise facilitators or leaders, often supported by funding, in an attempt to
increase entrepreneurial activity throughout the campus. The researchers focused on the
difficulties and frustrations experienced by the enterprise facilitators in their attempts to
bring about curricular, cultural, and institutional change. They found that the effective
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entrepreneurs developed an internal network of co-actors throughout the institution
including faculty members and administrative support, in accordance with relational
leadership theories. An external network that provided funding improved the
effectiveness of the effort.
Rae et al. (2009) also noted the importance of collaboration during entrepreneurial
change processes, again supporting relational theories. As noted by the authors,
“Expecting the individual to bring about institutional change is a more risky model,
because change arises through collective action, and the entrepreneurial team can
therefore be a more effective approach” (p. 194). A group, they argued, brings a wider
range of skills, contacts, and prior experiences than individuals acting alone and so, the
effective enterprise leaders have to possess the ability to attract people to support and
lead.
These same researchers also incorporated contingency theory into their study by
discussing the complexity and dynamic sectoral and institutional change processes of
higher education institutions. They concluded that the ability of an individual or group to
influence change is limited. As they stated “The direction of change is not fixed, and
changes in leadership or circumstances can reverse the movement towards an
entrepreneurial university” (p. 195). They asserted that change has to be negotiated
continually, that progress is not permanent or fixed, and it can be impaired or negated by
internal or external occurrences; they argue that it is a journey and not a destination.
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It was also concluded by Rae et al. (2009) that cultural change creates conflict and
that conflict can yield both change and learning. The form of an entrepreneurial
university, they further argue, will likely reflect its own history and culture as well as that
of stakeholders. An understanding of these potential barriers is necessary to try to
incorporate them into the new culture. They stated “Each institution needs to create and
shape its own narrative of entrepreneurial change, and while there is great potential for
people in one university to learn from another, the replication of a model is unlikely to
work” (p. 195). Lastly, they argued that self-sustaining business models need to be
created to fund the entrepreneurial process if it is to be institutionalized and maintained
and if the institutional capacity for change is to be ensured.
Contingency
A number of scholars have emphasized the significance of internal and external
influences on leadership processes. Cohen and March’s (1974) classic text, Leadership
and Ambiguity, set the tone and direction for the study of situational theory. Higher
education institutions are viewed as individual cultures, yet they are subject to outside
forces, especially during transformation. Burke (2008) affirmed the role of this open
system in his description of the causal model of organizational performance and change.
He asserted that the boundaries of organizations are permeable, thus constant interaction
with the environment exists, forcing constant recognition on the part of higher education
leaders. Therefore, argued Burke, institutions that consider the role of all environmental
factors during transformation, regardless of their assumed significance, will enhance the
chances for a successful transformation. In their study of a transformational merger
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between four institutions, Sebalji et al. (2007) concluded that evidence of a successful
transformation is resiliency—the ability to adapt effectively in response to external and
internal forces.
The ability to read change signals correctly in order to time appropriate leadership
interventions correctly under chaotic conditions is, according to Karp (2006), a
fundamental element in leading transformative change. McCaffery (2004) found that
institutions failing to respond to external challenges, regardless of their assumed strength,
will have difficulty implementing change. Thus, according to Bensimon et al. (1989), the
role of situational factors has to be considered when looking at various contingency
leadership theories. Some researchers prefer complexity and chaos theories because they
take into account the multi-faceted, unpredictable nature of events.
The influential power of leadership during organizational change in light of
forceful situational factors has been frequently debated. Gardner (1990) argued for the
tremendous need for effective leaders during transformation, contesting that leaders
perform tasks the organization, as an entity, cannot complete. Others, however, contend
that the impact of leadership is minimal due to the overwhelming influence of internal
and external factors. Contingency theories, in their minds, are irrelevant. In developing
their situational contingency theory, Vroom and Jago (2007) devalued the role of leaders
during transformation. They argue that contingency is created by a broad range of
factors, other than the leader, that significantly influence change. In agreement with
chaos theories, they argue that these forces are often unpredictable, making leadership
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activity irrelevant. Thus, the demands created by situational factors will overrule
established institutional functions created in accordance with leadership attributes.
Hickson, Hinings, Lee, Schneck, and Pennings (1971) presented a strategic
contingency theory of intra-organizational power. They hypothesized that, because
organizations are interdependent subunits, they distribute power in the form of a division
of labor. Thus, they argued that vertical concepts of power distribution should be
replaced by a focus on power within subunits. This theory relates the power of a subunit
to its methods of coping with uncertainty, substitutability, and centrality created by
situational factors. Based on group responses to the situational factors studied, they
concluded that power is the dependent variable, not the independent variable in relation
to contingency. Subunits of a work organization are mutually related in interdependent
activities of an identifiable social system. Thus, studies should focus on subunit or
department power rather than individual power.
Endsley (1995) developed a contingency theory asserting that effective leadership
attributes will only be present when the leader is in a suitable environment. Leadership
abilities are elevated when combined with an organizational environment that naturally
complements the existing skills of leaders. Therefore, according to Endsley,
transformative institutions need leaders whose qualities resonate with the distinct features
of the organization. In developing his situational theory, Endsley discussed the
importance of situational awareness. He defined situational awareness as an individual’s
familiarity with the dynamic environment. He argued that working memory and attention
are limiting factors when acquiring and interpreting environmental conditions crucial to
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decision-making. In accordance with Pettigrew and Whipp (1993), Endsley concluded
that negative impacts are minimized when leaders rely on conscious experiences and
attention to internal and external influences, based on both personal and stakeholder
observations, to identify influences and implement practices.
Fiedler (1967) conducted a study to determine the relationship between leaders’
attitudes and group performance based on responses to unexpected events. He sought to
determine if a leader will be more or less effective than other leaders in similar situations.
This contingency theory study used data derived from perceptions that were
communicated to the researcher and that ultimately led to the assignment of an attitude
score for constituents. Fiedler viewed “types of leaders” in terms of the relationships
built with constituents and categorized them. He found that there is a correlation between
a leader’s attitude and group performance. When discussing results, Fiedler added that
leaders have the ability to learn to lead more effectively. Thus, a broad spectrum of
leaders may be used in a wide variety of situations. In opposition to Endsley’s
contingency theory, he argued that leaders should be encouraged to learn effective
leadership strategies to enable them to manage contingency successfully, in accordance
with cognitive theory.
Scholars have debated the significance of contingency theories in relation to the
role of chaos in leadership activity. Kezar et al. (2006) found that complexity and chaos
theories challenge contingency theories specifically due to their tendency to simply
match leadership styles to specific tasks, regardless of other influences. These theories
promote grassroots efforts, the establishment of feedback mechanisms, and exertion of
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minimal direct control due to the complex, nonlinear nature of higher educational
institutions.
Cutright (2001) argued that chaos is not random activity. A proponent of
authoritative leadership, he proposes a directive leadership style that creates an
organizational anarchy that integrates loose coupling in order to provide the flexibility
and adaptability necessary to flow with these predictable patterns. Karp (2006) viewed
the acceptance of chaos and emergent principles as a way of leading that will enable
leaders to identify patterns of change.
Power and Influence
Power and influence theories review the distribution of power and the leader’s
exercise of that power. Bensimon et al. (1989) categorized power distribution patterns as
hierarchical, individualistic, and collegial. Hierarchical approaches promote an
authoritative style where authority and power are assumed to be proportional to one’s
position in the administrative pecking order while collegial leadership demonstrates
collectiveness through the integration of committees and task forces. The individualistic
model, a lesser discussed approach in higher education literature, allocates authority
based on professional status and recognition. Bensimon et al. contended that such
leadership opportunities have often proven ineffective and the potential not realized.
Power distribution methods may correlate with leadership and institutional
change. In a study of the leadership practices of deans implementing change, Gmelch
and Wolverton (2002) found that the distribution of leadership determined whether
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transactional or transformative leadership, as defined by Burns (1978), was implemented.
They note that hierarchical leadership structures, featuring reward systems and promotion
processes, favored transactional leadership approaches and that that hierarchical
leadership practices are often favored because they are considered less stressful and less
complex. Therefore, the authors claim that, due to the institution’s leader-centered power
distribution, most leaders are mainly transactional. For example, the study found that
deans at research institutions indicated greater difficulty when attempting to implement
transactional strategies than deans of liberal arts institutions. The authors suggested that
the dual role of serving as a fundraiser and faculty advocate as well as being held to
standards of compliance and conformity while being urged to increase research
productivity and innovation challenge higher education leaders attempting
transformation. The study also concluded that a combination of transactional and
transformative leadership practices, requiring a combination of leader-centered and
shared governance, is most effective.
Leader-centered. Altbach, Berdahl, and Gumport (2005) noted that the
centralization of governance at many higher education institutions has increased due to
budget pressures and external demands for accountability. In turn, leader-centered
leadership is more in evidence in higher education institutions. This type of leadership,
they argued, is characterized by hierarchical, directive patterns. Two of Goleman’s
(1998) leadership styles fit this approach: coercive leadership, which demands
compliance and pacesetting, and authoritative leadership, which mobilizes people for
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action. The effectiveness of these styles of leadership during institutional change
continues to be debated.
As Bolman and Deal (2003) found, the clear division of roles, leading to clearer
understandings of individual responsibilities is a dominant argument in favor of leader-
centered methods. An effectively adapted hierarchical structure is clear, predictable, and
secure. The allocation of authority creates this sense. Formal roles prescribe duties and
describe how functions occur in a synchronized fashion. They argued that the
identification of responsibilities and power is important because individual skills and
confidence will not guarantee successful transformation unless the organizational
structure is realigned to the new initiative. Such alignment ensures that ambiguity,
confusion, and distrust, common side-effects of transformation, are minimized.
Shared leadership. There are scholars who advocate for nonhierarchical and
democratic forms of leadership through which leadership is shared and they favor a shift
from directive to mutual, two-way approaches to leadership. Kemper’s study in 2003 of
the development of higher education leaders over an extended period of time
demonstrated the strength of this trend towards shared leadership. As his sample
developed, he identified a transition from leader-centered methods to inspirational,
participatory methods.
Astin and Astin (2000) supported shared leadership in their definition of a leader.
A leader is anyone—regardless of position—who serves as an effective social change
agent. Thus, every stakeholder is a potential leader, making empowerment essential.
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They view transformative leadership as a method that attempts to combat the belief that
only people with high positions initiate change. Similarly, Fullan (2001) believed strong
institutions have leaders at all levels and Kinzie and Kuh (2004) agreed that leadership is
shared at all levels. They based their view on the premise that higher education
institutions are best run by their most immediate stakeholders—faculty, professional
staff, and students. Based on this view, governance should be administered by those who
have the greatest stake in the institution and are best equipped to understand its academic
mission. For example, Gayle, Tewarie, and White (2003) noted that the American
Association of University Professors in a 1968 statement argued that faculty should have
great influence over higher educational institution decision making despite potentially
conflicting values. However, these authors note that many institutions fail to include
professors in administrative policy making because they feel the individual desires of
these academics will influence decisions.
According to some proponents of shared leadership, situational factors limit the
effectiveness of authoritative leadership. Wheatley (1999) challenged the hierarchical
nature of leadership, claiming a decentralized system will better handle unanticipated
situations. Heifetz (1994) concurred, using complexity and chaos theory to note that the
assumed routine characteristics of leadership will not yield the adaptive and complex
responses needed to address most situations. A systematic, non-linear rather than
bureaucratic form of leadership will better enable leaders of higher education institutions
to cope with changing situational factors. Goleman (1998) warned against the use of
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coercive and authoritative leadership because it sets overly high standards of
performance, leading to the “burn out” of constituents.
Implementing desired power distribution. Bolden, Petrov, and Gosling (2008)
discovered that creating and maintaining an effective power and influence structure has
proven difficult for many higher education institutions. They examined the distribution
of leadership of 12 UK higher education institutions. In their study of multi-level models
of leadership within institutions, they considered five main elements of leadership
practice: personal, social, structural, contextual, and developmental. While their findings
indicated that the institutions widely distributed leadership among the schools, common
challenges were found. Institutions had difficulty maintaining an effective balance
among top-down, bottom-up, and lateral processes of communication and influence.
They found that “Tensions existed between the need for collegiality and managerialism,
individual autonomy and collective engagement, leadership within disciplines and the
institution, academic and administrative authority, informality and formality, and stability
and change” (p. 364). In addition, formal budget holders held a disproportionate amount
of power.
In order to prevent domination by select individuals which may lead to isolation,
as well as prevent confusion regarding individuals’ roles and responsibilities, Eisler and
Carter (2010) suggested a hybrid approach to power and influence strategies. They
propose a partnership approach to transformative leadership. This method uses
leadership to inspire rather than control and to engage and empower others. Domination
is replaced by partnership. Linking rather than ranking occurs. Hierarchy and
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responsibility are still important, but they are considered hierarchies of actualization
rather than domination by these two authors. In hierarchies of actualization, they argue,
everyone serves as mentors and facilitators, thus, everyone assumes a leadership role.
Relational Considerations
Participatory governance. Scholars continue to examine the role of distinct
groups and individuals composing higher education institutions, with an emphasis on the
clear appreciation of the participation of all stakeholders. Perkins, Bess, Cooper, Jones,
Armstead, and Speer (2007) stated “Organizations that empower staff and volunteers
through opportunities for learning and participation at the individual level are better able
to succeed in terms of organizational-level learning and transformation” (p. 16).
Schneider (2003) concurred, urging higher education institution leaders to summon the
vision, the will, and the long-term commitment of its large, diverse array of stakeholders
to support and advance innovations into more intentional, connected, and cumulatively
powerful frameworks for change.
During the post-industrial years, relational leadership theories emerged in the
form of team leadership. Rost (1991) noted that process and mutuality take precedence
over individual leaders or groups. These theories were founded on the premise that
leadership is a process through which people work together to accomplish change. Kezar
et al. (2006) found that relational theorists argue against the notion that change is not of
interest to all stakeholders and that consensus is forged through participation. When
collective action is not taken, fragmentation results. According to Goleman (1998), a
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result of the popularity of this belief is that heroic leaders have been replaced by teams
and collectives, a form of leadership that the author refers to as “democratic leadership.”
Astin and Astin (2009) claimed leadership is a collective process, conforming to
relational theory. They base their argument for participatory, transformative processes on
this definition of leadership. They feel leaders cannot create transformation alone. The
transtheoretical model presented by Wirth (2004) complements this notion. It defines
organizational change as the collective transformation of behaviors of all individuals
based on a common goal. Thus, all stakeholders participate in the change process. For
Rost (1991), leaders guide rather than dictate. The leader acts mutually with others,
appealing to constituent needs and inspiring and motivating them to take actions to reach
a unified goal. Symbolic leadership theory, according to Rost, is incorporated in to
transformational leadership theory because leaders motivate by providing meaning, not
simply through rewards.
Burns (1978) is credited with developing leadership theory, linking relational and
power and influence theory. In his description of transformative theory, Burns discussed
transforming and transactional leaders. Using the transactional approach, leaders
implement a trade approach through which an exchange occurs that benefits the
individuals. He urged, however, that transforming approaches more effectively
implement change because they evoke the good nature of constituents and guide them to
greater, more universal goals. While his theory is still hierarchical and leader-focused,
Burns emphasized a connection between leaders and moral purpose. On the other hand,
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McCaffery (2004) favored a client-focused methodology that supports the transactional
nature of the relationship between the institution and its various clients.
Love and Estanek (2004) used the term “pervasive leadership” to depict their
relational leadership strategy. A collective struggle by individually generated
relationships and actions throughout an organization focused on struggling together to
accomplish shared goals defines pervasive leadership. Pervasive leadership values
dualisms, such as both rather than either, demonstrates paradigm transcendence by
accepting the coexistence of multiple views, recognizes the connectedness of various
institutional entities, and appreciates paradoxes by considering contradictory assertions
and beliefs. According to Fullan (2001), pervasive leadership success is contingent on
the leader’s sense of moral purpose, understanding of the change process, relationship
building, knowledge making, and creating coherence amongst constituents. The
pervasive leadership model differs from Wirth’s (2004) model because it recognizes
individuals’ interests. Wirth assumed that individuals base their actions on the needs of
the organization, not individual interests.
McCaffery (2004) stated that this distributive phenomenon may promote
transformation by creating a sense of “university citizenship.” This enables members of
the institutional community to determine the meaning of initiatives. Cohen (2003)
argued that leaders cannot impose visions; rather, they must be accepted. According to
Adalberto and Martinez (2002), the engagement of persons in a process will help them
identify with transformational goals and, for Bolden et al. (2008), the bridge between
“social capital” and “social identification” creates a connection between individuals and
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the structure of their organization. Thus, according to these authors, higher education
leadership is a hybrid between individual and group actions. As a result, not only will
individuals believe change is necessary, but a shared mind-set of how to implement
change will increase the likelihood of success. Further, noted Kezar (2009), stakeholders
are often unaware of change initiatives and so the involvement of a variety of
stakeholders may enhance transformative processes.
Meyerson (2003) identified three vital considerations for transformative leaders in
higher education that are relevant to relational theory. First, leaders identify and
articulate immediate threats or opportunities relevant to the desired change. They then
strategically use organizational structures and resource while framing the issue as a
matter of shared concern. Fullan (2001) concurred, adding that, using these methods,
leaders may explicitly convey a sense of purpose and mobilize individuals to solve
problems. Meyerson used the term “tempered radicals” in describing the democratic
leadership style necessary for change. He stated “This version of leadership depends not
on charismatic flair, instant success, or inspirational visions, but on qualities such as
patience, self-knowledge, humility, flexibility, idealism, vigilance, and commitment” (p.
171).
Miller and Nadler (2009) conducted a study to determine the status of higher
education student bodies. They stated that student involvement in institutional
governance is now fragmented. The authors argued that it is critical for students to be
involved because they can either support change efforts or resist them. Thus, they need
to be purposefully involved in any transformation effort. Individual benefits include self-
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discipline, acceptance of diversity, development of an understanding of institutional
governance, experience increased college satisfaction, provide service to others, and find
the college experience more meaningful to their lives. In addition, argued Grubb and
Lazerson (2005), the involvement of students will help liberal arts leaders develop
programs connecting traditional values with professional education. Miller et al. stated
that the inclusion of students in transformative efforts may increase their tolerance and
acceptance of change. The multiple goals of institutions are more easily approached
because students, the focus of education, are actively participating in change processes.
Collaboration. In congruence with relational leadership theory, Bensimon
(2005) recognized that teams directed toward a collective vision that challenges
established mental models are likely to undergo personal change, resulting in the desire
for individuals to take leadership roles. Smith and Parker (2005) applied Bensimon’s
idea to their study of increasing the diversity of campuses. They stressed the positive
implications of collaboration made possible by the development of effective
relationships. Further, according to Wheatley (1999), collaborative efforts will permit the
adaptive response necessary for leaders to succeed. This ability to deal effectively with
the complexity and unexpected situations by faced higher education institutions through
collaboration complements the complexity and chaos contingency theories to be
discussed later.
Kezar et al. (2006) noted that functionalist literature focuses on strategies to best
foster leadership in a team setting. They identified diversity, as well as valuable and
plentiful dialogue, as necessities of effective collaboration. The diversity presented by
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individuals will encourage others’ to recognize and accept the viewpoints of others.
These authors believed that differences and various interpretations build a cognitive
complexity that can be used to address a wide array of situations. They continued by
arguing that, similar to cognitive leadership theories, team leadership values dialogue.
Authentic communication facilitates an engaging, collective process of examining data
and developing plans to challenge existing mental models in order to increase diversity.
Positive implications result from the learning that takes place in these collective settings,
modifying participants’ cognitive maps. It is this understanding, appreciation, and
knowledge that will facilitate transformation by encouraging engagement and
collaboration.
Relationships, emotions, and attitudes. Goleman (1998) used “affilitative
leadership” as the term to describe leadership founded on building relationships. Montez
(2003) argued that relational and interactive behaviors are important for effective
leadership at all levels of higher education and Astin and Astin (2000) stated that overall,
presidents’ choices must reflect awareness and understanding of an academic
community’s needs, concerns, and hopes. Thus, they argued, it is important to show
empathy and understanding of others, leading to the building of trust.
The goal of affiliatative leadership is to create harmony and build emotional
bonds. For example, spirituality is a consideration during transformative processes.
Astin (2004) concluded in his study of individuals’ roles in the transformation of liberal
arts institutions that spirituality is critical because it touches directly on our sense of
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community and it can serve as a central place to strengthen connectedness amongst
stakeholders.
In their study of the effective strategies of liberal arts presidents, Hatch and
Cunliffe (2006) found that an attitude-centered approach proved successful. They
concluded that this leadership style equipped staff with a progressive understanding that
embraces the value of innovation, competitive intelligence, and market planning. This
requires changing values and activities with persuasive appeals, training programs, and
team-building activities, all incubators for innovation. They believed that new attitudes
and skills cause behavior to change in a beneficial way. Bass, Avolio, Jung, and Berson
(2003) added that these individuals become change agents themselves and transmit the
vision to other people in the organization.
For Astin and Astin (2000), demonstrating respect is critical. Fullan (2001)
contended that leaders must express clear standards, set high standards, pay attention to
constituents, provide personalized recognition, disclose as much information as possible,
collectively celebrate, and set an example. Bolman and Deal (2003) concurred, stressing
the notion that celebration may improve relationships as it will keep spirits high and
supportive of transformational change.
Despite overwhelming support for collective efforts on the part of students of
leadership, collaboration efforts are often devalued due to the complexity of today’s
higher education institution. They are often viewed as inefficient and unproductive.
Astin and Astin (2000) argued that collaboration is ordinarily difficult to achieve in
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hierarchical and individualistic environments common in higher education. However, if
values and beliefs of members in relational settings resonate and leadership effectively
manages functions, collaborative efforts such as committees and task forces may
successfully transform higher education institutions.
On the other hand, some scholars have questioned the authenticity of individual
desires to act solely to promote the institution. Schein (1996) argued that individuals are
not subordinated into groups. Rather, individual desires define groups. Thus,
transformation can be seen as a collection of individual activities, not a unified function.
Despite connections to corporate cultures, Schein argued, individuals make decisions
based primarily on self-interests. These actions are critical because individuals are the
building blocks of institutions. Further, he argued that institutions are cultures and
individuals ultimately create the culture that is a critical part of any institutional mission
change. Desires of individuals, however, can easily overshadow the goals of
organizational change and, so, when the needs of individuals are met by listening to their
concerns, encouraging their active participation, and rewarding acts that promote change
efforts, common goals are more likely to be fulfilled. Thus, concluded Schein (1996),
true collaborative efforts are based on individual interests, not institutional goals.
Networks. Karp (2006) stated “The nature of an organization undergoing change
is best understood as networks of relationships and communication” ( p. 4). The
influence of individuals on one another creates the behavior and identity of the
institution. Perkins et al. (2007) found that it is critical for organizations to develop an
understanding of influential networks. Because transformation includes a wide array of
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internal and external stakeholders, effective chains of alliances, in the form of networks,
promote transformation. Allen and Cherney (2000) argued that, due to increasing
globalization, networks are especially critical and that leaders are required to think
macroscopically. Networks now cross institutional boundaries. Further, networks,
according to these authors, are only successful when power is distributed throughout
institutions, complementing shared government ideals. Top-down hierarchies will find
networking difficult. Drucker (1994) noted that networks can be built by taking down
structural and cultural barriers to sharing. He further argued that an understanding of
social networks, a product of culture, enables leaders to contend with challenging
employee behavior. Nesteruk (2004) stressed the social capital theory which presents the
core idea that social networks have value. He stated that individuals tend to retreat into
fundamentalism in order to eliminate conflicts and to avoid those that present differences
or opposition. As a result, similar entities tend to group together, preventing the building
of a diverse group. He claimed that this will result in the lack of critical engagement in
the world by individuals and will lead to diminished aspirations, preventing full
achievement of all. The building of diverse social networks, however, will revitalize
engagement of individuals, improving the operations of organizations.
Cultural Considerations
Cultural Theories. Cultural theories have been developed to examine
connections between established cultures and institutional change. Bensimon et al.
(1989) emphasized that interaction and symbolic functions related to leadership are the
focus of cultural theories whereas Kezar et al. (2006) examined the effect of values and
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symbolic dimensions of higher education institutions and they view leadership as a unit
within a broader, complex social system.
Burns (1978) introduced the notion that leadership is an invention constructed by
people, and not a social reality that can be discovered. He argued that leadership is not
centralized; instead, leadership is part of the human condition and, as such, is highly
influenced by established cultures. Burns also argued that leaders play a significant role
in the development of culture. Schein (1992) concurred with Burns’ emphasis on the
significant role of leaders in higher education institutional culture. Kotter and
Schleshinger (2008) found that, because higher education institutions are cultures,
transformative processes require an appreciation of values and missions. These values
are the foundation of all institutional decisions. Effective leaders, they argue, establish
and communicate values and ensure that stakeholders are involved in mission-oriented
activities. This role contrasts with managers, whose focus is on task completion.
Drucker (1954) argued that the frustration and failure of organizations is often
due to a lack of attention to institutional mission during decision-making processes.
Bolman and Deal (2003) encouraged the development of rituals, symbols, and metaphors
to supplement changes by ensuring new missions are adhered to. However, they believed
core values must be adhered to as well. By ensuring that stakeholders appreciate the
motives of refined missions, leaders will effectively promote behaviors symbolic of new
values.
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Several studies reveal similar conclusions regarding the link between culture and
change. According to Kezar and Eckel (2002), one can establish two links between
culture and change. First, institutional culture should encourage change. Second, culture
is modified as a result of the change process. Building on these ideas, they explored the
ways culture shapes an institution’s change processes or strategies. They viewed culture
as a modifying element rather than a subject of modification. Change was identified as
pervasive, deep, intentional, long-term, and influential on values, beliefs, and structures
and they found several core strategies. They identified a hierarchy in the form of senior
administrative support that provided positional leadership in the form of value statements,
resources, or new administrative structures. However, the involvement of both positional
and non-positional individuals throughout the campus in the change process indicated the
implementation of collaborative leadership. Complementary to Kezar and Eckel’s
results, Astin (2004) concluded in his studies of liberal higher education institutional
transformation that efforts to change structures have little chance of success if culture is
ignored.
Eccles and Nohria (1992) developed a “robust design” of leadership that
expressed itself in a deliberate transformative plan. According to their research, “vision”
was defined by leaders’ development of a desirable, flexible, clear, and understandable
picture of the future that includes goals and objectives related to the picture’s
implementation. They found that, among all of these strategies and in all institutions
studied, there is a relationship between institutional culture and change. Further, the
nature of this relationship varies amongst the institutions. These strategies were
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implemented in various ways to suit the nature of each campus. In accordance with
Schein (1985), they concluded that if strategies for change violate cultural norms, change
will most likely not occur. Thus, higher education leaders must be sensitive to the
relationship between culture and change strategies. Thornton (2004), on the other hand,
took a contradictory view when it comes to the impact of change on culture. She reverses
the role of transformational change and culture, arguing that culture shapes strategic
actions of institutions and not the other way around.
Philosophic and scholarly traditions. Several scholars have argued that
successful changes require a balance between academic traditions and change initiatives
(Astin 2004; Beckman and Cherwitz, 2009). The latter authors argued that when
organizations experience competing demands for the services they offer and methods of
delivering them, they seek a balance between accommodating the demands and
maintaining their institutional core and some organizations are more likely to seek this
balance than others.
Fear, Adamek, and Imig (2002) questioned whether higher education is utilizing
the full range of scholarship available when exercising leadership for change in higher
education. They note that transformative change is not a monolithic phenomenon that is
understood philosophically and conceptually in only one way. Multiple and diverse
philosophic and scholarly traditions may impact any change process differently.
Contemporary change platforms, including the undergraduate educational shift from a
focus on teaching to learning and the desire for institutional engagement with society
indicate the value of connecting change with these traditions. These change platforms,
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they argue, carry different meanings for different individuals and, because meaning is a
contingent phenomenon, discourse, in the form of dialogue, is important. Habermas
(1984) argued that this scholarly effort promotes understanding through critical analysis,
putting assumptions, beliefs, and positions uncritically in the spotlight for critical
analysis. Fear et al. (2002) argued that higher education must embrace different ways of
understanding and encourage stakeholders to respect differences as well as listen and
learn from different perspectives, experiences, and approaches. They concluded that
change efforts are enriched when scholarly understanding is achieved by seeking deeper
understanding through dialogue that considers different and opposing philosophies,
perspectives, and approaches, rather than through a simple definition. Leadership
platforms that are more embracing than declarative, more inviting than directive, and
more connecting than restrictive will more effectively implement change. However, a
number of scholars, including Damrosch (1995), Fish (1994), and Readings (1996),
found disinterest, political agendas, and the increased specialization of scholars challenge
this change method.
The methods of integrating professional programs into liberal education programs
and the incongruence between traditional values and change strategy have been studied
by a number of scholars. According to Raelin (2007), the process of implementing
professional programs is overwhelmingly based on traditional liberal arts institutional
theory. He argued that a more practice-oriented approach to this transition is necessary to
increase capacity for change but, instead, traditional liberal arts mechanisms are currently
being used to integrate professional programs that promote practice-oriented curricula
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aimed to prepare students for specific activities. Raelin believed that this approach may
be less effective, emphasizing the importance of incorporating scholarly values into
transformative processes.
Cognitive Processes
There is a significant emphasis in the current scholarly literature on democratic,
participatory leadership. However, according to Jones et al. (2008), “Liberty without
competence is an empty proposition” (p. 66). Building on this urgency for competence,
Karp (2006) stated, “Organizations do not just do something new; they build their ability
to do things in new ways” (p. 6). Without institutional capacity for change, goals will
not be met. Therefore, scholars study cognitive processes and their impact on
institutional capacity for change. Individual and collective learning, as well as emotional
intelligence, are highlighted in the literature.
Cognitive theories. Cognitive theories focus on perceptions, learning, and, of
course, thought processes rather than on the analysis of traits and behaviors (Bensimon et
al., 1989). Cognitive theorists desire to understand how individuals attribute actions and
outcomes to leaders of higher education institutions. Attribution theories are generally
described as psychological concepts of methods through which people attribute traits and
causes to things they observe. Kezar et al. (2006) concurred, adding that practices like
self-reflection as well as attribution theories, which focus on how individuals align causes
to specific events, are considered in cognitive theories. These theories align with
institutional capacity for change by noting the role of competence in the form of
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knowledge and understanding of higher education functions, interpersonal relationships,
and personal attributes.
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames—political, symbolic, structural, and
human resource—may also be integrated into descriptions of cognitive orientations. It is
important to relate cognitive processes to these organizational frames that can lead to
institutional transformation. Similar to chaos theory, different situations may require an
emphasis on different orientations. Thus, highly developed reflection skills enable higher
education leaders to analyze carefully situations in order to choose the most effective
orientation for change.
Reflection. A number of scholars have suggested that effective leaders engage in
reflective practices. Daniel Goleman’s (1998) studies on emotional intelligence
concluded that leaders must first understand their own emotions by learning how to
assess them and manage them effectively. The four components of emotional
intelligence—self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship
management—are emotional competencies that are not innate talents, but are instead
learned capabilities that must be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Self-
awareness includes the ability to read one’s emotions and recognize their impact while
using gut feelings to guide decisions. Self-management involves controlling one’s
emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances. Social awareness is the
ability to sense, understand, and react to others’ emotions while comprehending social
networks. Relationship management is the ability to inspire, influence, and develop
others while managing conflict.
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Raelin (2007) found that self-reflection is often identified as a means of
increasing the emotional intelligence of higher education leaders since it encourages both
the production and application of knowledge. According to Karp (2006), reflective
practices are associated with contextualized learning theory that posits that learning can
occur in the midst of practice. Through professional and personal reflection on past,
present, and future learning points, individuals construct an interior change map.
Fullan (2001) agreed that emotional intelligence, in combination with intellectual
brilliance, is critical. In terms of intellectual brilliance, leaders must know the meaning
of actions and why they are important to the institution. As a result, they will create an
appropriate environment when interacting with others. As Sebalji et al. (2007) noted, “In
leading people through change, attention must be given to cultivating quality
relationships so as to counteract the negative dynamics that change can bring about” (p.
282). Bryman (2007) concurred that consideration is found to be universally vital to
leadership in higher education, integrating cognitive theories with relational theories of
leadership.
Sullivan and Rosin (2008) found that dialogue may result from high emotional
intelligence, leading to greater meaning for all stakeholders. The engagement in
collaborative dialogue, coupled with writing and reflection, will enable participants in
liberal arts institutions to inquire deeply into what teaching for practical judgment means
to their campus. Further, McCaffery (2004) noted that self-reflection may increase
awareness of less apparent influences. Institutional transformational efforts may fail
because leaders pay too much attention to factors that are obvious. They may lack
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acknowledgement and understanding of less apparent influences. In these instances,
notes the author, self-reflection may minimize these detrimental oversights.
Institutional Capacity for Change
Keenan and Marchel (2007) argued that resources, both tangible and human-
based, are necessary during institutional transformation and that support for change,
coupled with a climate for change is necessary. This includes expertise as well as
emotional and financial support. According to these authors, an institution’s capacity for
change is built through internal and external resources, governance and organizational
structures, and a transformative change strategy.
Leadership. According to Taylor et al. (2008), before resource allocation for
transformative action can occur, an institution must establish that it has effective
leadership capable of orchestrating a comprehensive institutional planning process. Their
study of institutional presidents measured the extent to which they understood and
participated in the planning process. More successful presidents demonstrated greater
knowledge and engagement. According to Staskeviciute and Neverauskas (2008),
because of the large gap between “what is” and “what needs to be,” many leaders
conclude that their organizations lack the collective intelligence for transformation. They
assert that institutions must build intelligence and a capacity for change. Intelligent
universities are characterized as “learning organizations in the context of rapid global
change” (p. 96). Further, they have systems and structures that enable staff at all levels
to work collaboratively, to learn continuously and to put their learning to use.
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Governance. The governance structure of higher education institutions impacts
transformative efforts and so the implementation of appropriate, effective governance
systems is critical. Usman (2010) conducted a study of academic staff undergoing
institutional change. This researcher found that the creation of a formal governance
mechanism was affected by the quality of leadership and effective leaders comprehended
the importance of the performance of governance mechanism. Thus, leadership quality
and governance effectiveness are correlated.
Scholars have pointed out that an institutional governance structure that aligns
with transformational goals will be most effective. As a result, effective leaders seek this
congruence. Trakman (2008) conducted a study of various higher education institutions
and put forth the premise that governing bodies face crisis in the confidence of their
leadership. Thus, he suggested that leaders should understand, and take advantage of,
opportunities to develop good governance practice. Institutions were identified as
demonstrating shared, corporate, or trustee governance based on identified functions.
Trakman found a strong correlation between good governance and effective institutional
transformation.
Lawler and Conger’s (2001) idea of governance agreed with Trakman’s, claiming
that strategically aligning governance structure with institutional objectives will promote
change efforts. Usman’s (2010) conclusions also agreed with those of Trakman. He
notes that:
the relationship between an organization and its stakeholders, especially how an institution satisfies its stakeholders justly and adequately, is clearly an important issue in a concept of good governance. The presence of good governance will
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drive performances that reflect the successes of a process of strategy implementation in the operation. (p. 9)
Thus, before choosing a model, institutional leadership has to determine what they hope
to achieve. Incremental modifications to governance models can then be incorporated to
enable institutions to adapt to environmental fluctuations.
Governance patterns could be developed based on the organizational structure of
the institution. Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames, structural, human resources,
political, and symbolic, are frequently referenced in higher education literature. Higher
education leaders are challenged to develop a structure that will lead to effective change
processes to promote objectives. Bolman and Deal proposed that leaders must choose a
frame, or a combination of frames, according to the institution’s unique features and
goals. In their study of multi-level models of leadership within institutions, Bolden et al.
(2008) considered five main elements of leadership practice; personal, social, structural,
contextual, and developmental. These elements should be considered when developing
organizational structures to ensure alignment between objectives and institutional
features.
Change strategy. Scholars have debated whether significant organizational
change occurs through substantial, sporadic events or through steady, minute actions.
Gersick (1991) argued that the punctuated equilibrium model states that organizational
functions predominantly remain constant, or at equilibrium, and are interrupted with
sudden bursts of fundamental change and that. Change, according to Gersick (1991),
does not occur in a linear fashion. Romanelli and Tushman (1994) believed that
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extensive transformations are prevalent within organizations and that, according to
punctuated equilibrium models, balanced, continuous, incremental change does not yield
transformative results. According to Parsons and Fidler (2005), significant, periodic
transformation is supported by equilibrium periods during which efficiency rises as
adaptations are fully implemented to achieve new goals. According to these authors,
punctuated equilibrium accounts for long-term changes in businesses.
Contrasting theories propose that incremental, continuous change most
significantly affects organizations. Argyris and Schon (1978) referred to these changes
as first-order changes because they improve current operations but do not fundamentally
change them. Lewin (1952) referred to this constant state of change leading to a state of
equilibrium as “quasi-stationary equilibrium.” Some changes are successful and fully
adopted while others fail and are forgotten. Despite the failure of some changes,
incremental, continuous change will most effectively transform institutional missions
because these transformations are prescriptive, not responsive. Further, Lewin argued,
the risk level is minimized because stakeholders are not subjected to dramatic measures.
Support may increase because efforts are not viewed as desperate. It gives institutional
leaders time to build a solid support system for sustainable evolution. For Gardner
(1990) the process of altering established human activity, especially those based on
culture and values, is disorderly and slow. It is a process of trial and error, yielding more
failures than successes. However, ultimately, desirable results are realized through
incremental change.
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Conclusion
A review of the role of higher education leaders in the transformative change
process indicates that behavioral, marketing, contingency, power and influence,
relational, cultural, cognitive, and institutional capacity considerations are critical. These
elements, in combination with an understanding of the development of liberal education
from foundation to present, create a sense of the dilemmas experienced by leaders of
liberal arts institutions as they encounter and respond to changing market conditions.
By conducting the proposed historical case study, the researcher explored in depth
how a traditional liberal arts institution, over the expanse of its history as an institution of
higher learning, successfully transformed itself into a comprehensive university while, at
the same time, preserving its liberal arts values. The depth of this case study will add to
the limited number of studies that have focused on this type of transformative process.
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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Theoretical Framework: Initial Research Questions and Objectives
This study aimed to explore what leadership attributes and activities successfully
guided Mercer University leaders during its long history as the institution was
transformed from a private liberal arts college into a comprehensive university that
remain committed to its liberal arts values and mission. An historical case study of
Mercer University provided insight into and greater understanding of how institutional
transformation can be successfully carried out in a constantly changing environment.
The use of historical methodology has promoted an understanding of the past
development of a current problem, allowing the researcher to better understand its
present implications. Gottschalk (1950) described this process as a search for the
“lessons of history” that will help contemporary man solve his present problems. By
studying the historical transformation of Mercer University, a deeper understanding of
the transformative processes that leaders can implement in order to successfully adapt to
changing societal demands was developed. The application of research findings to
institutions in similar situations may enable leaders to implement similar strategies in
hopes of also finding success.
Focus of the Study
In recent decades, an increasing number of liberal arts institutions have failed to
successfully respond to changing market conditions. As noted previously, many have
closed their doors. Therefore, it is important to study the leadership practices exhibited at
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an institution that has successfully transformed itself as a way to understand the
transformative process and, hopefully, provide guidance to liberal arts institution leaders
that are struggling with current market forces. Despite challenges to liberal arts
institutions, Mercer University, a private, comprehensive, liberal education-based
institution, has remained a strong competitor in the market for students. Mercer
University is an exemplary case of a liberal arts institution that has been effectively
transformed in response to changing societal demands. Thus, an understanding of the
transformative leadership processes has provided insight for other liberal arts institutions
faced with similar challenges.
Research Design Strategy
This qualitative historical case study describes the evolution of Mercer
University from a liberal arts higher education institution into a comprehensive higher
education institution and will examine the extent to which its evolution exemplifies the
best of transformational leadership theory. As stressed by Creswell (2009), a case study
can be an exploration of a process, in this case, the transformative leadership actions
leading a transition from a liberal arts institution to a comprehensive institution. The
case study is an inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth in a real-
life context: It is a methodology that enables a researcher to cope with the many
variables presented by a distinctive situation (Yin, 2009). The historical transformation
of Mercer University was explored in developing a holistic and meaningful view of the
transformative processes of liberal arts institutions.
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This study was exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory in nature. Similar to a
strictly historical study, a variety of evidence was collected, including historical
documents and books. Additionally, institutional publications, interviews, and direct
observations were used to answer the research questions so that the study will combine
both historical and contemporary events that will render a more complete picture of
Mercer University’s transformative process. As a case study, the focus was on
determining what leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer University’s leaders
toward successful program transformation as educational demands of students shifted
toward professionally-oriented programs of study and how these leaders balanced their
college’s existing values and goals with those introduced by professionally-oriented
programs. Mercer University represents an important case study of how a liberal arts
institution can be transformed into a comprehensive university in response to changing
market conditions and by studying its transformation one can hopefully make a
significant contribution to knowledge and theory building on transformative leadership.
Lastly, the historical nature of this case study describes and analyzes how certain
conditions changed over time and the impact that these changes had on the
transformative process (Yin, 2009). History deals with change. Thus the continuity
provided in a historical study enables the researcher to provide a longer term perspective
on the change process.
Gottschalk (1950) defined historical method as the analyzing of surviving
testimony for reliable evidence about the past of humankind. He stated that the historian
is a guardian of cultural heritage and narrator of the development of mankind. A
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historical study is valuable because, according to Shafer (1974), “In a sense, it can be
asserted that the life of man—especially, but not exclusively, civilized man—is almost
entirely a history of ideas, that these are engines that chiefly determine the direction of
human movement” (p. 36).
The German terms Gesetzwissenschaft and Geschichtswissen are used to describe
the relationship between single cases and general ideas. Gesetzwissenschaft employs a
single case merely in order to help one to understand a basic principle, whereas a
Geschichtswissen employs a general principle in order to help understand a single case.
According to Gottschalk, historians often fail to consider the importance of
understanding general principles and of knowing whether the single cases which they
are studying fit into any generalization or typification. As a result, ideas are often of
little or no interest to others. He noted that, at the time of writing his book, historians
were increasingly favoring the notion that each separate human act has its own history
and is appealing to historians. Generalizations are apt to prove inadequate when applied
to particular individuals. Shafer (1974) agreed by defining history as a discipline in
which evidence of past events is collected, the evidence is evaluated, and meaningful
discussions occur based on this evidence.
Gottschalk (1950) further discussed the use of historical studies. He argued that
only historical pursuits to better understand problems of concern to the present population
should be conducted. Thus, when a problem of interest surfaces, the historian undergoes
an endeavor to find survivors and witnesses of a historical episode to ask questions in
order to obtain relevant evidence to be assessed and used to derive a reliable answer. The
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process of historical analogy is often used to apply historical events to contemporary
issues. The historian draws analogies between episodes and developments of his own
day and those of the past. Thus, Gottschalk emphasized that history becomes a living
past. While Gottschalk (1950) argued this is a valid method of exploring history, he also
stresses that not all contemporary events mirror those of the past. Thus, the proper
adaptation of historical events to contemporary events may serve as a limitation in this
study. Shafer (1974) concurred, emphasizing that “there is much to be said for the view
that the greatest function of historical study is as an addition to experience, tending to an
appreciation of the existence in the past of the race of many confrontations with problems
similar to our own” (p. 14).
When reconstructing history, one must remember that human motivation is
closely related to historical causation (Gottschalk, 1950). When analyzing evidence, the
researcher must consider the motives of human beings. In addition, the determination of
cause is addressed in historical methodology. According to Gottschalk, the “immediate
cause” is not really a cause. Rather, it is merely the point in a chain of events, trends,
influences, and forces at which the effect begins to become visible. It is the
precipitating event. Further, historical studies are subjective processes of re-creation. It
is assumed that all sources are biased because they are human documents. This is
acceptable because historians do not wish to obtain an objective reality. Rather, they
aim to establish verisimilitude by getting as close to the truth as possible. According to
Gottschalk (1950), history becomes only that part of the human past which can be
meaningfully reconstructed from the available records and from inferences regarding
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their setting. However, the researcher must reasonably imagine what must have
happened.
Measures
Due to their subjective nature, the researcher’s role is vital in historical case
studies. According to Anderson (1998), case study research requires the following
researcher capacities: the ability to establish and adhere to boundaries for the case, the
knowledge and ability to collect data skillfully from multiple sources, the ability to
organize, interpret, synthesize, and recast information during data collection, and the
expertise to triangulate multiple sources of information and place finding s into a context
that enhances understanding of the problem.
When studying Mercer University as a case, historical method consisting of four
steps was implemented: collecting evidence, categorizing evidence, communicating
evidence, and using evidence in accordance with Shafer (1974). Historical method
involves the collection of relevant surviving objects of the printed, written, and oral
materials, the exclusion of evidence determined to be unauthentic, the extraction of
credible evidence from authentic material, and the organization of reliable evidence into
a meaning narrative (Gottschalk, 1950). Common features and problems were used to
code and categorize evidence. Chronological and topical categories were created.
Because information about authors of written documents is often limited, one has
to rely on the document itself to teach what it can about the author. For this study, a
variety of documents were collected, including, but not limited to: historical texts,
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institutional publications, and documentation of program changes and additions (e.g.
faculty committee minutes).
Further, the experiences and insights of current and past leaders were collected by
conducting formal face-to-face interviews. As described by Kvale (1996), the researcher
serves as a miner, mining the ore of meaning from a pure experience and as a traveler,
exploring a distant land to learn about a different group of people and a culture with the
goal of returning with rich stories and facts to educate. For example, the current
President, Dr. William Underwood, the Provost, Dr. Wallace Daniel, and the preceding
President of 27 years, Dr. Kirby Godsey, were interviewed. Further, vice-presidents,
deans, departmental chairs, and selective faculty and staff were interviewed.
Testimonies and documents, whether primary or secondary, are human
documents. According to Gottschalk (1950), human documents are accounts of
individual experience which reveal the individual’s actions as a human agent and as a
participant in social life. Further, they are personal reactions to the events in which they
experienced. Thus, subjectivity was considered throughout the data collection and
analysis process.
Data Collection Procedures
Documents and personal testimonies provided evidence to develop a history of
the transformation of Mercer University into a comprehensive institution. Mercer
University holds an extensive collection of archives. The Jack Tarver Library on the
Macon campus and the Swilley Library on the Atlanta campus house a variety of paper
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records that were available by request from the institution’s archivist. Primary sources
were selected whenever possible. These sources included: recorded actions by the
Board of Trustees from the inception of the institution, strategic planning documents,
and various institutional reports that address the state of the institution’s finances, its
endowment, its enrollment pattern, the size of its faculty, volumes in the library, as well
as the quality of its student body in accordance with standardized measures (e.g. SAT
scores) that record over time evidence related to institutional transformation. In
addition, the documentation of program additions and modifications were studied in
order to present an accurate picture of Mercer’s transformation into a comprehensive
university. The use of secondary sources was minimized and they were used only when
access to a primary source is limited or not available. For example, an article about
Jesse Mercer, a book about the Baptist college movement, and a book written by a
former president regarding the foundation of Mercer were used due to lack of primary
resources regarding the foundation of Mercer University. However, the university’s
historical archives were the primary source for documentation pertaining to the
historical development of the institution up until contemporary times. More
contemporary documents were found in various administrative offices of the university,
as well as the libraries previously described, especially those pertaining to finances,
enrollments, and student quality.
In addition to an in-depth exploration of printed documents and reports, the
researcher interviewed administrators—presidents, vice-presidents, deans, department
chairs—as well as faculty and staff. Duration of employment with Mercer varied
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amongst interviewees. The 21 respondents were selected with the advice and support of
the current President of Mercer, Dr. William Underwood, and the current Provost, Dr.
Wallace Daniel—both of whom offered their full cooperation to the researcher. Face-to-
face interviews were conducted by the researcher at the offices of the participants in
order to facilitate what Creswell (2009) referred to as a “sense of comfort yielding free
and open responses.” Further, open-ended questions were asked in order to promote
fluid, detailed responses to questions. Deeper probing of responses were sought using
sub-questions developed in advance as well as on-the-spot to encourage further
explanation of ideas and experiences. It was critical that the interviewees felt free to
share their thoughts freely. A better understanding of the research problem resulted.
The interviews lasted about thirty minutes and were recorded in order to ensure a record
of the responses as well as facilitate a sense of comfort due to the ability to give full
attention to the interviewees. A universal greeting and conclusion was used in each
interview.
Interviews had a conversational tone with minimal verbal and non-verbal
feedback in order to avoid influencing participant responses. Questions and statements
focused on a central theme, but were not strictly structured in order to be open to new,
relevant phenomena. In order to maintain focus, all questions were based on the research
questions.
Interviews were transcribed within 48 hours of their having taken place. As
transcriptions were created based on interviews, codes and themes were identified and
developed. These codes were uniformly used to categorize all evidence. Evidence that
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did not fit an established code or theme was examined for new perspectives and insights.
This constant process enabled the construction of follow-up questions for emergent
themes to gain additional insight and for clarification. A journal was kept to evaluate the
researcher’s insights over time, enabling a view of the development of perceptions and
insights. The duration of interviews was one month.
Data Analysis Procedures
As the focus of this study was the transformation of Mercer University from a
small liberal arts college into a comprehensive university, documentary evidence will be
gathered for the purpose of constructing a history of Mercer’s transformation. This
documentary evidence is presented within a chronological timeframe, forming a
narrative of Mercer’s development from its founding to contemporary times. This
documentary evidence did not require major analysis, but, rather, the credibility of each
piece of historical, documentary evidence was authenticated using the norms of accepted
historical methodology.
According to Gottschalk (1950), credibility is not determined by whether or not
the source provides details of what actually happened. Rather, credibility is determined
by the ability to provide evidence as close to what actually happened as possible. He
referred to this concept as the development of verisimilitude, not objective truth.
Further, Gottschalk stressed that credibility of each particular provided by a source, not
the source as a whole, must be determined. He stressed that even the least credible
source may present useful evidence. Thus, all relevant matter was considered in this
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study, whether or not it at first seems credible. According to Gottschalk, false or
mistaken testimony may enhance the understanding of a historical research problem.
Next, in developing the historical narrative, data contained in the documents was
examined to determine interrelationships and how they interacted in the ongoing
development of the institution. All of the documentary evidence was categorized and
coded so as to identify common themes and patterns in the evolution of Mercer
University. As noted earlier, all of the interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded.
These interviews did, of necessity, cover the contemporary period of Mercer’s
development.
Validity and Reliability of Measures
It was not anticipated that there will be validity issues with respect to the
documents found in Mercer’s historical archives that were used to construct a historical
narrative of the Mercer’s development up to contemporary times. However, the
researcher did consider the validity of the secondary resources used in describing
Mercer’s foundation. The researcher, nevertheless, did take note of any inconsistencies
or anomalies in these documents in constructing the historical narrative. Gottschalk
(1950) argued that, throughout the historical narrative, events should be stressed as
points in a chain of events, not causes.
The data gathered through the interview process, however, was another matter.
Here again the canons of historical scholarship apply inasmuch as the evidence gathered
during the interview process will be pertain to historical events and developments.
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Gottschalk (1950) used the term, personal equation, or the individual’s frame of
reference, when discussing eyewitnesses to a historical event. He defined personal
equation as the ability and willingness of a witness to give a dependable testimony based
on personality and social situations. Shafer (1974) concurred, noting that sources must
be examined in the context of that figure’s own culture and time and that individual
witnesses have to be seen as inhibited by the organized and established strength of ideas
and interests of individuals grouped in institutions.
According to Gottschalk (1950), all testimonials, whether primary or secondary,
have to pass the following tests. First, the witness or source must have the geographical
and chronological ability to narrate history. Further, he or she must be competent and
possess the degree of attention necessary to provide evidence. The consideration of
egocentrism on the part of the source must be considered. The inability to tell the truth
may lead to errors of omission due to lack of completeness or lack of balance in
observation, recollection, or narrative. Failure to include important evidence or the over
or under emphasis of evidence may result. Next, the willingness of the witness or
secondary source to tell the truth has to be determined. Sources may provide conscious
or unconscious falsehoods. Thus, identification of interests of sources impacting
evidence revealed to suit personal interests has to be identified. Both bias, which favors
the witness, and odium, which is unfavorable to the witness, has to be considered.
Further, the source’s desire to please or displease needs to be detected. Often, these
tendencies lead to the misstatements of fact. Last, corroboration should be used to
determine if the source’s statements align with other evidence, determining validity.
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This process of triangulation integrates all evidence from all sources. As stressed by
Gottschalk (1950), once the reliability of the source is determined, however, each
individual piece of evidence provided by the source still have to be examined critically.
The researcher applied these tests to each person interviewed and to the data gathered
from the interviews.
Gottschalk (1950) stressed the importance of the awareness of personal bias when
conducting historical research. He stated that the historian who has no philosophical or
ethical principles has no criteria for measuring change or continuity, and, therefore,
cannot judge history. Without such judgments, historical writing, he argued, cannot be
good narrative and narrative is the essence of history. In order to prevent researcher
bias, prior to and during data collection and analysis, the researcher will maintain a
written record in her journal of potential bias and limitations. According to Creswell
(2009), “Good qualitative research contains comments by the researchers about how
their interpretations of the findings are shaped by their background” (p. 192).
The researcher considered each source’s frame of reference, described as
historical-mindedness, throughout the research process. According to Gottschalk (1950),
historical-mindedness is an effort to understand the past in its own setting. Because the
researcher did not live throughout the transformation she has to be particularly mindful of
the importance of historical-mindedness. The consideration of each source’s situation in
terms of his or her time period and situation is at the heart of historical-mindedness. It is
the effort to understand the past in its own setting. Gottschalk (1950) argued that the
researcher’s personality and experiences must be shed in order to take on the personality
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of the subject in order to understand his or her language, ideals, interests, attitudes,
habits, motives, drives, and traits. In this effort, impartial judgment, rather than criticism,
results. Historical-mindedness, therefore, served as a check on both historical and
psychological analogy in this study.
The historian’s personal equation is also important in historical methodology to
ensure validity. The researcher had no experience with Mercer University whatsoever
prior to this study, minimizing bias due to personal interactions with the institution.
Mercer University was selected due to the overwhelming amount of evidence suggesting
its successful transformation from a liberal arts college to a comprehensive institution. It
must be noted that, due to its close proximity to the researcher’s home, Mercer University
may be considered a convenience site for this case study. The researcher’s personal
experience as a 2003 master’s of business administration graduate of a struggling liberal
arts institution may potentially influence this study. Self-awareness and recording of this
potential source of bias will minimize its impact on research.
Triangulation validated data and data analysis. Several resources, including
currently published research discussed in the literature review, archives, and a variety of
past and present leaders holding differing roles will be used to validate findings through
triangulation. Frame of reference was consciously considered throughout the research
process, leading to the separation of personality traits and biases from data collection
and analysis procedures. In order to evaluate the development of the researcher’s
findings, a journal was kept.
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When conducting interviews, questions that imply an expectation of a specific
response were avoided. Further, misleading, ambiguous questions were also avoided.
Outlying evidence was analyzed. However, the researcher realized that an occasional
piece of evidence, not in keeping with the majority of evidence and possibly accidental
in nature, may provide relevant, valid information as described by Shafer (1974).
Ethical Considerations
Measures to ensure ethical standards are upheld were implemented through this
research. As emphasized by Creswell (2005), voluntariness was guaranteed by ensuring
that, at any time, the researcher provides participants the choice to modify or terminate
involvement with the study and the identity of participants. An informed consent
document was provided to and signed by each participant. This document granted
formal permission to the researcher to include the contributions of participants in the
study. It did, however, permit the participant to withdraw from the study at any time.
Creswell (2005) also stressed that the researcher must protect the identity of
participants. The identity of participants was protected by assigning arbitrary numbers
to the participants. All documents and recordings related to interviews are locked in a
file cabinet at the home of the researcher. Further, the researcher was the only
individual handling the data gathered from interviews. Thus, confidential information is
safeguarded. Three years after the completion of this research project, data will be
destroyed. The protection of the identities and data provided by participants, coupled
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with the option of withdrawing from the study at any time, promoted ethical
responsibility on the part of the researcher.
Other Factors that May Impact the Research
Historical case studies present several limitations. First, access to interviewees
that possess reliable, relevant data and are fully willing to provide data was limited. For
example, key individuals in the transformative process are no longer living, have moved
out of the area, or were unwilling or unable to contribute information. In addition,
historical documents were non-existent or did not contain key data relevant to the
transformation of Mercer University. Further, the format of archives at times did not
readily lend toward the identification and acquisition of useable evidence.
Determination of the role of multiple campuses, each exhibiting unique types of
students, program offerings, and environments was difficult to incorporate into findings.
The role of competitive institutions was also difficult to explore.
Lastly, transferability to other institutions may be minimal, making evidence and
conclusions irrelevant to some institutions. The steps taken by leaders to earn the status
of Mercer University as a liberal arts institution that successfully transformed itself into a
comprehensive institution are assumed to be useful to other liberal arts institutions.
However, several characteristics of institutions, including location within the United
States, area competitors, area job markets, area business health, average population age
within the area, and even the age of the institution, may limit the effective
implementation of similar strategies. This is due to the purposively chosen sample,
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Mercer University. Because interviewees were purposively chosen, transferability is
further lessened. Data collected only directly applies to this institution during the time
period studied. Often, historical studies are viewed only in their own historical and
organizational context. Therefore, in order to increase transferability, research findings
have been generalized to suit as many institutions as possible and promote further
research on the topic.
Conclusion
Through the use of archival data and data derived through interviews, evidence
from Mercer University’s foundation to present will enabled the researcher to explore this
institution’s transformative leaders’ attributes and strategies. Due to sound research
methodology and validity and reliability measures, the researcher’s work may be viewed
as dependable. Thus, conclusions drawn may be useful to other leaders of higher
education institutions facing situations similar to those faced by Mercer University
leadership.
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CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a historical overview of Mercer
University and how it has transformed, identify challenges faced by leadership due to
transformation, and describe leadership attributes and actions implemented to promote
successful transformation. This analysis will provide insight into the research problem:
What leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer University leadership over its
long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts college into a comprehensive
university?
The findings of the research are based on Mercer University’s archival data,
historical texts related to the foundation of Baptist ministerial education and Mercer
University, respondent statements and descriptions, and data collected from Mercer
University’s website. The chapter begins with a historical description of the founding of
Mercer as a ministerial institution and its growth into a small liberal arts institution with a
law school. A chronological depiction of the events that marked Mercer’s significant
transformation into a comprehensive institution follows. Challenges faced by Mercer
leadership resulting from its rapid and momentous transformation are then discussed as
presented by respondents, archival data, and Mercer University’s website information.
Lastly, leadership attributes that guided Mercer University’s transformation are presented
based on respondent descriptions and evidence and examples provided by institutional
publications.
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Sample
Respondents were comprised of 21 Mercer personnel of varying levels of
employment and leadership. Both the Atlanta and the Macon campus were represented
by this sample. Ten executive leaders, three deans, three department chairs, three heads
of administrative support offices, and two administrative assistants were interviewed.
Interviews were conducted in the offices of the respondents and were recorded. Within
48 hours, recordings were transcribed. Similar ideas amongst responses were then
grouped and themes based on transformation and leadership were developed. Based on
these themes, challenges and attributes and actions of leadership, as well as those related
to the development of Mercer’s vision through time were identified.
Historical data was collected from Mercer University archives retrieved from the
Jack Tarver Library and three historical texts, including an article about Mercer’s
namesake, Jesse Mercer, a book about the Baptist movement in Georgia, and a book
about Mercer’s history from its foundation to Spright Dowell’s presidency that ended in
1953. Mercer University publications found on the institution’s website provided
additional historical data and descriptions of existing programs and efforts related to the
transformation of Mercer.
Presentation of the Data and Results
The following findings are written in a historical case study context. A
chronological summary of the transformation of Mercer University serves as the
foundation on which a detailed description of transformation and leadership is developed.
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Because of the gap between the emphasis on foundational values and contemporary
transformation, findings will be presented in two forms—historical and contemporary.
Common emergent themes including challenges and actions and attributes of leadership,
based on the data of all sources, are discussed.
Mercer University History: 1803 to 1979
In order to understand fully the nature of the transformation that Mercer
University underwent, from a small liberal arts college into a comprehensive university, it
is first necessary to briefly describe the history of Mercer from its founding until the
transformative period. Connections between Mercer’s founding missions to the
transformative period will provide insight into the challenges, actions, and attributes of
leadership through the transformative period to present.
Around 1803, Baptist leaders recognized that Georgia was in need of educated
clergymen. Thus, the establishment of a school to train Baptist ministers was discussed
(Burch, 2003; Mondy, 1956). Jesse Mercer, an eminent Georgian, distinguished Baptist
clergyman, and a principal organizer of the Georgia Baptist Convention (GBC), made an
attempt to initiate ministerial education by founding Mount Enon Academy. The
school’s existence, however, was short-lived (Burch, 2003; Mondy, 1956). This early
effort was unsuccessful, in part, because the legislature feared that the Baptists were
attempting to give their religion legal sanction (Mondy, 1956).
Twenty years later, in 1822, Adiel Sherwood, Baptist minister and theologian,
formed the GBC and began an early system of ministerial education (Burch, 2003). Two
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of the six objectives of the GBC were related to Christian education and the Christian
ministry. However, sentiment regarding ministerial education was divided. Educated
leaders of the GBC were aware and concerned about the need for an educated ministry.
Thus, the GBC initiated efforts to establish ministerial schools (Dowell, 1953).
Sherwood was an advocate of manual labor institutes like those found in Germany
and New England. According to Sherwood, manual labor institutes relate learning to
labor while providing a means to finance an education. According to Burch (2003),
Sherwood claimed that manual labor schools “combined physical labor and practical
learning, dissolving the disparity between education theory and everyday practicality” (p.
125). This is a combination of the Fellenberg theory, implemented by Phillip Emanuel
von Fellenberg in German manual labor institutes, which proposed manual labor
institutions for providing opportunities to the poor to receive an education. Additionally,
they provided physical exercise, a need of Sherwood’s not fulfilled while attending
college in New England. He also believed that by adding the manual labor component to
ministerial education, the image of masculinity may attract Baptists of the South during a
time when young men were proudly attending military schools (Burch, 2003).
Sherwood incorporated two categories of ministerial education in his manual
labor schools—required and optional. First, ministerial students had to possess a
necessary knowledge. This meant that the congregation had to recognize the minister’s
possession of a call from God, a capacity to teach, good common sense, and an
acquaintance with Scripture. Secondly, Sherwood required desirable knowledge. He
recognized that Baptists believed ministers were prepared for the pastorate with only the
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knowledge they possessed and whatever God had bestowed upon them. However,
Sherwood believed that ministers should improve their minds and that ministry involved
a category of mental improvement. Further, Sherwood proposed diversification by
combining traditional southern farm labor with mechanical industry by having students
make window blinds to import to northern cities (Burch, 2003).
In 1831, upon GBC approval, Sherwood opened his own manual labor school
near Eatonton, Georgia on a 180 acre tract of land purchased for 600 dollars. Due to the
success of Sherwood’s school, the GBC decided to open another manual labor school in
Penfield, Georgia (Burch, 2003). In 1829, Josiah Penfield, an advocate of a
denominational college, left 2,500 dollars to the GBC to establish a school to train
ministers if the GBC could match the funds (Burch, 2003; Mondy, 1956). The GBC
matched the funds within fifteen minutes in the form of subscriptions from 26 members
(Mondy, 1956).
In 1832, a plan for the construction and operation of this new institution, to be
called Mercer Institute in honor of Jesse Mercer, was developed (Mondy, 1956; Staton,
2003). Mercer Institute began classes in 1833 with an enrollment of 39 ministerial
students, all of whom were of good moral character and belonged to an organized Baptist
church (Dowell, 1953). In his book, A History of Mercer University, Spright Dowell,
president of Mercer University from 1927 to 1928 and 1953 to 1959, described the
opening of Mercer Institute in 1833:
The opening of Mercer Institute at Penfield, Greene County, on the day marked the culmination of hopes, dreams, prayers, sacrifices, and achievements of inestimable worth. These were given form and expression in the founding of an
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institution that was destined to play an increasingly important role in forming and fashioning the lives and affairs of men and women in Georgia, throughout the nation, and to the ends of the earth. (p. 1)
The GBC controlled the promotion and general supervision of the college, specifically
through the executive committee. More direct supervision was given to a board of
trustees that was to be appointed and that would report to the executive committee of the
GBC. The trustees lived on campus and reported quarterly to the executive committee.
The executive committee offered Sherwood the position of Principal, but he
turned them down. They then appointed him as principal teacher and in his role he was
asked to direct the literary and theological department of instruction (Burch, 2003;
Mondy, 1956). Billington McCarthy Sanders, a Georgia native who had served several
pastorates and was an opponent of the manual labor system, was appointed as steward or
principal and was responsible for the farm, tools, provisions, and stock. He kept track of
finances, monitored the construction of buildings, preached in neighboring churches,
answered the correspondence, and cultivated and cleared the land (Dowell, 1953). In
addition, the steward was responsible for the supervision of students (Burch, 2003;
Mondy, 1956). He was aided by his wife in planning, teaching, erecting buildings,
fundraising, disciplining, and preaching. Sanders developed the campus from two log
cabins and a dining room into seven buildings while increasing the number of students
from 39 to 95. Community support that did not interfere with institutional operations and
the health of the community were important to Sanders. Dowell (1953) described
Sanders’ appeal to the community. “His final appeal was to the local citizens to give the
institute their undivided support, to leave the government of it in the hands of faculty and
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trustees, and to do their part in promoting the welfare of the college and of the
community” (p. 62). Sanders proved to be an effective leader of the new school until he
stepped down in 1840 (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).
The manual labor plan at Mercer Institute followed Sherwood’s model (Burch,
2003). The primary mission of the college was to train ministers although other students
were allowed to enroll later in the institution’s existence. All students performed three
hours of manual labor daily on a 450 acre tract of land north of Greensboro, Georgia.
The steward and teachers supervised students (Mondy, 1956). The students lived in the
homes of professors. Dowell (1953) stated that the plan of caring for students in
professors’ homes, primarily by the wives of the professors, provided an atmosphere that
was wholesome and refining.
The GBC recognized the need for a state Baptist college. Due to the success of
the Mercer Institute, they chose to convert it from a preparatory school to a Baptist
college in 1837, rather than found a new, separate school. Mercer University was born.
Jesse Mercer donated one-third of the endowment used to promote this conversion
(Dowell, 1953). According to Burch (2003), the decision to change the school’s
curriculum and status was based on the GBC’s changing goals. Mercer Institute grew to
emphasize basic writing ability, good morality, and obedience. The result was a shift
from a manual school to a collegiate level institution. The GBC continued to support
students financially (Burch, 2003).
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The original collegiate department presented more of a theological than academic
focus, according to Burch (2003). Sherwood, despite not being president, played a large
role in curriculum development in his role as a theology professor. Surprisingly, Mercer
did not initiate a school of theology. Because Sherwood did not formulate a specialized
program of instruction, a school of theology did not originate until much later. Burch
noted that there are various views on why Sherwood did not create a theology school.
Some believed he had limited time due to a large number of speaking engagements and
others believed that he did not have any intention of creating a theology school.
Although there was no recognized theological school, Burch noted that, due to the
notoriety of Sherwood, theology played a significant role throughout the curriculum.
An academic department and a collegiate department formed Mercer University’s
program. The academic department specified eight courses within each of four years of
study and the collegiate department contained theological coursework (Burch, 2003).
Sherwood’s view of a theological curriculum differed from others because he injected
theological literature into literary education. For him, the Bible was the center of all
studies (Burch, 2003). For example, Sherwood’s sacred literature courses provided
experiences similar to secular classical literature courses. His students studied the
Hebrew and Greek language in combination with the study of antiquity. He believed this
made students more into prophets than into preachers. According to Burch (2003),
Sherwood believed “a literary education combined with a theological one strengthened
the ministerial student. Not only would an educated preacher communicate well, but he
would also exemplify the standard that Baptists were not hostile to education” (p. 148).
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Sherwood demonstrated the practical nature of his educational theory by combining
ministerial education with manual labor while creating the distinction of an educated
ministry at Mercer University. Sherwood moved to Illinois in 1841, the same year Jesse
Mercer died, and continued to spread his ministerial programs.
Jesse Mercer had been an active promoter of Mercer University, both financially
and in his words and actions, ultimately leading to its collegiate level promotion to
Mercer University in 1837. His educational philosophy greatly shaped Mercer
University’s foundational values (Dowell, 1953). According to Mondy (1956), Mercer
stated that education was to a minister what clothes were to a man. Although clothes
have no power to make the man, they were necessary to his comfort and to “render him
acceptable to his fellowmen” (p. 354). Mercer believed that a minister was a workman
of God and needed opportunities to read and study. The man of wisdom and
understanding could “use knowledge aright” (p. 354). Dowell (1953) described Mercer
as the “Spiritual Father of Mercer University” (p. 70).
Mercer continued his efforts to provide educational opportunities to ministers by
leading a movement to open the Southern Baptist College in Washington, Georgia.
Supporters raised one hundred thousand dollars to found the school. However, most of
the subscriptions could not be collected due to a business recession prior to the panic of
1837 (Dowell, 1953). The Baptists decided to increase support to Mercer Institute rather
than form another Baptist ministerial school in Georgia. By inviting Baptist leaders from
other parts of the state to participate in governing Baptist education at Mercer Institute,
an attempt to open a Baptist school in the western part of the state was terminated as well.
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As a result, Mercer increased its recognition by the Georgia Baptists, giving Mercer its
university status (Mondy, 1956). Further, Dowell (1953) described the power of
Mercer’s leadership, stating “The trustees of the Penfield period represented the flower of
the citizenship of Georgia, civil, political, professional, and religious” (p. 55). Dowell
further explained that a feeling of confidence replaced confusion and anxiety over the
future of ministerial education in Georgia.
The contemporary comprehensiveness and dedication of Mercer University rests
on the foundation created in these formative years as well as by the series of leaders and
events that forged the institution’s development. The following is a brief overview of the
foundation and succession of presidents prior to contemporary Mercer history. These
data were provided by the Jack Tarver Library (n.d.).
• Otis Smith: President from 1833 to 1844
o Clergyman and educator
o Presented diplomas to the first graduating class in 1841
o Held daily prayer services and daily manual labor, demonstrating great
concern for building student morals
o Drop in enrollment (132 to 50 students) due to a severe agricultural
depression
o The entire faculty resigned during the agricultural depression
• John Leadley Dagg: President from 1844 to 1854
o Constructed four brick buildings
o Tripled student enrollment to 181
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o Initiated three-year bachelor of divinity degree
o Initiated deliberation of relocation to Mercer Institute based on GBC
directives
• Nathaniel Macon Crawford: President from 1854 to 1856; 1858 to 1866
o Endured period of institutional unrest in regards to religion
o Able to keep the institution open despite the challenges created by the
Civil war and religious unrest (only institution in Georgia to remain open
during this period)
• Shelton Palmer Sanford: Acting President from 1856 to 1858
o Also able to keep classes in session during this period of unrest
o As a captain in the military, led in organizing and equipping a volunteer
Corps of Mercer cadets
• Henry Holcombe Tucker: President from 1866 to 1871
o Moved the institution to Macon despite considerable dissent
• Archibald John Battle: President from 1872 to 1889
o Led the purchase of eight lots of land for the building of classrooms,
housing, and dining facilities on the Macon campus
o Established the Walter F. George School of Law in 1873
• Gustavus Alonzo Nunnally: President from 1889 to 1893
o Erected more buildings, doubling the capacity of the University
o Increased the endowment be creating partnerships with the GBC and John
D. Rockefeller totaling $50,000
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o Began external promotions of Mercer by speaking in churches,
courthouses, and the state legislature.
o Led the initiation of student organizations including athletic teams and a
student newspaper
• Joseph Edgerton Willet: Acting President in 1893
• James Bruton Gambrell: President from 1893 to 1896
o Continued Nunnally’s promotional efforts because he believed that the
recognition of Mercer as part of the community might improve the
financial stresses experienced during this period
o Founded a department of pedagogy to train teachers
o Introduced class electives in 1895
• Pinckney Daniel Pollock: President from 1896 to 1903
o First layman to serve as president
o Raised $115,000 in endowments
o Doubled the number of faculty members and students
o Constructed three buildings
o Made Mercer into a full college by terminating the freshman preparatory
school
• William Heard Kilpatrick: Acting President from 1903 to 1905
o Founded pharmacy school
• Charles Lee Smith: President from 1905 to 1906
o Increased endowment
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o Constructed new buildings
• Samuel Young Jameson: President from 1906 to 1913
o Increased enrollment in all three schools
o Constructed a dormitory and a library
o Increased endowment by $250,000
o Served as an officer of the Baptist Schools of Georgia which was headed
by Mercer
• James Freeman Sellers: Acting President from 1913 to 1914
o Acquired land for expansion, relieving some of the dissent the move to
Macon had created
• William Lowndes Pickard: President from 1914 to 1918
o Broadened the curriculum
o Enlarged enrollment from 357 to 1,000 students
o Increased endowment
o Developed annual reports to provide information to the Board of Trustees
o Served as President of the GBC’s Board of Education
• Rufus Washington Weaver: President from 1918 to 1927
o Doubled the assets of Mercer
o Increased enrollment
o Added theology, commerce, education, and journalism departments
o Student housing and dining services expanded
o Closed independent pharmacy school
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• Andrew Philip Montague: Acting President from 1927 to 1928
o Mercer’s first vice president, took presidency for one year
• Spright Dowell: President from 1928 to 1953; Acting President from 1959 to
1960
o Developed and implemented sound fiscal practices that got Mercer
through period of great financial concern prior to the Great Depression.
o Doubled the physical plant
o Overturned a deficit to a balance of $200,000
o Simplified structure of Mercer from seven schools to a liberal arts college
and a law school
o Led merger with the once independent Southern School of Pharmacy in
Atlanta
o President during the Heresy trial in which five faculty members were
accused of teaching ideas considered non-doctrinal by the Baptist church
• George Boyce Connell: President from 1953 to 1959
o Constructed and renovated buildings
o Added $1.5 million to the endowment
o Attained membership in the American Association of University Women
o Acquired membership into the Southern University Conference, one of
Mercer’s finest distinctions
o Elected first president of the Georgia Foundation for Independent Colleges
• Rufus Carrollton Harris: President from 1960 to 1979
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o Former dean of the law school
o Led Mercer to be the first Georgia private institution to integrate prior to
the Civil Rights Act
o First president to accept federal grants to fund programs
o Constructed the Stetson Library and the Willet Science Center
o Led merger with Atlanta Baptist College in 1972
o Moved the School of Law to Macon in 1978
o Originated consideration of the addition of a medical school (which was
formed during his successor’s presidency)
Summary
Mercer University’s heritage rests on creating an educated Baptist clergy. This
heritage was based on a perceived need of Georgian citizens. From its foundation, the
institution has valued the development of new knowledge to be applied to individuals’
lives in a religious setting with the goal of improving their lives. Even at its foundation,
Mercer demonstrated a commitment to the welfare of the community. By 1979, Mercer
University had grown to an institution of 3,800 students and an endowment of $16.5
million. It had become an exemplar of a liberal education founded on Baptist ideals,
indicated by efforts including leading the civil rights movement in Georgia. It was this
groundwork that paved the way for future presidents to expand upon Mercer’s heritage in
order to become more impactful in Georgia.
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Mercer University: 1979 to Present
The beginning of Dr. Kirby Godsey’s presidency marked the initiation of a
period of immense transformation that spanned a period of 27 years. During Godsey’s
presidency, Mercer University grew from 3,800 to 7,300 students and from an
endowment of $16.5 to $225 million (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). The institution
expanded to 11 schools and colleges, spread across three major campuses in Macon,
Atlanta, and Savannah, three regional academic centers, and several business partnerships
(Mercer University Board of Trustees, 2010). The following is a description of the
milestones marking Mercer’s transformation based on material found in Mercer archives
as well as interviews of key Mercer personnel conducted by the researcher. Challenges
to President Godsey’s rapid transformation of Mercer are also identified.
In 1979, Dr. Kirby Godsey, former dean of the College of Liberal Arts and
Executive Vice President, became president, succeeding Dr. Rufus Harris and initiating a
period of significant transformation. During his lengthy 27-year tenure, President
Godsey expanded Mercer University from four to eleven schools and colleges, creating
the second-largest Baptist institution in the United States. The four schools included the
College of Liberal Arts (CLA) and School of Law, located in Macon, and School of
Pharmacy and College of Arts and Sciences located in Atlanta, now known as the Cecil
B. Day Graduate and Professional Campus. Respondent 18 stated this expansion was in
conjunction with the opening and closing of six or seven other schools and colleges
during this time. One of the first additions made by President Godsey was the formation
of the Mercer University Press in 1979. The Mercer Press has published more than 1,200
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titles mostly in the humanities (Mercer University Academics, n.d.). This was just the
beginning of a multitude of openings, closings, and mergers of organizations, colleges,
and schools.
Foundation of the Medical School
For more than 10 years prior to the school’s foundation, the idea of founding a
medical school was discussed due to the inadequate health and medical services available
to residents of rural Georgia. The Board of Trustees and President Rufus Harris, had
considered the addition of a school of medicine at Mercer (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).
Discussion continued into the beginning of Dr. Godsey’s presidency. According to
Respondent 20, conflicting views regarding the addition of the medical school existed.
Some CLA faculty members were largely opposed to the addition of the medical school
based on concerns that Mercer might stray from its liberal arts foundation and that the
university lacked the financial resources required to create such a school. The medical
community was split about Mercer’s proposal as well. Respondent 20 stated that when
President Godsey went to the Joint Appropriations Committee of the Georgia Legislature
to request financial support, the Medical College of Georgia and Emory University
explicitly recommended that the Mercer proposal not be funded. However, President
Godsey’s request of a specific amount of funding and resolution of continuing support
was passed overwhelmingly and the Georgia General Assembly appropriated five million
dollars for the development of the medical school. Additionally, the Macon City Council
and the Bibb County Commission appropriated operating funds, a bond issue of seven
million dollars was approved by Macon citizens, and a referendum was passed
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designating funds for the construction of a facility (Mercer University School of
Medicine, n.d.). Finally, in 1982, acting on their intention to improve the supply and
distribution of primary care doctors in rural and other medically underserved areas of
Georgia, President Godsey and the Board of Trustees opened the School of Medicine. As
reported by Respondent 13, “the mission of the medical school is not to provide
professionals to big structures, big schools, big areas, but to provide service to people
who need healing, who lack these services, who lack the opportunity to make the best of
their lives.” Another respondent, Respondent 20, noted that the medical school’s mission
“is not to provide healthcare for the nation. It is to provide healthcare for Georgia.” This
respondent reported that 65 percent of graduates practice medicine in Georgia compared
to 50 percent of graduates from other Georgia medical schools.
Many respondents cited the addition of the medical school as a turning point that
launched Mercer into becoming a comprehensive university. Respondent 2 stated “Of all
of the many things I am proud of in Mercer University, the medical school is the best
example of knowing how mission meets leadership meets excellence.” Respondents
consistently stressed the medical school’s founding mission—providing medical care to
underserved Georgians—emphasizing its consistency with Mercer University’s mission.
Under the leadership of Mercer’s current president, President Underwood, the partnership
of Mercer University, Memorial Health of Savannah, and the State of Georgia expanded
the university’s medical influence with the opening of a second medical school in
Savannah in 2008. Respondent 2 viewed this as a great opportunity to share resources
with the hospital. He viewed the extension of the School of Medicine as a bold and
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courageous decision, continuing Mercer’s commitment to Georgia citizens while
increasing comprehensiveness without losing sight of founding principles. President
Underwood stated, “The women and men who make up this first class in Savannah will
in a few years join a cadre of Mercer doctors who are making a profound difference in
the lives of countless Georgia citizens” (Mercer University, 2008). The School of
Medicine has received ten consecutive Solver Awards from the American Academy of
Family Physicians for its success in making family practice a top career choice for
graduates, recognizing the school’s service to Georgians (Staton, 2003).
The Mercer University School of Medicine has expanded its academic offerings
to include master’s degree programs in family therapy, family services, and public health
as well as a nurse anesthesia program. Continuing education programs that meet the
professional development needs of graduates are offered at affiliate teaching hospitals.
To date, the medical school functions in collaboration with the Medical Center of Central
Georgia and, since 1999, the Memorial Medical Center in Savannah, Georgia, the
location of its branch campus (Mercer University School of Medicine, n.d.).
Clearly, President Godsey opened the medical school with the goal of improving
the lives of Georgians. However, this momentous occasion in Mercer history served as
the foundation for unrest amongst faculty members, especially those within the CLA.
The unrest lingered throughout Godsey’s presidency.
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The Business Program is Given its Own Identity
In an effort to attract students, the business and economics program was separated
from the CLA in 1984 to become the Eugene W. Stetson School of Business and
Economics. It was named after a1901 graduate who negotiated the purchase of the Coca-
Cola Company by the Woodruff Group from the Asa Candler family in 1919. (Mercer
University Eugene W. Stetson School of Business and Economics, n.d.). The Stetson
School of Business and Economics is widely recognized for its student-centered approach
to business education, an approach that is fully in keeping with Mercer’s commitment to
liberal education. It is accredited by the prestigious Association to Advance Collegiate
Schools of Business, a distinction held by only one-third of the 1,500 business schools in
the country (Mercer University Eugene W. Stetson School of Business and Economics,
n.d.).
Respondents indicated that CLA faculty members feared that the separation of the
business and economics program from the liberal arts school might also cause Mercer to
lose sight of its founding vision, liberal education. This unsettlement about the direction
of Mercer grew as did the opposition to the changes leadership was making.
Foundation of the Engineering School
President Godsey was approached by representatives of the Dobbins Air Force
Base located south of Macon to determine ways to increase their supply of engineers for
their Warner Robbins Air Logistics Center. President Godsey worked with them in
trying to get the Georgia Institute of Technology and Auburn to open branches of their
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engineering schools in the area. However, these institutions were not interested in
extending their programs to southern Georgia. Therefore, in 1985, Mercer University
opened its own School of Engineering. The program provides students with a
comprehensive education grounded in liberal education. It features a solid foundation in
mathematics and sciences, engineering-specific courses, and a strong liberal arts
component (Staton, 2003). Small class sizes facilitate great student-faculty interaction.
The Mercer School of Engineering distinguishes itself by equally emphasizing theory and
practice. Educators focus on real-world experience including project management and
working on teams. Further, the liberal arts foundation of Mercer has fostered an
appreciation of service. As a result, students develop both the technical and emotional
sides of engineering. The one-on-one attention faculty provides ensures students are
well-equipped to tackle real-world issues (Mercer University School of Engineering,
n.d.).
According to Respondent 20, when President Godsey was originally asked to
open an engineering school, he told the Commander of the Dobbins Air Reserve base that
he would be highly disregarded by the Mercer community if he fulfilled the request. His
prediction turned out to be true and so the tension grew.
The Acquisition of Tift College
Mercer University took over Tift College in Forsyth, Georgia, in 1986. Tift
College was a women’s college comprised of approximately 100 students. Respondent 9
felt this was a good idea in the long term for the university because the acquisition
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initiated programs for adult learners. However, President Godsey faced opposition from
the Forsyth community. Dissent heightened when Mercer’s leadership decided to close
the college because they could not afford to keep a large physical campus with that few
students. The Forsyth community was very displeased. As noted by Respondent 20, the
local alumnae sued Mercer and the university lost the trial that lasted several months.
However, the Supreme Court overturned the Georgia Superior Court’s decision, finding
that Mercer had not acted in bad faith.
Respondent 20 discussed ways Mercer was sensitive to the issues surrounding its
taking over of Tift College—naming the education school the Tift College of Education,
which is the largest college in the university, including Tift women on the Board of
Trustees, and using the resources that came from Tift to create scholarships for women at
Mercer.
The Closing of the College of Arts and Sciences in Atlanta
In 1989, the Board of Trustees voted to close the College of Arts and Sciences in
Atlanta. President Godsey, along with the Board of Trustees, did not believe that it made
sense to have two competing liberal education schools, only 90 miles apart, within one
university. According to Respondent 20, leadership would have considered having the
College of Arts and Sciences stay in existence in Atlanta, but only as a branch of the
CLA in Macon. However, those in Atlanta wanted to remain a separate college.
According to Respondent 20, President Godsey tried to find jobs for the faculty
and staff and assist students with the transition to another program. Regardless, President
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Godsey faced immense opposition that actually led to a lengthy trial that Mercer won.
According to Respondent 18, the closing of the College of Arts and Sciences was so
controversial that it was one of the top ten stories of the year in the Atlanta Journal
Constitution. Despite the controversy, according to Respondent 20, “The campus was
refocused and it is now a very prominent and important campus.”
Budget Deficit
In the late 1980s, Mercer University experienced a budget deficit. The Mercer
community turned against President Godsey. Faculty members put on their academic
regalia and marched around the administrative building daily, demanding his termination.
Some attributed the deficit to Godsey’s rapid expansion of Mercer. However, the Board
of Trustees supported President Godsey and gave him the chance to pull Mercer out of
the budget deficit. He succeeded in a swift manner.
The School of Education is Given its Own Identity
In 1995, the Department of Education separated from the CLA to form a new
college and, as noted earlier, it was renamed Tift College of Education in 2001.
Respondent 9 believed this was another effort to attract students. The Tift College of
Education is presently the largest school within the university, consisting of three
branches: teacher education, humanities, social sciences (Staton, 2003). Its collaborative
efforts with public school systems demonstrate the institution’s commitment to
community (Mercer University Tift College of Education, n.d.). As with the CLA’s loss
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of the business and engineering school, dissent grew due to the loss of yet another
program.
The Foundation of the School of Theology
Jesse Mercer’s founding mission of providing students with a classical and
theological education was realized when the McAfee School of Theology was initiated in
1996 on the Atlanta campus. According to Respondent 15, Mercer had recognized the
need for young preachers in area Baptist churches who understood scripture and could
clearly articulate their beliefs. Pastors and students expressed a desire for seminary level
training that provided educational alternatives within the Baptist tradition. Respondent
20 claimed that the theology school was added because it is important to Mercer’s
mission. “We are a historically Baptist institution, and so, the existence of a school of
theology for preparing men and women for ministry sustained the history and character
and founding mission of Mercer.” Respondent 13 agreed and added that the School of
Theology was added in an attempt to fill a void in this country to provide a high level
theological education as well as provide leadership and service in areas of the country
that were thought to be hurting.
Mercer’s Merger to Form a Nursing School
In 2001, the Georgia Baptist College of Nursing merged with Mercer to form the
Georgia Baptist College of Nursing of Mercer University. The Georgia Baptist College
of Nursing’s foundations began in 1901when the Tabernacle Infirmary and Training
School for Christian Nurses opened in a five-room cottage in downtown Atlanta. The
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school created a vision of educating students to heal the needy sick. In 1989, the school
became a college and created and implemented a nationally recognized model for nursing
education (Mercer University Georgia Baptist School of Nursing, n.d.). The merger
between Mercer University and the Georgia Baptist College was based upon mutual
growth and improvement goals as well as shared missions and core values. Dr. Susan S.
Gunby, current dean of the College of Nursing, is committed to embracing the best of
contemporary nursing while holding onto foundational values (Mercer University
Georgia Baptist School of Nursing, n.d.). In 2002, the college moved into a new
academic building on the Atlanta campus.
Founding of the College of Continuing and Professional Studies
The College of Continuing and Professional Studies (CCPS) opened on the
Atlanta campus in 2003 to provide undergraduate and graduate programs and lifelong
learning opportunities for adult learners. The program aims to serve adult learners with
interdisciplinary programs that integrate theory and practice in unique ways. Personal
attention is offered to enable nontraditional learners to reach educational and career goals
(Mercer University College of Continuing and Professional Studies, n.d.). Program
offerings in a wide array of fields at multiple locations throughout Georgia enable Mercer
to reach a large number of adult learners, consistent with institutional missions.
Respondent 16 indicated that the liberal arts program within the CCPS is growing
quickly. This respondent went on to state that “they are constantly getting new faculty
members. The faculty at the CCPS are very excited. They are really creative and are the
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kind of group that will try to create new classes and try to really go forward with new
initiatives and ideas. The leadership over there has really encouraged that.”
Founding of the Music School
The Townsend School of Music is the most recent of new schools. It broke from
the CLA in 2006. Dean Dickson believes in the importance of history and tradition and
emphasizes Mercer’s founding mission. The mission is to inspire the whole musician—
musically, artistically, intellectually, and spiritually. The music school prepares students
for a dynamic society by providing innovative courses including music business and new
media courses. The school distinguishes itself by promoting the traditions of Mercer
(Mercer University Townsend School of Music, n.d.).
Reasons for Growth during Godsey’s Presidency
Clearly, President Godsey’s motive behind the opening of new colleges and
schools was primarily to meet the needs of Georgia as he perceived them. Respondents
also recognized a variety of reasons for the rapid expansion. In general, Respondent 20
described the Board of Trustee’s decision to appoint Godsey as President as a clear
expression of their desire to see Mercer expand and grow. The respondent stated “They
thought about what we want to be when we grow up. It would have been fine to be a
liberal arts school with a law school or become a university, but being in between didn’t
seem to be a realistic course. Mercer needed to be clearer about what we were doing.” In
a similar vein, Respondent 13 felt that the addition of professional schools was because
Mercer wanted to be something different from some of the other higher education
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institutions that were narrowly conceived. Mercer wanted to reach farther and the
increased comprehensiveness is what occurred.
Several respondents correlated the growth pattern with overall trends in higher
education. Respondents repeatedly mentioned dissent over the increased
comprehensiveness because some felt Mercer should have stuck to what it was doing
well and continually make it better. However, President Godsey and others on his
leadership team felt that increasing the number of colleges, schools, and programs would
lead to the best results in the future. Overall, Respondent 9 felt that due to the increased
size of Mercer’s academic profile, the university’s reputation has also increased. The
respondent stated “I think every component is strong.”
Correlating with President Godsey’s motive to serve Georgians, Respondent 13
felt that the new programs came in response to two things, leadership and service. More
specifically, service to humanity, service to the State of Georgia, and service to the
underprivileged of the world. This growth was the result of efforts to support Mercer
University’s founding liberal education and Baptist values according to the respondent.
From President Godsey to President Underwood
The transformative period has continued into President Underwood’s presidency
which began in 2006. President Underwood has launched a second medical school
campus in Savannah, Georgia, added a master’s-level physician assistant program, a
doctoral-level physical therapy program, and doctoral-level programs in clinical
psychology, nursing, counseling, educational leadership, and curriculum and instruction
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(Mercer University, n.d.a). President Underwood has increased Mercer University’s
focus on research through the launching of these programs and through supporting
faculty and student research efforts. Enrollment has increased by about 20 percent during
Underwood’s tenure (Mercer University, n.d.a).
President Underwood has also heightened efforts to engage the Mercer
community in service learning and community engagement, founding missions of the
institution. A revolutionary program at Mercer, Mercer on Mission, was initiated in 2007
to provide exceptional study abroad experiences for students while serving third-world
countries. Additionally, in 2009, Mercer earned a five million dollar grant to support an
existing revitalization project to improve the neighbor hoods separating the Macon
campus from downtown Macon (Mercer University, n.d.a).
Thus far, President Underwood has worked to solidify President Godsey’s
transformative efforts by focusing on the challenges faced as a result of the
transformation. While growth continues in the form of enrollment, smaller programs,
research, and service learning and community outreach efforts, no groundbreaking events
have occurred. However, fear regarding the future role of liberal education at Mercer,
primarily from liberal arts faculty members, lingers. President Underwood is continuing
to make decisions based on Mercer’s founding missions.
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Leadership’s Challenges Resulting from Mercer’s Transformation
Introduction
Based on the historical framework established in the previous section, a
discussion of the data that contributes to the understanding of the research question and
sub-questions follows. The researcher aims to formulate a better understanding of the
leadership attributes and activities that guided Mercer University’s leadership over its
long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts college into a comprehensive
university. More specifically, the researcher aims to create a context for how Mercer
University’s leaders have balanced the institution’s liberal education values and goals
while, at the same time, introducing professionally-oriented programs and the obstacles
Mercer University’s leaders encountered during the process of transformation and how
did they overcome these obstacles.
First, a summary of emergent themes based on respondents’ responses regarding
Mercer’s transformation and Mercer’s leadership, independent of one another, are
categorized by interview question so as to provide a background for the analysis of
themes to follow. A discussion of participant interviews as well as data drawn from
Mercer’s archives and other written sources follows in order to present the prevalent
themes. These themes include challenges—opposition, increased diversity and
complexity, preservation of founding values, and financing—as well as attributes and
actions—creating and communicating a clear vision, facilitating shared governance,
imposing high expectations, taking entrepreneurial actions, managing resistance, role
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modeling, obtaining the support of the Board of Trustees, and building positive external
relationships. These themes will be discussed by integrating all forms of data collected.
Transformation
In exploring with those interviewed the general theme of transformation, the
researcher asked the following questions:
1. Describe how you feel Mercer has changed since its foundation.
Respondents reported that Mercer has been transformed into a diverse array of
eleven colleges and schools spread throughout Georgia from what was originally a small
Baptist ministerial institution that had grown into a liberal arts college. Responses
indicated that a strong commitment to the liberal arts remains, but has been challenged.
2. What are the implications of these changes?
Respondents reported that both the diversity and complexity has challenged
leadership to maintain a cohesiveness that embraces Mercer’s founding values.
However, respondents overall viewed the changes as either necessary to compete for
enrollment or as efforts to impact Georgians positively. However, respondents also noted
the struggle to maintain the CLA as the heart of the entire institution.
3. Why do you feel these changes were made?
Respondents attributed the transformation to the visionary leadership of President
Kirby Godsey. They felt President William Underwood has taken charge of fine-tuning
these changes and building upon them. Further, it was also noted that the highly
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competitive market for increasingly scrutinizing students desiring a professional
education has forced Mercer to implement professional programs that are differentiated
from other institutions.
Leadership
To examine the issue of leadership in a time of transformation, the researcher asked
the following questions:
1. How do Mercer University’s leaders balance the institution’s liberal education values
and goals while, at the same time, introduce professionally-oriented programs?
Respondents indicated that many professional programs, especially those in the
medical field, have established mainly professional curriculum due to the constraints of
governing bodies. However, it was frequently noted that many programs, including the
law school, medical school, theology school, and business school, incorporate liberal
education into curricula. Further, leadership consistently speaks of the CLA as the
cornerstone of the institution and ensures its well-being.
2. Describe the most prevalent attributes and actions of leadership that has enabled
successful transformation?
As previously mentioned, creating and communicating a clear vision, facilitating
shared governance, imposing high expectations, entrepreneurial actions, managing
resistance, role modeling, obtaining the support of the Board of Trustees, and building
positive external relationships were attributes identified by respondents.
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3. What obstacles did Mercer University’s leaders encounter during the process of
transformation and how did they overcome these obstacles?
Respondents described how leadership exhibited these attributes as they
implemented steps in order to overcome challenges. Challenges discussed included
opposition, increased diversity and complexity, preservation of founding values, and
financing. Specific examples of how leadership managed these challenges will be
detailed.
Opposition
Sources of opposition. According to Respondent 2, most of the significant
turning points in developing Mercer into a comprehensive institution are somehow rooted
in controversy. Other respondents frequently described the high level of dissent created
from various entities throughout this transformation from a small liberal arts school with
a law school to a comprehensive university. Respondent 21 described universities as
conservative places in the sense that they are resistant to doing things differently than
they have done in the past. Some faculty members have responded favorably to
leadership expectations in relation to expansion and have risen to the challenge and
others believed that the traditional ways are best.
Many CLA faculty members have strongly resisted the addition of new colleges
and schools. Respondent 17 summarized the opposition of faculty by stating “Many felt
Mercer was moving away from its mission, diffusing emphases, and compromising
quality.” Respondent 18 described, more specifically, the resistance of the CLA when
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the medical and engineering schools were founded. They thought resources would be
taken from them and the focus on liberal education would be lost. According to
Respondent 15, the faculty members of the CLA have been very resistant to supporting
pre-professional programs as well. The respondent described the CLA’s department of
Christianity and described that, despite similar concentrations of study, the two programs
differ greatly. In contrast to Atlanta’s School of Theology, the CLA’s program does not
specifically prepare people for ministry. The respondent stated “I think that is shifting
some, but still I think the heart of the CLA.” According to Respondent 15, the focus of
the CLA has been, broadly speaking, the humanities and, therefore, these faculty sense
that the CLA’s mission is compromised if they give in to pre-professional programs.
Respondent 6 stated “The faculty has kept a tight commitment in that ideal and purpose
in the CLA.”
Financial concerns have also created resistance to expansion. Respondent 14
stated:
There was a significant sense in the older faculty that the building of new schools was having a significantly adverse effect on the CLA. There was a feeling that the endowment was being pillaged by starter funds. That certain amounts of the endowment were being pillaged by starter funds being transferred to these new entities. As a result, the CLA’s situation was deteriorating. The consequence, of course, was persistent questioning about admissions. Fear of lowering standards of students traditionally recruited. Students who may have been very poor, but bright. It became more of a question of how to get the bodies here and then see if we can get bodies who will pay.
Respondent 9 explained that faculty in the CLA were fearful of financial dissolution and
concerned about pressure to increase their student enrollment in order to increase revenue
and wanted student recruiting to remain selective in their recruiting.
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The rapid expansion of programs may have contributed to a budget deficit in the
late 1980s. Faculty members marched around the administrative building in Macon
wearing academic regalia, demanding the termination of President Godsey. According to
Respondent 18, the large amount of unrest created by the budget deficit in 1989 may have
“simply brought to the floor the discomfort so many had with all the changes that were
happening. They thought they were losing the university they once knew and that he
(Godsey) was changing it into something they didn’t recognize or approve of.”
Ultimately, the Board of Trustees chose to allow Godsey to get the institution out of its
financial dilemma.
Managing opposition. In order to manage resistance, Godsey took several
measures. First, respondents repeatedly discussed President Godsey’s support of dissent.
Respondent 21 stated that Dr. Godsey never held a grudge and that disagreeing with him
did not make you his enemy. Respondent 21 attributed President Godsey’s success to
that quality, to his appreciation of the significance of dissent, to tolerating disagreement,
to his belief that every person counts.
Dr. Godsey had a broad vision for how the university could continue to serve its
mission in an even more impactful way and had the courage and determination to pursue
that mission in the face of opposition from many different corners, according to
Respondent 21. Respondent 20 stated that it is important to listen to critics and try to
understand them, but, leadership must ultimately determine the right decision and move
forward. Respondent 18 stated that Kirby Godsey knew he had to get things done and he
knew he could not be popular all of the time. “Sometimes people kick and scream. They
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can’t see the vision. The leadership is not discouraged by that,” stated Respondent 9.
However, the respondent reported that widespread criticism does not happen at Mercer.
“This (working toward vision) is what needs to go on and what we are excited about.”
Respect for dissent has continued under President Underwood. Respondent 13
stated that Mercer’s leadership encourages lively conversation and has created a feeling
of confidence that “there will not be any retribution for dissent, for opinions or views that
are unlike the majority here. There is opportunity and encouragement for people with
different views to express those views collegially, of course. This respondent went on to
say that President Underwood has held up people who have dissented from the
mainstream here and that these individuals have gone on to see their views ultimately
accepted.
Secondly, respondents identified transparency as a means used by President
Underwood to overcome resistance. Respondent 14 discussed the difficulty of having an
informed conversation unless certain kinds of information are shared though this can be
difficult when it comes to fiscal matters since a lot of faculty’s anxiety hinges on fiscal
outcomes and plans. According to the respondent, it is good that President Underwood
meets every year with the faculty and staff, and with each department, to discuss financial
matters including accomplishments and challenges. Respondent 21 stated “Change is
even harder to bring about when there is suspicion and fear and the best way to counter
suspicion and fear is to be as transparent as you can possibly be.”
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Further, Respondent 17 explained that by sharing the budget with the faculty,
President Underwood is showing that that leadership is not simply taking resources away
from the core mission. According to the respondent, Underwood is demonstrating that
these resources that are committed to programs that support service and helping the
community ultimately funnel back in to support the core mission. As a result, people are
accepting the challenge throughout the schools and colleges to move forward, change,
and grow.
Respondent 21 stated “Current administration in the university, perhaps more than
in the past, endeavors to be transparent about what they are doing. They are very open
about what they are trying to achieve and how they are trying to achieve it.” Respondent
9 indicated an increase in the level of sharing information, budgetary or planning, with
the university community at large. Respondent 10 agreed, stating “There is a level of
transparency in terms of clearly knowing where our president is heading.” Respondent 9
explained that change is still not always welcome, but there is a greater understanding of
why things are happening.”
Ultimately, according to respondents, Mercer’s leadership has recognized and
understood critics, but made decisions to move the university toward its goals.
Respondent 9 stated that overcoming resistance becomes a matter of making sure the
mission and vision get interpreted. This may involve speaking individually with people
to settle any conflict.
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Increased Diversity and Complexity
Respondent 18 claimed that no university in the United States has experienced so
much change in a similar timeframe as has Mercer. “You look at other major schools and
the colleges and schools they have added. You might find one, maybe two. Mercer grew
from four to eleven schools and colleges.” Further, the respondent stressed the
magnitude of the programs added, emphasizing the medicine and engineering schools.
Under President Godsey’s direction, Mercer became the only university of its size in the
country to offer such diverse programs (Mercer University, n.d.b).
The fact that Mercer is a private institution means that it can develop programs
quickly because it is not answerable to a state legislature. Respondent 1 equated the
process to making sausage. You are pleased with the result, but you do not want to see
how it happened because a lot took place. However, Respondent 14 claimed that Mercer
has one of the most complex structures in the country, especially for its size, presenting
several challenges to leadership.
Respondent 10 felt the geographic separation and distinct cultures at each main
campus, Macon and Atlanta, actually allows both sides to thrive. The respondent stated
“If both sides are under one roof, you may experience more of a conflict than we
experience.” Respondent 6 expressed the same concern, stating “I think the biggest
obstacle Mercer has is that if it is not careful, it can compete with itself.” The respondent
used the example of the International Office. The English Language Institute was once
on both campuses. However, the program in Macon was closed in 2004 because it was
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difficult to go abroad and recruit students who were confused by multiple locations.
Respondent 6 referred to it as “information overload.” The Macon program did not get
many international students because they preferred Atlanta due to its familiarity. They
often did not even consider Macon because they had not heard of the city. Respondent 6
expressed felt regret that Macon students would no longer have exposure to the diversity
provided by these students.
Forming a University from Diversified Colleges, Schools and Programs.
Respondent 20 stated that early in President Godsey’s tenure, when Mercer was
comprised of four colleges, they had no connection with one another. The deans had
never even met together. Respondent 20 stated “It was not a university. It was a
collection of four schools that were separate and largely following their own course.”
The respondent revealed that the CLA in Macon would not transfer credits in from the
College of Arts and Sciences in Atlanta when it was still operating.
Several respondents reported that through the 1980s and 1990s as Mercer’s
colleges and schools were being founded, they were very much working independently.
According to Respondent 15, at this time it was understood that colleges and schools
were independent. Each was virtually in complete control of its budget. Each fall a
budget would be determined based on revenues of that college or school. Every school
had its own calendar, own policies, and there was no common tuition rate. Respondent 7
stated “I was witness to these four schools that didn’t really talk to each other at all much
that became a comprehensive university of eleven schools and colleges that were, in a
sense, spread out all over Georgia.” Respondent 14 explained that when he was hired at
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Mercer, the medical school was just forming. “They existed across the way in their new
building and they were too busy putting their new school together to have much
interaction with us.”
The identity of Mercer was undefined, according to respondents. The Respondent
7 described the dilemma presented by the complex arrangement and composition of
Mercer:
You had this traditional liberal arts school in Macon that was the heart of the school. Then you had this commuter college (in Atlanta) which had mostly older students. The question was: what is Mercer? People were confused about that. There was a sense of what do you do to define Mercer?
Respondent 15 agreed, noting that, due to the diversity of educational opportunities
offered, it was somewhat awkward for Mercer to draw both College of Continuing and
Professional Studies type students and those who are upwardly mobile.
According to Respondent 15, presently there are different ethuses in the two
locations. The respondent stated “If you talk to people in Atlanta, they will give you an
Atlanta world-view. If you talk to people in Macon, they will give you a Macon world-
view.” Respondent 14 agreed, stating “There has been a sense that we are less of a
university and more of a series of autonomous campuses and schools that, more often
than not, tend to operate for their own agendas as opposed for the university agenda.”
Further, academic units often compete for resources, according to respondents.
Respondent 2 recognized competitiveness and tension amongst academic units. For
example, “There are those in the liberal arts who grumble about the high salaries in the
medical school and the business school. But none of that seems debilitating.”
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Godsey led Mercer’s expansion into a complex array of colleges and schools;
Underwood is now taking initiative to unite the university. Respondents indicated that
part of current central administration’s ongoing agenda is to make the colleges and
schools come together as a single entity. Respondent 13 stated “I think over time a large
part of them (colleges and schools), to be truly powerful, will need to be part of a
university structure that is under Mercer University.” Respondent 2 discussed
leadership’s commitment to collaborations that improve the health of the overall
university. “I still think the argument has less to do with physical resources and more to
do with what is healthy for the college.”
Thus, according to Respondent 20, current leadership set out to determine what it
means to be to be a university and how to transform the existing collection of four
colleges into a university. More specifically, Respondent 14 stated that leadership
became determined to find an integrating factor to bring the schools together. However,
the process of uniting Mercer has been challenging. Respondent 13 stated “Each of these
colleges and programs that have been added has their own unique histories and ways of
doing things. They each have their own traditions that have to be honored.” Respondent
18 noted that it has been difficult to connect programs. The respondent used the example
of the School of Pharmacy and the CLA. There is no relationship between the two
entities except that some CLA students become pharmacy school students. However, the
pharmacy school is primarily comprised of students from all different places.
Further, individuals’ motives may inhibit building cohesiveness amongst
academic units. Respondent 1 described the struggle to promote collaboration when
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individuals’ interests are vested in their own colleges and departments. Often, faculty
comes to a university for a reason and they settle in and do their own thing. He stated
that he would tell department chairs to fight for what is right for the department and let
the upper administrators worry about the institution.
Respondent 1 expressed concern about Mercer’s bureaucracy. The respondent
explained that because you have 11 deans representing 11 schools and colleges, along
with department chairs, bureaucracy tends to become a major issue. “Schools like
Mercer can become so vertical you sort of lose touch with what is really going on.” The
respondent believes that larger schools can function as individual units. However,
smaller schools need an infrastructure that supports communication amongst academic
units.
Despite these challenges, respondents overwhelmingly indicated that Mercer
leadership, under the direction of President Underwood, is taking action to create a true
university by unifying the collection of 11 colleges and schools established by President
Godsey. Respondent 1 used the term “trans-institutional” to describe the conversion of,
at the time, ten individual schools into one collective university. Respondent 13
described the efforts of current Mercer leadership:
I think we have created a different model here where there is more of an emphasis on bringing things together rather than splitting them apart, separating them. You can see that in (administration) trying to get schools and colleges to work together. Trying to bring the classroom to the world, and bring research projects together. Frankly, we think the 20th century has been the century of specialization and fragmentation. I think what we will see in the 21st century is the century of interdisciplinary studies. Bringing these pieces back together again.
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For example, in 2000, during Godsey’s tenure, Mercer began its Southern
Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) reaccreditation process which required a
quality enhancement plan (QEP). Mercer decided to focus on increasing the
cohesiveness of the colleges and schools both academically and in student experience.
Respondent 1 indicated this was necessary because, often, colleges had to rely on one
another. For example, when the nursing program expanded to the Macon campus, the
CLA had to supply new or add nursing-specific programs to their curriculum. The
current SACS reaccreditation process has encouraged the revision of the general
education program offered by the CLA. Respondent 10 stated that the new general
education curriculum is cross-disciplinary, incorporating faculty members from all
academic units into its development. Respondent 1 reported that general education
revision has gone very smoothly: “Where ten years ago it would have been a rough road.
So people understand there is a symbiosis between the units of the university that really
determines our livelihood.”
In terms of curriculum, another effort to increase cohesiveness amongst academic
units is the undergraduate and graduate councils. To ensure undergraduate programs are
aware of curriculum changes in other colleges and schools that may impact general
degree required courses, an undergraduate curriculum committee was formed during
President Godsey’s tenure according to Respondent 13. Prior to that, each school and
college had its own curriculum committee that did not necessarily share information with
others. Because of the undergraduate curriculum committee, if the engineering school
decides to drop the first-year seminar program requirement from its curriculum, for
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example, the change will ripple through the undergraduate programs. Class scheduling
would need to be altered, otherwise classes would not be full. Respondent 1 expressed
the importance of this in terms of limited resources, stating “Most of our costs are tied up
in people, faculty, and so we found out that we needed to communicate much better.”
Respondent 1 further explained that Mercer has improved communication efforts
the past five years under President Underwood. He stated that Provost Wallace Daniel
has worked hard to make sure academic units communicate. He developed a graduate
council that approves any curriculum change within a graduate program and
communicates modifications to all programs. Respondent 1 stated “so everybody knows
what everyone is doing.” Respondent 1 revealed that the graduate council, a committee
through which any graduate school curriculum change must be approved, consists of
representatives of each school: “So, the school of medicine actually has a vote, in terms
of curriculum, of what the theology school may want to develop.”
The founding of academic programs under President Underwood’s leadership has
increased cohesiveness amongst colleges and schools. New academic programs often
require collaboration amongst academic units, increasing the sense of unification. For
example, Respondent 2 stated that the new global health program has led to a
collaborative effort between the School of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, School of
Law, CLA, and School of Business and Economics.
Under President Underwood, faculty members are encouraged to promote the
unification of academic units. Mercer administration offers Academic Initiative Money
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(AIM) to faculty and staff applicants to be used to develop a pilot project. According to
Respondent 9 “The only way you are going to get that is if you do something that is
cross-college or cross-department. They (administrators) put a lot of money where their
mouth is.” The respondent continued by saying “If you want to do something new,
creative, you will get the attention of the administration and they will be much more
inclined to partner with you and help you along. Resources are tight and they are going
to put money where they think there is going to be a return on that investment in
reputation, enrollment, or both.”
Mercer has also initiated a program called a lyceum. Respondent 8 described it as
a way of integrating what is going on in the classroom with co-curricular life and service
by hosting large-scale thematic conferences. The current theme is rebuilding democracy.
The ultimate goal is to get all of the different programs, academic and others, on both
campuses, to tie into this theme in some way, building cohesiveness.
The constant emphasis on Mercer’s founding vision is communicated university-
wide, promoting cohesion, according to respondents. Respondent 19 felt Mercer
leadership historically maintains Mercer’s founding vision. Respondent 21 agreed,
stating that adherence to certain core values will unite an institution in the face of all of
this diversity. Liberal arts values are emphasized university-wide at Mercer. For
example, Respondent 8 described how the dean of the CLA has promoted the inclusion of
liberal education into other programs. One of the things he has done is ask all the other
academic units to list classes that could be options within the CLA general education
courses, linking the two units. For example, if there is a requirement for an ethics class, a
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CLA student could fulfill it by taking an ethics class offered by the School of
Engineering. Colleges and schools are connected by this integration of course work.
Additionally, guest speakers such as philosopher Dr. David Gushey are invited to both
campuses, promoting liberal education. Respondents consistently noted leadership’s
constant focus on connecting academic units by relating each to Mercer’s core values.
Respondent 19 attributed the cohesion of the university to open communication
historically encouraged by leadership. For example, one of the first efforts to promote
communication amongst schools was taken by Godsey when he initiated regular meetings
amongst deans according to Respondent 20. Respondent 1 stated that President
Underwood also promotes inclusiveness by encouraging discussion. Respondent 13
described the importance of communication when creating a cohesive university by
stating:
I think the administration can provide a vision, but the vision can never be disconnected from the faculty and students. It has to be connected. You do this by encouraging a rich conversation. Listening to people. Understanding there are many diverse ways to get to the goal. You don’t impose that, you listen carefully to people. Then you understand what drives people and what makes them passionate about things.
Respondent 1 agreed, stating “The biggest thing is that you have to communicate better
as you grow. We have to know what other people are doing and what folks are thinking.”
Respondent 6 simply stated “through dialogue,” when asked how to increase the
cohesiveness of Mercer academic units. More specifically, Respondent 8 stated,
“Dialogue that supersedes any one program but is also tied into action is important.”
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Respondent 2 described the current status of communication at Mercer: “There is
an ethos in the university of openness. I don’t have any impediments. If I want to get on
the telephone and talk to someone in the business school about a project, first of all, I
don’t have to get permission, and second of all, no one is going to say I am out of my
realm.”
Respondent 10 described how leadership has increasingly used service learning to
facilitate cohesiveness. Respondents repeatedly described President Underwood’s efforts
to unify Mercer based on service to others. Faculty from various academic units have
been encouraged to come together in ways to make the experience of Mercer students
really count for something and go beyond the walls of individual schools according to
Respondent 10. According to the respondent:
It is so easy to get narrowly focused, but we don’t seem to allow that here. Service learning is university-wide. Even though something may have been started or embraced in small pockets, we take the best of those small pockets and look at how we can open them up university-wide so that every student can enjoy it and get a good learning experience at Mercer. I love tearing down those walls and educating students with a common purpose.
To further unite the institution, service learning and ethics were formally
identified as the focus in the most recent QEP proposal under President Underwood
according to Respondent 15. The intent was to select either service learning or ethics. In
the end both were chosen, with the undergraduate programs emphasizing service learning
and the professional and graduate schools focusing on ethics. However, according to
Respondent 15, both have been fabricated into every academic unit. “It is in the DNA of
the university. Down the line of schools, there is a commitment to service.”
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The development of student growth experiences, such as Mercer on Mission, a
program initiated by President Underwood, has also promoted collaboration. Respondent
10 explained how Mercer on Mission has integrated programs by describing a situation in
which an English teacher took a group of students on a mission consisting of more than
just English students.
It is the religion teacher and the English teacher taking medical students, education students, graduate students, CLA students. They are coming together in ways to make the experience of our students really count for something and go beyond just the narrow, defined walls of their particular college or school.
Respondents indicated that Mercer leadership, under both Godsey and
Underwood has realized that, in order for the once segmented institution to continue to
grow to become a true university, compromises must be made. For example, decisions
regarding programs require collaboration. Respondent 1 stated, “The President can’t just
start a new major in the CLA. A group of faculty members and administrators talked
about starting a public health major for ten years as a group before we finally got it up
and running.” The respondent continued “Because you have to work together, you have
to bring some sort of compromise and that is tricky sometimes.”
In a similar vein, Respondent 20 stated “It is better to come together and reason
together than to simply shout at each other.” The respondent felt Mercer leadership is
committed is committed to a course of reason. However, Respondent 19 revealed that
this requires a lot of schools and colleges making sacrifices. Respondent 20 noted “I
think you ought to know what you stand for and be willing to go to the wire for certain
things, but most steps forward are made through compromise and by finding a common
ground.”
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Several respondents indicated that they felt that they are beginning to come
together more than ever before. Respondent 19 felt leadership is reaching its goal of
creating a true university. “I think leadership as in the President, the Provost, and former
President Godsey are very engaged with the faculty, deans of the schools, trying to
become cohesive. Not just eleven different little kingdoms between Atlanta and Macon.”
Respondent 16 recognized President Underwood’s strong efforts in trying to get schools
to work together to create joint programs. The respondent, however, concluded that
schools still act independently of each other. However, the respondent stated “As far as I
can tell, at this university people are pushing in one direction in terms of mission. It’s a
positive direction. It’s a tribute to leadership.” Respondent 8 stated “Everywhere I have
worked has talked about collaboration between faculty and staff. But I think this is the
first institution where I felt it is actually happening. According to Respondent 15,
“Increasingly, there has been a centralizing process. We are now aware that when one
college suffers or prospers, we all suffer or prosper.” The respondent used the example
of supporting the business and economics school in recent years as they have struggled
financially for the good of the entire university. Respondent 8 agreed, stating “Now I am
seeing a kind of putting back together of programs.”
The Preservation of Founding Values
Publications indicate that the Mercer University remains dedicated to its liberal
arts foundation. The CLA remains the cornerstone of Mercer’s educational programs
(Staton, 2003). As the university has been transformed into a comprehensive institution,
the leadership of the university has insisted that the purpose of Mercer University is “to
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offer undergraduate, graduate, and professional programs based upon a strong liberal arts
foundation” (Mercer University, 2006). Mercer seeks to integrate liberal education with
professional training within the context of a smaller, student-centered university (Staton,
2003). This notion was summarized by one of Mercer’s earlier presidents, Rufus
Washington Weaver, who described Mercer as “large enough to meet every standard,
small enough to meet every student” (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). Spright Dowell,
president from 1928 to 1953, described Mercer’s mission as educational excellence
pursued from a Christian perspective (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).
Through the statements and actions of President Godsey and President
Underwood described in publications and by respondents, this dedication to liberal
education in light of increased comprehensiveness continues. According to Respondent
2, “I think some of the leadership of the university, from the president and provost on
down, are still very much aware of the origins of the comprehensive university and some
of the values of the CLA.” Respondent 20 agreed, stating “I do think there is a strong
commitment to the liberal arts by the current administration.” Concurring, Respondent
15 stated that the university has supported the CLA by seeing that the program is really at
the heart of the university. “In some sense, there is the assumption that the university can
be strong only if the CLA is strong,” according to the respondent. Respondent 4 also
agreed, stating “Mercer really can’t be all it aspires to be without having a high quality
liberal arts program.”
Respondents indicated that protecting Mercer’s heritage has been a challenge to
President Underwood. Respondents did not report on the efforts of President Godsey in
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this respect. According to Respondent 14, “We are still feeling our way toward
implementing liberal arts campus-wide.” Respondent 20 stated that CLA faculty
members have, at times, thought Mercer has not maintained a focus on the liberal arts.
They have feared they were being marginalized. The respondent stated “In my view,
they were not and should never be. You have to continue to say it, to speak of the
centrality of the liberal arts, and you have to translate it into the natural priorities of the
university.”
Underwood has maintained that the liberal arts are the cornerstone of Mercer
University in voice and in action. For example, in 2006, his inaugural year, President
Underwood charged the University Planning Council with developing a vision statement
and a comprehensive, ten-goal strategic plan to support it. One of the goals identified in
the plan that emerged from the planning process clearly states that the university should
strive to “further enhance the learning environment to engage students in challenging,
holistic, and transformational learning,” the values of a liberal education (Mercer
University Board of Trustees, 2008).
Measures to Maintain Liberal Arts Foundation with Changing Demands
Respondent 13 stated that in order to maintain and enhance the liberal arts
foundation at Mercer, leadership must understand the heritage of the university.
Respondent 14 felt President Underwood highly values the liberal arts. The respondent
stated that he comes from a liberal arts background, so he is generally sympathetic.
“They need to understand what has been built here and build on that foundation.”
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Respondent 13 felt that leadership and service are what make Mercer what it is as a
liberal arts institution and it is these that leadership wants to deepen, explore, and enlarge.
Overwhelmingly, respondents indicated that leadership repeatedly speaks about
liberal arts as the cornerstone of Mercer as an effort to adhere to founding missions. “I
feel the university articulates that (liberal arts values) well. In a way, the CLA is the
heart. They are so fiercely committed to radiating out to all the schools and colleges,”
according to Respondent 17. Respondent 1 stated “You have to remind people of it.
What are we trying to do? You need a president providing that leadership showing what
a Mercer education means, which translates into the provost reminding the deans who are
reminding the department chairs.” Respondent 14 agreed, noting present leadership does
emphasize Mercer’s values by stating that “both Wallace and the president routinely
remark on the significance and importance of liberal arts.” Respondent 7 explained
“when you trust people to communicate the message broadly, it doesn’t always happen.”
The respondent continued by stating the importance of higher leadership speaking of the
importance of liberal education and when they do, that the resonance of vision across
campus results. According to Respondent 7, “The message is loud and clear.”
Respondents also explained that President Underwood speaks about Mercer and
its liberal arts foundation externally in places like churches and high schools. According
to Respondent 7, “I receive the message publicly. At every venue, from opening
convocation, trustees’ meetings, and commencements to public venues, leadership is
always talking about the mission of the institution and at the core is always the liberal arts
element.”
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Respondent 5 indicated that CLA faculty members also communicate the
importance of the liberal arts as the foundation of Mercer. Respondent 8 stated “I think
the dean of the CLA has shown a lot of leadership and has done a good job changing the
way faculty think of general education (a component of the CLA).” Further, according to
Respondent 5, “CLA faculty are constantly asserting this is our primary identity. Faculty
are tenacious. They are like pit bulls that will not let go.” According to the respondent,
when faculty fear the higher administration is losing sight of Mercer’s primary mission,
they try to reassert that identity. CLA faculty invite administration into their classrooms
to ensure they understand who and what they are. They also attend admissions events to
communicate the liberal arts vision of Mercer to potential students. Additionally, CLA
faculty try to attract students who are not necessarily interested in pre-professional
programs and who want to be CLA students.
Respondents also indicated that leadership promotes the liberal arts through
financial and other types of program support. According to Respondent 20, leadership
looks specifically at the CLA budget to ensure it is receiving adequate support.
According to Respondent 5, “It (leadership) supports the liberal arts in these tangible
ways. It’s money. It’s faculty.” For example, throughout the transformation, leadership
has put priority on the development and improvement of liberal arts facilities even when
buildings were being constructed for new colleges and schools. Additionally,
Respondent 15 stated that leadership will use other programs to “prop up” the CLA
financially for the good of the entire university. The addition of a Greek village, the
University Center, and improved athletic programs, including the addition of
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intercollegiate football are examples of measures taken by leadership to improve student
life for undergraduate CLA students in Macon. Further, traditions such as homecoming,
currently emphasized by President Underwood, have enriched student experience.
Other efforts to promote Mercer’s CLA are also evident. Respondent 5 explained
that through the Center for Teaching of the Western Heritage, a program which Dr.
Underwood has initiated, a faculty member hosted a National Endowment for the
Humanities summer institute program in which high school teachers from all over the
country participated. The goal was not only to provide opportunities for the participants
to learn and experience the subject matter, but to encourage teachers to promote Mercer
to their students. CLA faculty hoped they would attract students interested solely in a
liberal arts program rather than pre-professional program. The medical humanities major
is another effort to support the role of liberal arts. Respondents viewed this program as a
humanities alternative for pre-medical students. When discussing the medical humanities
major, Respondent 5 stated “That’s a way to infuse a broader kind of liberal arts
program.”
Mercer leadership has recognized that changes must be made to remain relevant
to society. For example, online hybrid courses, to be discussed later, are now offered.
However, respondents emphasized Mercer’s transformation as it related to changing
student demands. Respondent 14 reported that Mercer is wrestling with how to re-orient
the liberal arts for a new generation of vocationally-oriented students. Respondent 12
supported leadership’s efforts to refine Mercer’s offerings, stating “We never grow and
mature if the status quo remains as is, and the foundation of education is to grow, learn,
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and mature.” Respondent 9 agreed, stating “If we are going to be viable and effective
and attractive, we have to find the middle ground of practical and liberal arts tradition.”
For example, leadership has encouraged the development of programs that might offer
science students alternatives within the humanities, rather than traditional science
programs, such as global health and medical humanities. However, Respondent 5 noted
that the global health program contains a large number required courses, limiting
opportunities for electives. Also, the general education revisions previously discussed
are designed to update curricula to make them more attractive to today’s students,
according to Respondent 5. According to the respondent, however, this may limit
students’ exposure to a wide array of educational opportunities, a value of liberal
education. The respondent stated “The administration tells us students are different now.
Apparently, they don’t choose fun stuff, they just want to look at things that just check
off categories, so they are not upset by restrictions. Do what you are told. It’s pretty
easy. Don’t give me freedom, I don’t know what to take when I have 30 courses to
choose from.”
Several respondents indicated an increased emphasis on research. Mercer
University now meets the Carnegie Foundation’s criteria for classification as a research-
doctoral university. Over the past three years, the number of doctoral-level students has
increased from about 25 to over 200. The amount of externally funded dollars has risen
to more than $25 million (Mercer University, n.d.b). Respondent 6 stated:
I think what is different now is there has been a shift from teaching-oriented faculty to teaching with a research emphasis. We now see faculty doing research with undergraduate student and publishing. We see faculty doing their own research initiatives. They are getting outside grants and finding funding. Part of
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it is programmatic and part of it is scholastically-driven. So, I see us taking on more of that kind of role and trying to be more innovative within a cultural framework we have preserved and will continue to preserve.
Respondent 13 explained that Mercer is trying to bring research and teaching together.
Leadership encourages research by both faculty and students. The provost regularly
meets with junior faculty members conducting research to discuss their projects. They
receive funds to travel and conduct their research in the summer. Also, according to
Respondent 13, the number of undergraduate research papers and presentations has
skyrocketed the last several years.
Views of the impact of increased focus on research on liberal arts values varied.
Respondent 13 felt that research is framed by the liberal arts:
It’s what we call a discovery university. It’s a university that wants students to push out frontiers of knowledge. A university that wants to look at the world anew. A university that wants to raise questions about society, about morality, about ethics, about leadership in the world. The University wants to encourage students to be good communicators, good speakers, good writers, the University wants students to read primary sources and to look at them with fresh eyes as if you are discovering for the first time. The University wants to emphasize a higher level research in the sciences and health sciences. I think also in the humanities and the traditional fields.
The respondent stated that Mercer is trying to expand teaching to teaching and research.
Respondent 20 agreed:
I think you have strong research institutions that are defined more by research than by liberal arts. But, I think the character of Mercer is that the liberal arts, by which I mean the large human questions, are questions important in every discipline. That we are not simply doing research. We are doing research for the cause of humanity. We know why we are doing research and why we are practicing medicine. To advance civilization, to advance the human cause. To enable people the tools to make a living, which are important, but we are about changing the center of gravity of a person’s life.
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Respondent 13 provided examples of research at Mercer that may be viewed as
unconventional—a poet in the English department who has had severe bouts with cancer
has published books of poetry that have been recognized nationwide, a faculty member in
the history department has published multiple texts about topics like southern history,
southern food, southern folk ways, and the history of the south, and biology and
chemistry faculty members are doing exploratory research in the laboratory and
publishing. Members of the administration still have their personal research agendas as
well.
Some respondents viewed the transition differently. Respondent 6 described a
more prevalent focus on doctoral programs and research, concluding that there has been a
shift from more teaching-oriented instruction with hands-on application, more
representative of professional education. For example, the International Office is
bringing in post-doctorate students from India and China solely to conduct bio-medical
research with faculty from other institutions including the Mayo Clinic and the University
of Florida. Respondent 6 felt this is an indication of changing the culture from a teaching
institution to a research-oriented institution.
Evidence of the preservation of liberal arts values. Leadership provides
students with experiences both in and out of the classroom that promote liberal education.
First, Mercer University’s curriculum and instruction are indicative of their dedication to
its foundational values. From the foundation of the law school in 1873, the first
professional program at Mercer, liberal arts values have been infused into professional
curricula. The law school’s philosophy is rooted in liberal education by emphasizing
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problem-solving skills, counseling skills, trial and appellate advocacy skills as well as
legal knowledge. Today, the law school is committed to a high degree of student and
faculty interaction by maintaining small class sizes (Mercer University School of Law,
n.d.). Respondent 13 stated “I think legal education is primarily arts and sciences in
terms of speaking and reading primary sources and in writing and in critical thinking.
The two go hand-in-hand.”
Respondent 17 also explained how Mercer curriculum design supports liberal
education.
What you hear all around the university is talk about developing critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, vigor for inquiry, discovery, integration, synthesis. When we build curriculum, we ensure that the student learning outcomes for every single course integrates the development of these skills. The principles of liberal learning are instilled.
According to the respondent, professional schools not only incorporate liberal education
in the form of actual liberal arts courses, but it is integrated in the instruction of
professional courses. Respondent 9 explained that this method of infusing liberal arts at
Mercer is an applied liberal education. The respondent used a required political science
course as an example. “The political science requirement is not just because political
science is a good thing and everyone needs to know about it. It’s how you are going to
teach political science in a context that engages students to really think critically about
those issues and not just read about it in a textbook. How are you going to use that in a
practical way?”
Several examples of liberal education experiences in the classroom were provided
by respondents. When the medical school was founded, according to Respondent 2,
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leadership had the attitude “let us see if we can take a risk and do a medical school in a
nontraditional way.” The medical school is built on problem-based learning. “Our
school was the first medical school to teach in a new way of learning; case-based
learning, issue-based, problem-based. That’s liberal learning,” according to Respondent
17. Respondent 17 then described how the business school focuses on reading and
writing; analyzing text, processing information, and solving problems. Repeatedly, it
was noted that the College of Continuing and Professional Studies, which offers degrees
in the humanities, is experiencing great growth in liberal education in general due to its
increasing number of students.
Respondent 16 noted that Mercer professional programs incorporate a large
number of general education courses compared with those at other institutions, increasing
the number of liberal arts courses taken. For example, the engineering school
incorporates liberal arts courses into its curriculum while the Georgia Institute of
Technology does not. According to Respondent 9, “The engineering students, for
instance, I think are better trained than Georgia Tech students because they have smaller
classes, more leadership opportunities, courses for group projects and learning how to
speak an communicate that keep the liberal arts themes going.” However, the respondent
noted that some professional programs, specifically health science programs, do not have
much leeway in their curricula due to firm guidelines to incorporate liberal arts courses.
Respondent 18 also noted the difficulty some programs have incorporating liberal
education into curricula. For example, health fields often have lock-step curricula due to
the requirements of their professional affiliates.
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Even co-curricular activities strive to incorporate liberal education. According to
Respondent 8, the emphasis on critical thinking, diversity, and competence in expression
are incorporated into student activities outside of the classroom. In addition, school clubs
and athletic teams participate in service activities.
Liberal arts institutions are often differentiated by their student-centeredness,
characterized by a high degree of student-teacher interaction, small class sizes, and
decisions made in the interest of students. Early evidence of the focus on student-
centeredness began when President Gambrell began offering elective courses in 1896.
President Spright Dowell went so far as to use his own funds to help students fund their
educations (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). Respondents revealed that presently classes are
student-centered, supporting Mercer’s liberal arts foundation. Additionally, Mercer
distinguishes itself because, in most academic units, only full-time faculty members teach
courses, as opposed to adjunct professors according to Respondent 1. The respondent
also indicated that class sizes are small, as opposed to other schools that have a large
number of students in single classes, especially introductory courses. Mercer offers
several sections of the same course to increase student-teacher interaction. According to
the respondent, “Faculty members know what is going on in their students’ lives. They
look beyond what takes place in the classroom.”
Online courses also demonstrate student-centeredness. Respondent 1 discussed
the decision to offer hybrid courses that consist of both in-class and online components.
“Where there’s interface directly with the students and there is a remote piece. That’s a
pretty good balance for us. And part of it is for the students’ sake. If you have an online
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course that gives them the flexibility to go out and work.” The respondent defended a
liberal arts institution conducting a course with no face-to-face interaction, stating “I
would rather have them have a piece of me than none of me. Because these students
were going home and going to a community college (over the summer), I had no quality
control over the course.” Respondent 1 also felt online courses promote liberal learning.
“I can teach a mode of learning half online and half in person. They are learning in a
different way do to a different way of delivering content. They are challenged to learn in
a different way. To communicate in a different way. To exercise discipline.”
Interdisciplinary instruction is another trademark of the liberal arts. As previously
discussed, respondents cited efforts to increase the inclusion of various academic fields.
For example, according to Respondent 15, the development of tracks and dual degree
programs has increased, promoting collaboration and inclusion. Additionally, the Center
for the Teaching of the Western Heritage has grouped faculty from various academic
units to develop a curriculum that takes existing programs and repackages them to create
a new, interdisciplinary major which is another example of interdisciplinary course work.
Respondent 5 explained that this program is attractive to existing students already in the
participating programs and that it is supported by administration because it does not
require a lot of resources. The faculty and resources are in place, they are just being
shuffled around to align with the new major.
Because Mercer was founded as a Baptist ministerial institution, spirituality is a
foundational value. Baptist origins are supported by a program designed for students, the
University Commons. The University Commons was created in 2000 to sponsor
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meetings and seminars to help students “recognize their life’s calling in light of their
faith, education, and abilities.” It aims to connect all eleven colleges and schools based
on common concerns and refocus them toward their common founding values (Mercer
University Commons, n.d.).
Mercer leadership’s commitment to foundational values is also evident in its
support of academic freedom. According to Respondent 14, because Mercer is a faith-
based school, it has a slightly different concept of liberal arts than non-sectarian schools.
Mercer has a strong commitment to freedom of inquiry and teaching grounded in Baptist
principles (Mercer University, n.d.b). Jesse Mercer stated “Religion and ignorance
cannot co-exist,” indicating the importance of giving ministers the freedom to explore
issues beyond the doctrines of the church. According to Respondent 3, it is surprising
that, considering he was from the South and the timeframe in which he actively engaged
in Mercer processes, Jesse Mercer valued those precious freedoms. Respondent 3
explained that many faith-based schools require loyalty oaths. Faculty members promise
only to teach within the doctrine of the associated church. From its foundation, Mercer
has not made this restriction. In fact, it has encouraged the freedom to explore and
question established norms.
Respondents frequently described how the rise of modernism initiated tension
between the Georgia Baptist Convention (GBC) and Mercer University. The relationship
was frequently described as long and contentious. Respondent 2 detailed the dilemma
faced by Mercer University leadership. In 1939, the Heresy trial was held. Thirteen
students accused Mercer professors of teaching ideas that contradicted the doctrines of
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the Baptist church in regards to Bible and creation. According to Respondent 2, “They
had to decide if they had the courage of their convictions for a science curriculum of if
they would cave in to the religious opposition to Darwinism. Mercer chose the courage
of their convictions. To teach without fear of what you might learn and vice versa.” The
professors were cleared of the charges.
Academic freedom in more recent times was discussed by respondents.
According to Respondent 14, President Godsey was a strong Baptist, but was not the kind
of Baptist a lot of the leadership of the GBC liked. “There was constant tension,”
according to the respondent. President Godsey, in so many cases, prevailed over more
conservative elements. For example, several respondents discussed the GBC
condemnation of President Godsey when he published the book, When We Talk about
God, Let’s Be Honest. Respondent 14 noted that, as a philosopher, religious studies was
a subject of President Godsey’s expertise. However, members of the GBC did not find
the text doctrinal and questioned Godsey’s role as president. According to Respondent
20, in a vote of 3,000 members, they voted 2,000 to 1,000 that Godsey be censured.
They also wanted him to be terminated by the Board of Trustees. President Godsey
requested a meeting of the Board of Trustees to allow the head of the GBC to speak about
the reasons why he should be terminated. At the end of the meeting, a trustee stated that
if the president of this university is not free, nobody in the university is free. This
concluded the issue according to Respondent 20.
President Godsey supported the academic freedom of faculty members during the
budget deficit faced in 1989. Many faculty members attributed the deficit to the rapid
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expansion of colleges and schools. President Godsey did not oppose his own faculty
members protesting outside his office to have him fired. Respondent 18 stated that there
were times he would even send out lemonade. “He didn’t even flinch. He moved
forward.”
The tension between Mercer leadership and the GBC reached a boiling point
when the GBC expressed opposition to the formation of a gay-lesbian student group at
Mercer according to several respondents. The GBC and Mercer decided to sever ties in
2005 when it was realized that the GBC could not govern the decisions of Mercer
leadership the way other conventions control their partner institutions. According to
Respondent 7, “The GBC did not support what we do and we can’t adhere to their
expectations of us.” Respondent 20 agreed, stating “The relationship needed to be
discontinued because the differences that divided us had become so great that we needed
to go our separate ways in a friendly manner so the convention could pursue its work
without the encumbrance of the university and Mercer could pursue its work without the
encumbrance of the GBC.” The two parties ultimately dissolved their relationship in a
cooperative process.
To further support academic freedom, Respondent 13 reported that the speakers
invited to Mercer are from all points of view. The respondent remarked on the
conversations that take place including those regarding sex trafficking, creation, the
environment, social justice, and immigration. Often, programs such as conferences result
from these conversations. For example, when students and faculty members discussed
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sex trafficking in the Macon area, they decided to collaborate and host a conference about
the issue. The conference has led to national recognition and new laws in the area.
Respondent 2 stated “I can happily report that, over my tenure, the university has
been very good about maintaining a necessary separation to protect academic freedom as
opposed to being dictated by the Georgia Baptist Convention, for example. Part of that
mission has been to maintain the liberal arts in ways that are not all together comfortable
for all of our constituents.” Prior to severing ties with the GBC, President Godsey would
support academic by stating that we are a university and we must be free. According to
Respondent 14, Godsey felt that no group other than the Board of Trustees can be
allowed to control the university. Therefore, according to Respondent 13, all issues are
on the table. The respondent stated:
Key issues in our society, issues of K-12 education, issues of environmental health, issues of the whole health of our society, issues of individuals being recognized as worthy individuals, all of those have been strongly emphasized by this university.
The respondent felt that is what differentiates Mercer from other institutions, stating, “I
don’t think UGA can do that.”
President Underwood became president shortly after the separation. Respondent
2 felt that the new president was given the gift of a clean slate by no longer struggling to
meet the expectations of the GBC, but the responsibility of maintaining Mercer’s Baptist
heritage without this organic affiliation with the church. To maintain its religious
foundation, President Underwood has cultivated relationships with American Baptists.
He and former President Jimmy Carter held a four day convention in 2008 promoting
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their idea of the new Baptist covenant. Further, respondents noted that the Atlanta
campus’ administrative building has become the repository for the archives of the
American Baptist Historical Society. These relationships have not impeded academic
freedom at Mercer University.
Historically, social justice has been valued by the leaders of Mercer University.
President Gambrell supported co-education due to the addition of a department of
pedagogy in 1895. William Lowndes Pickard, president from 1914 to 1918 also led
movements toward co-education to serve women. Additionally, President George Boyce
Connell obtained Mercer’s membership into the American Association of University
Women, solidifying the institution’s dedication to providing women with educational
opportunities (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).
Mercer University was a leader in the civil rights movement as the first Georgia
private college or university to integrate in 1963 under President Rufus Harris’ leadership
(Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). During the 1960s, Mercer University welcomed African
students to campus, creating controversy. According to Respondent 2, this led to the
closing of the church that was on campus named Tattnal Square Baptist Church. The
church denied the membership of Sam Oni, a student from Ghana, who was a product of
Baptist mission work in Africa; he was recommended by alumnus, Harris Mobley, for
admission and enrolled and was funded by the university. When the church’s lease
expired in 1974, Mercer did not allow its renewal. The leadership staked out a claim for
social justice according to Respondent 2 who stated “and that’s been a part of our
heritage going all the way back to Jesse Mercer, but it was certainly refocused in the
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1960s.” The respondent continued by noting that Mercer University has the largest non-
Caucasian population of any public or private school in Georgia. Respondent 2 noted
that “this kind of leadership style from the President’s office down has been infused in
the character of Mercer.” According to Respondent 3, leadership often requests Sam Oni
to speak at various occasions as a tribute to Mercer’s pride in leading the civil rights
movement.
Respondents also pointed to other steps taken by Mercer’s leaders to promote
social justice. For example, according to Respondent 20, President Godsey recognized
that female faculty and staff members at Mercer were systematically paid less than men.
Upon accepting the presidency, he quickly corrected this inequity.
Respondent 3 described leadership’s support of the Mercer community when the
GBC attempted to prevent the observation of a gay-lesbian student organization on
campus during Godsey’s presidency as previously discussed. Faculty and students held a
campaign for gay rights that included a rally, campus publications, and a pledge
individuals signed to show their support. The GBC called for the firing of professors
who signed the statement, claiming it was not doctrinal. Leadership backed the
professors. “It was a movement in defense of not only academic freedom, but the
principle liberal arts values. So, instead of all of the animus hostility that creates a
poisoned atmosphere on campus, there was an atmosphere of nothing but respect and
solidarity here. Respondent 3 continued, stating “Ultimately, Dr. Godsey had to stand up
to the GBC and defend the principles of academic freedom and express his sadness that
after 173 years of affiliation, they were dissolving that precious and historic relationship.”
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According to the respondent, an artifact of this tense occasion, a letter from a leader of
this student organization to her mother, is actually published in the first-year student
reader to demonstrate Mercer’s values and show students new to Mercer who the student
leaders have been.
Respondent 9 raised the issue of providing educational opportunities to financially
challenged students and was concerned that Mercer no longer adheres to its tradition of
offering opportunities to students who might not have the opportunity to attend college.
The respondent indicated that the rural areas south of Macon have a low percentage of
people who attend college. Historically, Mercer has prided itself on providing
educational opportunities to this population whether it was minority students, first
generation college students, financially challenged students, or educationally challenged
students. However, due to finances and the desire to increase the university’s academic
profile, Respondent 9 felt these students are not as frequently joining the Mercer student
body. Respondent 16 mentioned the struggle Mercer has with dealing with students who
have less money to pay for an education, saying “How can we accommodate these
students?” Respondent 16 claimed that Mercer is generous when it comes to financial
needs for undergraduate students. However, Respondent 9 claimed that scholarship
funds are increasingly awarded to students with higher academic achievement to enhance
student quality rather than those who are challenged to attend college.
Lastly, Mercer leadership has promoted moral, ethical, and civic values both
through example and through the programs they have developed and supported
university-wide. The term “paideia” epitomizes Mercer’s dedication because it refers to
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educating students for responsible citizenship and virtuous lives (Mercer University,
n.d.b). Respondent 20 stated that as the comprehensiveness of the Mercer increased,
leadership deliberately set out to ensure that each school incorporated moral education
and demonstrated ethical behaviors. Service learning became a flagship of Mercer. “It
dawned on us that service could be embedded in everything we do. You can take
anything, club sports programs, student government, and do service projects. We read
the tea leaves, embraced it, and embedded it into our programs.” Therefore, as discussed
by almost every respondent, leadership has strongly promoted service learning
university-wide. Respondent 5 explained that Mercer leadership’s dedication to service
learning is evident because they are willing to financially support projects to support this
mission. Additionally, Respondent 3 stated that leadership has demonstrated its
dedication to ensuring that service is emphasized by creating a Vice Provost for Service
Learning, a position rarely found at colleges and universities.
Respondents also described Mercer’s commitment to improving the city of
Macon. Historically, according to respondents, Mercer has been interested in the larger
community. This was apparent in Mercer’s foundational motive to educate Baptist
ministers to serve south Georgian communities. In addition, President Gambrell created
a department of pedagogy to train teachers for the community during his tenure (1893 to
1896) (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).
Additionally. President Godsey led the development of the Mercer Center for
Community Development in 1998, to coordinate Mercer’s community outreach efforts
(Mercer Center for Community Development, n.d.). Respondent 2 noted that “Within the
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past 10 or 15 years, we can see evidence of commitment to a local community and
(Mercer) has become a major player in local renewal. That’s really unusual.”
Respondent 8 explained there once was a divide between the students and the
community. A lot of students did not know what it was like to be a member of the
Macon community. There may have been an isolated activity here or there. According
to the respondent, “Now, for example, we are sending our students out to tutor in schools
that serve disadvantaged students and work in community gardens. They are now
exposed to what the world is really like. If we want our students to be leaders in
combating the ills of the world, we can’t shelter them. We have to expose them to those
things.”
The Mercer Service Scholars (MSS) program was developed in 2000, during
Godsey’s tenure, to provide community service by students. Selected incoming students
are invited to join the program based on their commitment to leadership and service.
They take designated classes together, participate in leadership training and service
learning projects, and create and implement a community-based project to culminate their
four-year experience (Mercer Service Scholars, n.d.). MSS has coordinated and is
implementing a campaign called Local Engagement Against Poverty (LEAP). The goal
of LEAP is for members of the Mercer community to tally 10,000 hours of service (Local
Engagement Against Poverty, n.d.).
According to Respondent 8, “Giving back to the community, having that kind of
responsibility, has been put at the forefront of everyone’s consciousness.” Respondent 2
referred to Mercer as “glocal.” “Mercer is glocal, they have global horizon and local
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commitment.” The increased comprehensiveness may be attributed to President
Godsey’s vision to improve communities. “When you look at every school he started,
there is an emphasis on doing something special for Georgia,” according to Respondent
17. Additionally, many of these schools carry out functions to assist the community. For
example, according to Respondent 16, the law school has a strong law and public service
program that assists individuals who feel they have been wrongly incarcerated.
Professors and students review the case and verdict and assist the accused when they see
fit. President Underwood has continued and built upon Godsey’s efforts.
Mercer leadership has also strongly supported global service efforts, primarily
under President Underwood’s leadership. Respondents repeatedly identified Mercer on
Mission as an example of the service learning concept being encouraged by leadership.
“When President Underwood came to Mercer, he said his goal is to have 250 Mercer
undergraduates spend three weeks to a month in a developing country providing service
to the world and obtaining the very best of study abroad experiences,” stated Respondent
2. Respondent 8 stated that President Underwood aims to make Mercer on Mission a
cornerstone of the institution. Mercer on Mission blends study abroad and service
learning according to respondents. Students earn academic credit while assisting
individuals in developing countries. For example, groups of faculty and students have
distributed water and mosquito nets to villages in Africa, provided Vietnamese amputees
with prosthetic limbs, and taught children in Brazil. The university funds the travel and
in-country expenses of students. Students representing various academic units and
degree levels travel together and collaborate.
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When discussing service learning at Mercer, Respondent 8 tied in other critical
features of leadership including interdisciplinary efforts. According to the respondent,
dialogue should cross programs and be tied into action. “We have expressed what we
think we can do with this administration and now we have kind of been directed by
administration for it to happen. There is an awareness of this service learning concept
throughout the university.”
For example, Respondent 8 noted that Mercer on Mission is funded primarily
through Mercer, which may be criticized by academics due to financial challenges.
According to Respondent 8:
It’s hard to expand service programs without a budget. This is overcome because it is like apple pie. It’s hard not to support them. The students come back transformed. A student may have once said that they want to be an engineer, but they return saying that they want to be an engineer to help the world. You can’t help but be moved by it.
Respondent 13 agreed, stating “If I think about distinctiveness of this university, it is this
international service project and how it is transformative invariably to students who go
out and have these experiences.” The respondent explained that students’ views of the
world have really been changed. Further, in the long run, Respondent 8 felt Mercer on
Mission and other service learning projects will improve the recruitment of students.
Respondent 14 felt the entrepreneurial attitude of Mercer leadership encourages
the institution to continue to look for new ways to address the needs of the broader
community. “They tie institutional goals with actual community needs.” However, the
respondent noted that growth in service has been inconsistent, and that is the next test of
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Mercer leadership. Respondent 13 agreed, stating that leadership is currently challenged
to make these service experiences more than one-time experiences.
Successful Implementation of Founding Values. The success of maintaining
liberal arts values at Mercer was partially attributed by respondents in part to the hiring
practices of leadership. Leadership has been carefully selected according to Respondent
3. For example, the president, provost, and most of the senior administrative staff
obtained liberal arts educations. Respondent 3 felt this creates a trickle-down effect. At
the same time, Respondent 14 noted that Mercer has a poor track record of training
individuals to step into administrative roles. As a result, individuals from other
institutions are brought in to fill administrative roles as opposed to hiring internally.
Respondent 6 believed that careful attention is given to the selection of faculty
and staff at Mercer, that there are “some things you can train, and there are some things
that are just what they are. You have to find the right person who understands the
culture. Leadership aims to hire individuals who not only understand the culture, but take
ownership and contribute to it.” Respondent 9 stated “I think, in hiring, they look for
people who embrace that (liberal education).” “Respondent 17 noted that “we look for
faculty members who promote (liberal education). What do you do in your teaching to
encourage the development of these skills?” Interview processes are carefully planned
and meticulous according to Respondent 6. “Because they are trying to find a good fit.
One that is going to make both parties productive and flourish.” Individuals must believe
in and exercise the values of Mercer.
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Over the years, due to retirements, Respondent 9 indicated that the number of
naysayers has decreased. The respondent attributed this to the hiring of individuals who
are more open to change. The respondent was careful to explain that the selection of
employees does not aim to prevent dissent. Rather, the focus is on the contributions the
candidate can make toward Mercer’s vision. Leadership does not want “dead weight,”
according to Respondent 10. “We want to hire good folks who get very excited about
what Mercer is about.” Respondent 3 claimed that low faculty and leadership turnover
has resulted because individuals truly invest in Mercer.
Respondents spoke about Mercer leadership’s efforts to maintain founding values
in general. Respondent 1 described the challenge of providing a liberal education. “Life
would be a lot easier for us if we were not so rigorous. If we were like every other school
and jack up enrollments and become a degree mill.” The respondent explained that,
because liberal education challenges students not to simply regurgitate information, but to
take a base of knowledge and apply it to unique situations, often the work of a professor
is more difficult. For example, grading a multiple choice test based on facts takes less
time and effort than grading an essay that requires students to apply facts to a problem.
Respondents indicated that programs developed and supported by leadership
demonstrate their commitment to liberal education. Respondent 9 stated:
I think the former president and provost and the current president and provost set that tone by what you see that they really value. Some of the signature programs they highlight in board meetings like Mercer on Mission, service learning, some of the conferences held by and for students. It’s not just lip service. I think the president, provost and deans see that they need to take the liberal arts tradition and shape it and sell it in a way that is more than philosophical and intangible
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benefits to students, but is going to enrich their life in a way that will help them in their career.
The president constantly emphasizes that the Baptist heritage is not about spirituality, it is
about how you put faith into action. This belief is evident in the programs and efforts of
Mercer. Respondent 13 explained that leadership is seeking ways to use technology to
enrich teaching, make connections between the classroom and the world, provide richer
experiences to students, and encourage students to think about new world issues and
experience and address those issues. According to Respondent 20, these experiences:
Are not so much about giving people clear answers to life’s most perplexing problems, but they are about helping us sharpen our thinking, helping us to think more carefully, to speak more precisely, to be able to ask better questions, they are about advancing reason and civility in a world that that is often irrational and uncivil.
Respondent 1 stated that leadership strives to ensure that students take a base of
knowledge and apply it to unique situations. They value going beyond theoretical
learning. Mercer encourages people to think and dream in nontraditional ways, according
to Respondent 2. Further, Respondent 21 explained that a commitment to helping
students develop critical thinking skills, developing students’ oral and written
communication skills, and encouraging students to think about fundamental questions
like the meaning of life are evident in Mercer leadership’s efforts to maintain liberal arts
as the cornerstone of the institution. Overall, leadership emphasizes ethical and
responsible citizenship and an ethos of servant leadership according to Respondent 3.
Experiences are designed to support Mercer’s liberal arts heritage.
Some respondents indicated that Mercer has maintained its foundational values.
“It’s interesting to see how the question, what does it mean to be a Mercerian, has always
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remained the same in some respects,” according to Respondent 6. Repeatedly,
respondents stated that, despite the increased number of professional programs and the
reduced proportion of CLA students, the CLA remains the heart of the university.
Respondent 2 felt that the movement of becoming a comprehensive university has grown
out of the CLA. Respondent 17 stated “But, what I can sense the university has been true
to in all of this is the threading of liberal arts, the principles of liberal learning, the
capacities we want all students to hone, in celebration and support of liberal learning,
thread through the professional schools. Respondent 10 agreed, stating “I have been here
since 1987, so I’ve seen a lot of change. One thing Mercer has never changed is viewing
liberal arts as the core. Respondent 16 stated “We understand our past and what we are
about and our future. We have always had a firm grounding in the liberal arts. I haven’t
seen any faculty not embracing that idea.”
Competition for Students
One major challenge presented frequently by respondents was competition with
other colleges and universities. More specifically, they voiced their concern about the
competition created by the Helping Outstanding Pupils Educationally (HOPE)
scholarship, an academic achievement scholarship given to Georgia students who attend a
public college or university in Georgia. Students who meet specified academic standards
can attend public schools free of charge or receive partial scholarships. Respondent 8
noted that some of the state schools that Mercer is competing with, including the
University of Georgia and the Georgia Institute of Technology, are very reputable.
Respondent 1 simply stated “We are competing with free.”
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As previously discussed, the liberal education foundation of Mercer is viewed as a
differentiator that may improve its competitive strength. Respondent 9 explained that
students have become much more discerning of their opportunities. They are looking for
an educational experience that is different. Parents, on the other hand, are looking for
something that is worth the private school investment. According to the respondent, “I
think the President and Provost and deans see that they need to take that liberal arts
tradition and shape it and sell it in a way that is more than philosophical and intangible
benefits for students, but is going to enrich their life in a way that will help them in a
career. Being able to articulate that.”
Respondent 9 concluded that leadership does a good job of this and must in order
to compete. They are working hard from the top down on this effort. “What can we do
that is distinctive, what can we do that draws colleges and programs together in new
ways, how can we leverage the content areas of teaching in new ways only we can do?”
Respondent 14 agreed by describing leadership’s wrestling with how to re-orient the
liberal arts for a new generation of vocationally-oriented students. As a result, academic
programs like global health and medical humanities are being initiated to attract science
students to degrees within the humanities. Unique opportunities like Mercer on Mission
are supported by leadership to further attract students. According to Respondent 16, “We
have been able to maintain and increase enrollment and I think we basically have always
been able to, in recent history, create new programs that are needed in the state. To
understand the market.”
Finances
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The state of the economy was frequently identified by respondents as an obstacle
faced by Mercer. Respondent 1 stressed the financial issues surrounding the formation of
new schools and colleges. Each school needs a building, for example. The respondent
detailed the difficulty in raising funds, including bond money. Additionally, the
respondent reported that the institution’s endowment is small. This is partially because
the alumni giving rate is not great. The respondent attributed this dilemma to the
newness of schools. Alumni are not yet at the point in their lives to give back to Mercer.
Additionally, the complex structure of Mercer poses challenges to financing.
Respondent 1 compared Mercer to a solely liberal arts institution, Furman University. At
Furman, according to the respondent, every dollar goes to one thing, their college or arts
and sciences. “Every dollar we bring in, and you can look at it abstractly, gets chopped
into eleven different parts. Financing is always tricky.”
Respondent 13 also noted instances where the university had to cut staff positions.
He claimed the cuts were understood. Respondent 14 agreed, stating that the university is
very lean and has slimmed down even more since President Underwood took office.
Respondent 12 noted that, due to the decrease in staffing, the work load has multiplied by
three times. “I do not advocate administrative bloat. I know they work very hard with
fewer resources than we might expect,” stated Respondent 14.
Respondent 19 felt that, because of the economy, President Underwood has
worked really hard to put Mercer on firm financial ground and keep it there. “I think the
key thing we face this next decade is how to do things better with less resources,” stated
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Respondent 13. This requires a lot of schools making sacrifices and contributing to
leadership efforts according to Respondent 19. For example, when discussing
leadership’s demands on faculty members to develop attractive programs to improve the
financial status of Mercer, Respondent 16 stated that faculty members often request more
marketing funds. According to the respondent, President Underwood has responded by
stating that General Motors has a lot of marketing dollars and they still failed because the
product was wrong. However, several respondents felt that President Underwood
presents challenges and sacrifices as being for the good of the entire university.
Respondent 19 felt that current leadership’s budgeting efforts have been effective. “We
are probably in a pretty sound financial state when considering economic times,
especially compared to other schools like Mercer.”
Summary
Mercer University has undergone tremendous transformation within a short
period of time. A wide array of challenges presented from a variety of forces including
faculty resistance to change, reversing fragmentation, and staying true to founding values
have been faced by Mercer leadership. Overall, respondents indicate that leadership has
confronted these challenges using effective measures.
Leadership and Success
In the previous section, challenges faced by leadership and measures taken to
address them were discussed. Respondents also described overall attributes and actions
supportive of leadership’s success. The following is a summary of leadership qualities
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that President Godsey and President Underwood have exhibited through this
transformative period.
Comparing and Contrasting Leadership Styles
Respondents repeatedly indicated differences in the leadership styles of President
Godsey and President Underwood. According to respondents, Godsey was a visionary
leader. The rapid expansion of Mercer during Godsey’s presidency was attributed to his
visionary character as well as his long tenure by respondents. Respondent 9 stated “I
think it was the vision of Godsey and the Board of Trustees that moved Mercer along this
path. It was his ideas and conversations with folks that got things like the medical school
started.”
It was reported frequently that present leadership has a different focus. President
Underwood is looking at how to integrate all of these unique colleges and programs and
how to maximize the expertise in all of the programs to become distinctive. Respondent
21 stated that Underwood’s role is to carry forward what had already taken place.
Respondent 10 explained that there has been a fluid transition from Godsey to
Underwood. “Bill Underwood is continuing Dr. Godsey’s vision by dotting the I’s and
crossing the T’s.” According to Respondent 3, “Bill Underwood has come in and has
preserved the best parts of that clear sense of mission.”
Respondent 18 described it as a “taking care of business” approach. Respondent
1 stated “Bill is much more hands-on. Bill really knows the day-to-day workings of
almost everything in the university. Kirby was much more of a visionary. Bill is a
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visionary, don’t get me wrong, but Kirby was always thinking globally.” He continued
by stating that “Bill is way down into things and Kirby was way up into things.”
Respondent 18 agreed, stating that Dr. Underwood is taking care of the existing
framework. The Respondent felt that he is looking for clear and reasonable paths to goals
so there is less of a grand leap and more of a strategic transition. Respondent 10 agreed,
stating “Leaps of faith before (under Godsey) and now strategic plans (Underwood).”
This transition in leadership styles suits the time period in which the two
presidents served according to Respondent 9. The respondent explained that Godsey’s
visionary leadership style was appropriate to his time due to less competition.
Specifically, the HOPE scholarship played a less significant role according to Respondent
9. President Underwood must maintain a high level of accountability not only in
financing, but because higher education is constantly under the microscope, as described
by Respondent 9.
Clear Vision
Respondents praised Mercer leadership for clearly communicating its vision.
Respondent 9 stated “We know where we are headed as an institution. This is very, very
clearly defined.” Respondent 3 agreed, but added the importance of sticking to that
vision. According to Respondent 1, “The Provost needs to think about what is best from
an academic perspective, and the President must think about what is best for the
institution.
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Under President Underwood, actions have been taken to create, communicate, and
support a clear vision. The vision of Mercer leadership has been framed by and
communicated in its strategic plan according to Respondent 7. One of the first things
President Underwood did was put together groups to work on the plan, according to
respondents. The plan’s development engaged faculty and staff across the university to
look ahead to the next decade to determine what the university needs to aspire to, what
kinds of things it needs to emphasize, and what the priorities should be. The process
created an opportunity for shared buy-in, according to Respondent 4. Respondent 13
stated, “I think the administration can provide a vision, but the vision can never be
disconnected from the faculty and students.”
The ten-goal, ten-year strategic plan aims to put Mercer in the same category of
recognition as institutions like Vanderbilt, Emory, Duke, Wake Forest, and Tulane. The
strategic plan describes the creation of a new model for Christian higher education
promoting intellectual freedom, honoring religious diversity, and fostering both
intellectual and spiritual growth in students, faculty, and staff (Mercer University
Planning Council, 2008). Specific goals are detailed in the plan along with actual
statistical goals.
According to Respondent 9, during the development of the strategic plan, “He
(President Underwood) led us to believe it would be a meaningful document down the
road, not just something that went on the shelf. That has proven to be true.” Respondent
1 noted that the plan gets the university pointed in the right direction, but is flexible.
According to the respondent, “We try to work everything back to it.” Respondent 12
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attributed the university’s more efficient day-to-day operations to the clear vision created
by President Underwood.
Shared Governance
Respondents indicated that Mercer leadership values the incorporation of all
entities in decision-making processes. Respondent 3 stated “Dr. Underwood promotes
inclusiveness and promotes discussion.” For example, Respondent 6 stated “Twice a
semester, we (deans, administrative directors, and vice presidents) meet as an academic
council and discuss the big, broad umbrella issues and take that back to our own divisions
and units. We carry that torch forward and engage our faculty and staff to create a
framework so that everyone has some element of contribution to the discourse.
Respondent 8 agreed, explaining that leadership is not dictating. Respondent 1 stated that
leadership has been successful at not being perceived top-down. Rather, it challenges
faculty and staff to advance Mercer’s vision. Respondent 8 felt that leadership wants the
opinions of others in order to see other’s views and because of the expertise they have to
offer. “Senior leadership works with us. They are developing, they want our opinion,
they want to tie a new aspect to it. They see us as partners.”
Respondent 9 stated the President Underwood expects leadership from others to
move his agenda forward, making leadership more participatory. According to
Respondent 13, “The best ideas come from faculty. I don’t think administration can do
much in terms of transforming or changing. I think the role of administration is to
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provide an environment in which people feel comfortable and safe in bringing their own
ideas to the floor.” The respondent stated:
I think we have a teaching and research effort that has really come from our faculty leaders in virtually all of the schools and colleges. I don’t think that is something administration can do from the top. In fact, I think the kind of movements coming from the top always fail. Thus, administration tries to find ways to provide an environment to allow creative ideas to flourish.
For example, Respondent 13 noted the undergraduate student research initiative that has
been increasing in participation was developed by faculty. Respondent 13 felt faculty can
help Mercer effectively find ways to accomplish more with fewer resources by stating “I
think faculty can answer that question brilliantly.”
Several examples of shared governance were described by respondents. First, as
previously discussed, the university went through a strategic planning process early in
President Underwood’s administration. Faculty and staff were engaged from across the
university to look ahead to the next decade. Several levels of leadership shared in the
process of determining the university’s aspirations, emphases, and priorities.
Additionally, Respondent 15 noted that the faculty participates in the House of Delegates,
a university-wide senate that acts as an advisory committee to the Provost and the
President. It is comprised of faculty members from all academic units. This group was
resurrected by Dr. Godsey and used when needed. However, it has been regularly
utilized by President Underwood according to Respondent 14. Lastly, Respondent 13
discussed decisions related to promotion and tenure. Faculty committees make these
decisions and higher administration rarely overturns decisions.
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Several of Mercer’s programs are faculty-led, including admissions programs and
Mercer on Mission. In fact, the AIM program was started by a professor, not senior
administration. Respondent 8 stated “The ownership of leadership permeates here.”
Respondent 2 described community revival efforts prompted by a faculty member who
was a philosophy professor interested in urban renewal. Mercer leadership listened to
the faculty member’s concerns for the surrounding neighborhood and supported a
collaborative effort with the city, and ultimately the federal government, to revitalize a
low-income public housing structure. This effort has grown and now, due to student
interest, supports the Mercer Corridor, an economic renewal project aiming to revive the
neighborhoods connecting the Macon campus to downtown Macon.
Another attempt at making Mercer more participatory is in the development of
new colleges, schools, and programs. Respondent 16 stated that leadership has tried to
allow schools to develop their own programs, missions, and goals, thus distributing
leadership. The respondent is pleased because academic units like the College of
Continuing and Professional Studies can grow under that model. However, the
respondent noted a lack of collaboration with other schools is a result. These efforts
indicate the high level of participation of the entire Mercer community. When describing
shared governance, Respondent 1 stated “Central administration has listened
appropriately and selectively.”
Respondents also indicated that shared governance does not always occur. “I
think sometimes we just suck it up and do it. Sometimes we are forced to change,”
according to Respondent 10. Respondent 14 stated that a minority of administrators see
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faculty as “step-children who need to be patted on the head, told everything is fine, and to
go about their business.” Respondent 10 attributed this to failing to take time to educate
faculty about fiscal matters. The respondent felt it is marginally better, but still needs
improvement. Respondent 5 also indicated that faculty members do not always
participate in decision-making. “Most things are handed down fait accomplit.” The
respondent used the example of the merger with the nursing school about which,
according to the respondent, no one in the humanities had any conversation about.
Respondent 5 explained the problem with top-down leadership. “What doesn’t
work well? The faculty in the college can be pretty resistant to something that seems top-
down.” The respondent used the initiation of the global health program as an example.
“That just sort of popped up. I mean, we knew this was coming, but it wasn’t initiated by
the faculty.” The respondent then explained that once it was clear that the program
would be implemented, faculty members of the CLA participated in the development of
the program so it could “at least bear the stamp of the CLA. This was perceived as top-
down, yet faculty took it and shaped it.”
Respondents indicated that President Underwood has used a more participatory
governance system. Respondent 9 felt that, under President Godsey, the leadership was
much more focused in his role as president. Further, Respondent 14 described President
Godsey as becoming more insular and more distant from the faculty in his last ten years.
“In a sense, it became a more emphatic, top-down management style,” according to
Respondent 14. Some respondents preferred Dr. Underwood’s leadership approach.
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Historically and in modern times, Mercer leadership has promoted a sense of
family which may or may not be related to shared governance. The archives of the Jack
Tarver library (n.d).noted that President Gambrell (1893 to 1896) originated the emphasis
on the Mercer community becoming a family. Modern times support this founding value.
Participants noted that Mercer promotes a feeling of family. Respondent 12 stated:
I have experienced and witnessed great highs and lows, but always with the sense that we would weather our storms together. The people within our unit are like family. I heard a minister say long ago that we should strive to be like a stream, constantly moving and flowing, instead of a swamp where things remain stagnant and die. Mercer is a whitewater river rafting experience and I would not want to be anywhere else.
Respondent 18 attributed this sense of family to cultural norms that formulate Mercer,
stating “Everybody at Mercer seems to value individuals, the student. It’s a personal
place. It’s kind of a family feel where people have this care for others. I think that
comes from our Baptist roots, our church-related roots and the values that came out of
that and continue to inform who we are.”
High Expectations
According to respondents, leadership has high expectations of the Mercer
community and holds it accountable for contributing to its missions. Respondents
reported that, in order to receive support of leadership for projects, you must demonstrate
how your effort will strengthen Mercer as a whole. According to Respondent 7, “The bar
they set for people is always there regarding the mission of the institution.” More
specifically, the respondent reported that expectations of academic units regarding
growth, retention, new initiatives, and identifying Mercer’s mission in terms of service,
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both locally and abroad, have been clearly communicated and that people are expected to
rise to these challenges. President Underwood expects that people are visionary and
creative in terms of what they can do to support the mission of the university.
Respondent 7 gave examples of leadership expectations of CLA faculty. The
CLA has been challenged to create a new interdisciplinary global health program as well
as update the existing general education curriculum as part of the QEP as previously
discussed. Respondent 7 indicated that the expectation to prove the value of potential
programs to the Mercer community in order to receive the support of leadership creates
competition amongst academic units. According to the respondent, this could further
motivate faculty to promote Mercer missions or, on the other hand, increase the level of
dissent.
Leadership demonstrates its accountability as well. Respondent 10 described the
how the development of a strategic plan shows that current leadership has placed
expectations on itself:
One of the best things I will say for this administration and for Bill Underwood is he expects a lot from people here, but he holds himself accountable as well. This became evident when, during his first couple of years, he outlined leadership’s goal in the form of the strategic plan and begins each year with a review of Mercer’s status regarding the ten goals. This lets us know that our strategic plan that aims to move us toward our mission truly matters.
Entrepreneurialism
Respondents frequently described Mercer leadership, especially under President
Godsey, as entrepreneurial. Respondents indicated that President Godsey was a visionary
willing to try new things and take risks. President Godsey was “looking for opportunity
for growth and jumping in and taking it,” as stated by Respondent 10.
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Respondents indicated that entrepreneurial efforts would not be successful if the
leadership, as well as faculty, is not well-informed. Respondents indicated that it is
important for Mercer leadership to “be aware of the landscape that is bigger than Mercer
itself,” as stated by Respondent 10. An understanding of national and global trends is
critical. Decisions made at the institutional level must be made in the context of what is
going on in this country in terms of higher education. Respondent 4 agreed, stating
“Leadership has demonstrated the ability to look at the landscape of higher education and
see what the trends are. There were opportunities for Mercer to meet the needs of the
constituents we serve.”
Respondent 16 noted that Mercer administration, under both President Godsey
and President Underwood, has been aware of programs demanded by students and
needed in the state. In response, new programs have been created. Respondent 16 stated
that knowledge of the market has led to the founding of Mercer’s medical and
engineering schools in order to meet the needs of the community. Respondent 2 agreed,
stating “They did their homework and found there was no medical school in rural
Georgia.” More recently, President Underwood has initiated programs including doctoral
programs that are turning away overwhelming numbers of applicants according to
Respondent 15. According to Respondent 2, leadership under President Underwood
carefully reads cultural trends as well. For example, the global health program was
encouraged from the Provost’s office due to his observation of a current trend. Usually
these ideas are initiated at the faculty level. “It came from leadership that was looking
into a cultural shift and led to the Provost saying we really need to do something about
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this.” According to Respondent 16, “That is how we have really been able to be part of
the community and increase enrollment in this difficult time.”
Further, knowledge of the actions of other institutions similar to Mercer or those
Mercer aspires to be more like may strengthen leadership’s ability to move the institution
toward its mission. Successful actions of other institutions can serve as evidence that
decisions are viable at Mercer. Also, according to Respondent 10, “People in higher
education are very generous. You can ask them for help and ideas for change.”
Respondent 10 concluded that leadership can then introduce faculty and staff to new
things not previously considered and generate excitement.
Further, Respondent 1 indicated that leadership under President Underwood
supports faculty professional development to stay relevant in their field. “It keeps faculty
vibrant which means that they translate the stuff into the classroom.” For example,
Respondent 1 described sending faculty members to Vermont for training regarding the
general education revisions.
Respondent 4 described leadership’s entrepreneurialism through the addition of
colleges and schools. “Mercer has not been shy about starting and acquiring new
programs. Leadership has been willing to take risks and start new programs, sometimes
with great controversy and in some significant backlash. “I think leadership once aspired
Mercer to be different and saw that it could offer quality education in different
disciplines,” stated Respondent 9. Respondent 18 felt that Mercer is the legacy of Kirby
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Godsey who was a visionary and had the courage to push forth a vision and a dream
despite large opposition. Respondent 17 stated:
Current and previous administration have been good at inspiring members of the (Mercer) community to want to get on board with transformation and change. Some programs in the past were forced (by leadership) to reorganize, reallocate, develop new programs, and terminate programs with low enrollment. Now, everyone seems to have that entrepreneurial spirit.
Respondents discussed Mercer leadership’s ability to be flexible when
implementing ideas. Respondent 14 stated “We have been relatively nimble. We
(Mercer) have taken advantage of opportunities as they (administration) have seen them.
Further, they encourage an entrepreneurial attitude.” For example, President Underwood
has begun physical therapy and physician’s assistant doctoral programs and founded a
regional academic center in Newnan due to a perceived demand for them. Respondent 10
expressed amazement in leadership’s ability to take existing structures under the umbrella
of a larger unit and develop them into individual entities to attract students or fulfill a
need. For example, under President Godsey’s leadership, pulling the business and
education schools out of the CLA enabled them to grow as individual academic units,
attracting more students. Additionally, the respondent was impressed by leadership’s
ability to identify and formulate relationships with external entities that share similar
values, visions, and goals to move Mercer toward its vision.
Online courses were identified as a recent innovation adopted by Mercer. Faculty
questioned whether off-site interaction supported Mercer’s vision. At first, the President
Underwood was even skeptical because he thought it would hurt Mercer’s brand,
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according to Respondent 1. The respondent attributed his acceptance of initiating online
course work to listening to the ideas of faculty who were in favor of the idea.
In order to make entrepreneurial ideas become reality, respondents stated that
effective leaders make a decision and move forward. They must listen to all views,
including both supporters and critics, and make the decision they feel is best for Mercer.
Also, respondents noted that leadership must control the tendency for lengthy discussions
that inhibit timely action. Respondents indicated that Mercer leadership has pushed
forward to take action. During Underwood’s presidency, Respondent 7 used the example
of placing time limits on general education revisions to demonstrate leadership’s
expectation of faculty to make decisions and move forward. Respondent 5 stated that
administration gave faculty incentives to get the general education revisions completed
along with a firm deadline. Respondent 14 stated “We tend to talk and talk. He
(President Underwood) would rather see more movement and less talk.” Respondent 1
noted that faculty tends to pick things apart and dissect things, whereas leadership does
not have time, they have to keep moving, creating a tough dynamic: “That is the art of
being a good leader. You have to keep things moving, but you can’t just make people do
stuff.” Respondent 1 agreed, stating “Leadership needs to appreciate that faculty’s way
of doing things is different than leadership’s way of doing things. You must
compromise, yet move forward.” According to Respondent 1, “There is a middle ground
there and that is called progress.”
Respondents provided examples of Mercer leadership’s efforts to push agendas
forward despite conflicting opinions. When describing the opposition faced by Godsey
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when founding the medical school, Respondent 2 stated “Culture is always going to have
tension. Someone has to have the courage of their conviction to stake out some claims
and lead on the basis of those staked out claims.” The respondent concluded by praising
Godsey for opening the medical school despite opposition. Respondent 4 added:
Leaders have to listen to what the university is saying, but you can’t fixate it to the point of letting every criticism, every criticism, every objection stop you. So it’s a really delicate balance between having healthy dialogue within the institution about its priorities and direction and yet, at the end of the day, leaders have to make decisions and move the University forward. Those decisions are not always popular. I just don’t see how a leader of any university can be successful if their primary concern is keeping everybody happy. It’s an unachievable objective. At the same time, you can’t run shop over everyone. You have to find the balance between fostering a community of respect where opinions are heard and valued while, at the end of the day, making decisions you feel are in the best interest of the institution but may not be popular.
Respondent 20 agreed that effective leaders determine whether to pursue it or dismiss it.
As previously discussed, decisions made and imposed unilaterally by leaders tend
to fail. However, Respondent 1 described how Mercer on Mission, a program initiated
by President Underwood, is successful:
Now it’s tricky because most things at the college level are grassroots. It starts at the faculty level and works its way up. But, it you do that, nothing is ever going to happen. Because faculty talk about stuff, not necessarily do. And that’s the dynamic of effective leadership. How do you move things forward without creating ill will with the faculty. Most presidents who fail are autocratic. It’s more of a negotiation. Getting to yes. Effective leadership is when the faculty think, ultimately, that the idea is theirs.
Thus, President Underwood was able to see Mercer on Mission become a university-wide
reality even though it was originated by administration
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Management of Resistance
The management of resistance by Mercer leadership, especially during the
transformative period under President Godsey, was frequently described by respondents.
“I think you have to appreciate the significance of dissent. Permitting dissent,
appreciating the right to dissent. That does not mean the dissenter is always right, but it
does mean they have a right to be heard. And I think that is, incidentally, rooted in the
liberal arts,” stated Respondent 20. Respondent 1 agreed, stating “I like healthy tension.
I think administration should push on faculty pretty hard, but I think faculty should push
on administration really hard. I think it keeps both of us on our toes.” The respondent
continued by stating that there is usually a kernel of truth in the ideas of dissenters. You
have to appreciate each other’s views.
Respondent 21 discussed the opposition faced by President Godsey. The
respondent attributed Godsey’s perseverance to his ability to allow people to disagree
with him. Godsey had the attitude that when people are critical, he needed to listen to
them and hear what they had to say and think about it. Further, Respondent 1 claimed
that if you have someone who is sort of an outlier, who can approach the problem
differently, they are probably the ones that are going to bring the innovative solutions.
Actions
In general, respondents indicated that leadership decisions are made in order to
further Mercer’s efforts toward its mission. “We see it translated in the things we do,”
according to Respondent 9. Respondent 10 reported that leadership “puts its money
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where its mouth is.” For example, when the university decided to strengthen the role of
service learning in its vision during Underwood’s presidency, the position of senior vice
provost for service learning was created.
Role modeling has been important to Mercer leadership according to respondents.
According to Respondent 13, “I think first, that for leadership to be effective, you have to
have university leaders who are going to model and exemplify what it is you want.” For
example, In reference to Provost Wallace Daniel, Respondent 9 stated “I think having a
provost who is an active scholar sets a tone.” Respondent 13 agreed, explaining that it is
important to Mercer that leaders have experience in both teaching and research, not just
administration. When describing leadership under President Underwood, the respondent
stated “They don’t see themselves as administrators, they see themselves as practitioners
of these two qualities.” Current Mercer administration is comprised of individuals who
have spent years in the classroom and currently conduct their own research. In fact, some
administrators teach classes at Mercer according to respondents.
Respondent 13 expressed the importance of this, stating “It is important that you
are not just asking faculty members to commit to these processes, but you are doing these
things yourself as an administrator.” According to Respondent 1, administration works
very hard. The respondent stated “These folks, these leaders are unbelievably busy.
Wallace works all of the time, Bill, I mean it is 24-7.”
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Board of Trustees Support
Mercer University leadership has historically needed the support of the Board of
Trustees to push their initiatives forward. An earlier example of the results of lack of
support is the short tenure of President Charles Lee Smith in 1905. Despite the period of
prosperity to which he contributed, he was replaced after one year due to the lack of
support given by the Board of Trustees (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). President Godsey and
President Underwood have been dependent on the support of the Board of Trustees.
Respondent 9 emphasized that it is not just the president making decisions, it is also the
Board of Trustees. Respondent 14 explained that because President Godsey was a
visionary and was often faced with intense opposition, he especially needed the full
support of the Board of Trustees to carry his visions forward. For example, Respondent
20 explained that the Board of Trustee’s swing vote that fell in favor of President
Godsey’s vision of a medical school at Mercer, Judge Bell, went into the meeting
strongly opposed to the school. However, after listening to President Godsey’s vision, he
voted in favor of adding a medical school to Mercer.
The significance of the support of the Board of Trustees was also apparent during
the budget deficit during President Godsey’s tenure. There was a huge amount of
negative publicity around Mercer in both Macon and Atlanta at this time, according to
Respondent 18. For example, the salaries of all senior administration, confidential
information, were published in the local newspapers. President Godsey was greatly
criticized by a variety of entities including the Mercer faculty, who picketed in their
academic robes daily outside of the administration building. Respondent 20 explained
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that President Godsey told the Board of Trustees that they could carry the vision of
growth and expansion forward and see the deficit overturned in five years, or withdraw
from the vision and scale-back. The Board supported Godsey and the deficit was
corrected within three years. Respondent 18 stated:
I think there is not a college president in America who could have survived this except Kirby Godsey. The reason is he is so smart. But mostly, he had built this incredible relationship with the board. He stated that Godsey survived because the trustees were convinced that he got them into this mess and he is probably the only person who can get them out. He understood what he had built and he convinced them that he could get Mercer out of the mess. The trustees could not imagine where else to turn. They had vested so much in this man over the years. They believed in him and they were excited about the results.
The respondent felt that Mercer came out better. According to Respondent 14 “President
Godsey was so smart and so gifted at oratory. He could take them (GBC) on. He
understood them.”
External Relationships
Respondents indicated that creating partnerships with external entities with
complementary visions and goals has been important to Mercer leadership. In earlier
years, President Samuel Jameson Young served as an officer of the Southern Baptist
Schools during his presidency from 1906 and 1913 and his predecessor, President
William Lowndes Pickard served as President of the GBC’s Board of Education .
Spright Dowell, president from 1928 to 1953, continued to develop supportive
relationships with Baptist churches and organizations (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).
Respondent 2 described more recent relationships that build on Mercer’s Baptist
heritage. For example, the Atlanta campus’ administrative building became the
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repository for the archives of the American Baptist Historical Society and the
Cooperative Baptist Fellowship has offices on the Atlanta campus. In addition, the
Hilton Garden Inn was built on the Macon campus. In a broader sense, under President
Godsey and President Underwood, Mercer has built a solid relationship with the Macon
community. Respondent 2 described the tension between many universities and their
local communities. The respondent described it as “the old town versus gown.”
However, respondents felt Mercer’s relationship with the community is strong.
Summary
By communicating a clear vision, facilitating shared governance, setting high
expectations, implementing entrepreneurial decisions, appreciating dissent, role-
modeling, and earning the support of the Board of Trustees and external entities, Mercer
leadership has successfully managed the challenges of rapid transformation into a
comprehensive university. As a result, Mercer provides high quality, demanded
educational opportunities that fill a need in Georgia or in the world. Further, Mercer
University continues to embrace its founding values by implementing them into course
work as well as into activities outside of the classroom.
Conclusion
Through this historical case study, findings provided by archival resources,
institutional publications, and personal testimonies were integrated in order to determine
the themes integral to the historical narrative of Mercer University. The transformative
period that occurred under President Godsey and the efforts to carry these changes
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forward led by President Underwood were identified in terms of challenges faced,
methods and evidence of managing these challenges, and leadership qualities possessed.
Leadership has implemented strategies to successfully transform Mercer University from
a small liberal arts institution to a large comprehensive university.
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CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
The increasing demand for professional programs has led some liberal arts
institutions to revise curricula in order to be relevant to students’ lives as well as to
maintain and increase enrollment in a highly competitive market for students. As with
leaders of other institutions with strong liberal arts roots, Mercer University’s leaders
have been challenged to initiate professional programs without straying from founding
missions and maintaining a cohesive institution. This historical case study of Mercer
University serves as an example of how a liberal arts institution can transform itself by
successfully integrating professional programs into course offerings without losing sight
of liberal education values. This study provides higher education leaders who are leading
transformative efforts with examples of and insights into leadership and change
strategies. It not only depicts the historical transformation of Mercer University, but it
also describes the role of the presidents involved, the reasoning behind the
transformative efforts, challenges faced, and specific examples and leadership attributes
relevant to transformation. Higher education leaders can apply this information to their
own institutional setting in order to ensure that transformative efforts make certain the
institution’s relevancy and value to students, but also that they also maintain and build
upon foundational values.
In order to better understand transformation and leadership at Mercer University,
the following research questions were explored.
• What leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer University’s leadership
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over its long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts college into a
comprehensive university?
o Sub-Question 1: How did Mercer University’s leaders balance the
institution’s liberal education values and goals while, at the same time,
introducing professionally-oriented programs?
o Sub-Question 2: What obstacles did Mercer University’s leaders encounter
during the process of transformation and how did they overcome these
obstacles?
Based on these research questions, a summary of the results, a discussion of the study’s
findings including how they relate to the existing literature, implications for practice,
limitations, and suggestions for further investigation are presented in this chapter.
Discussion of the Results
Research findings frequently correlated with ideas presented by scholars relevant
to the primary research question: What leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer
University’s leadership over its long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts
college into a comprehensive university?
President Godsey and President Underwood have presented similar leadership
styles. Both have sustained hierarchical leadership structures which scholars have
indicated dominate higher education. Altbach et al. (2005), for example, claimed that
budget pressures and external demands for accountability creates this directive leadership
style. There is a clear division of roles and clear understanding of individual
responsibilities as described by Bolman and Deal (2003).
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Based on the statements of respondents, President Godsey’s visions led to what
Goleman (1998) referred to as a coercive leadership style, characterized by seeking
compliance. Once approval was achieved, President Godsey then implemented
Goleman’s authoritative leadership style which mobilized individuals within the Mercer
community for action, whether they were in favor of the change or not. The opening and
closing of schools and colleges provides evidence of President Godsey’s implementation
of both of these leadership styles.
Kemper (2003) indicated that shared leadership is a trend in higher education
leadership. President Underwood has implemented shared leadership into his directive
leadership style. This is evident in his efforts to be open with his constituents and to give
them opportunities to participate in the leadership of Mercer. For example, respondents
indicated the high level of participation of faculty members in the formation of the
strategic plan. Further, respondents indicated that President Underwood expects
leadership at all levels as stressed by Astin and Astin (2000).
Due to the liberal education founding values embraced by Mercer, Love and
Estanek’s (2004) pervasive leadership style is featured by both President Godsey and
President Underwood. They have focused on building relationships, appreciating the
coexistence of diverse viewpoints, creating cohesiveness amongst academic units, and
stressing moral purpose. President Godsey and President Underwood have demonstrated
their focus on relationships by making choices that reflect an awareness and
understanding of the needs, concerns, and hopes of the Mercer community.
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Conducting this study, the researcher found the following attributes and activities
played a critical part in the presidents of Mercer providing effective leadership during the
period of transformation:
• establishing and a communicating clear vision
• implementing shared governance
• taking entrepreneurial actions
• managing resistance
As stressed by Keenan and Marchel (2007), because higher education institutions
are increasingly held accountable for providing a product that is beneficial, desired, and
unique, Mercer leadership has taken steps to update its liberal arts heritage to make
opportunities more relevant to students. Scholars also indicated a shift toward
professional education. Mercer has followed this trend through its transformation. The
origination of professional colleges, schools, and programs has broadened Mercer’s
potential student base. However, as discussed by Mazzarol and Souzar (2001), unique
programs are essential for competition because they create a strong marketing position,
thus, Mercer leadership has built upon its liberal arts foundational mission to distinguish
itself from other institutions that offer professional programs. Mercer’s leadership has
striven to make liberal education more relevant by incorporating research efforts, service
learning, and community development efforts into educational opportunities, both in and
out of the classroom. These transformative efforts are supported by the following
leadership attributes and activities.
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Establishing and Communicating a Clear Vision
In Chapter 2, it was noted that a clear vision is vital to leadership. President
Godsey’s visionary nature led to the creation of significant transformation during his
tenure. He saw the fruition of his visions as a result of clearly communicating their value
to the Board of Trustees, the Mercer community, and external parties affected by or
involved in the changes in order to earn their support. President Underwood has led the
development of a strategic plan that has been recognized as a valuable asset by
respondents as well as by scholars including Kezar et al. (2006) and Taylor et al. (2008).
These scholars felt that the increasing complexity of higher education institutions
demands a better understanding of the institution and its mission university-wide,
especially when undergoing change. During the transformative period led by President
Godsey, respondents did not indicate the presence of a viable strategic plan. However,
President Underwood has created a strategic plan in his role described by respondents as
managing the pieces put in place by President Godsey and expanding upon them.
As suggested by Jones et al. (2008), this strategic plan deepens the purpose of
Mercer’s actions because they are based on common goals. The increased complexity of
Mercer’s structure has challenged leadership to create a cohesive movement toward
institutional mission. The ten-year strategic plan helps guide Mercer’s diverse range of
entities toward a common goal that benefits all. This document clearly outlines the
vision of Mercer leadership.
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Both scholars and those interviewed at Mercer underscored the importance of
effective communication by leaders during periods of major change. This was especially
evident in regards to institutional missions and goals. Respondents stressed the
importance of leadership’s voicing of Mercer’s liberal arts foundations and contemporary
efforts including service learning and research. Efforts to communicate Mercer’s vision
are evident in the strategic plan as well as participants’ frequent responses that leadership
is constantly speaking about Mercer’s missions and taking actions to achieve them.
Further, respondents repeatedly reported that leadership has been transparent regarding
information of interest to Mercer’s stakeholders. It has shared as much information as
possible with the Mercer community. As suggested by Cohen (2003), this reduces the
anxiety often associated with change. Respondents agreed with Cohen, stating frequently
that, especially under President Underwood, they have felt more comfortable with change
efforts due to the large amount of information revealed under his leadership.
Implementing Shared Governance
As noted in Chapter 2, scholars of higher education have indicated a trend in
favor of shared governance and that strong institutions have leaders at all levels.
Respondents indicated that this trend can be found at Mercer as well. President
Underwood expects all members of the Mercer community to lead efforts relevant to
mission. Further, respondents felt all views and ideas have been appreciated by
leadership, concurring with Eisler and Carter’s (2010) view that effective leaders engage
and empower others.
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Mercer’s structure represents a traditional hierarchy. Leadership, however, is
distributed. Wirth’s (2004) transtheoretical model best describes Mercer. The university
has undergone a collective transformation of behaviors with the participation of all
stakeholders based on a common goal, as directed by the model. McCaffery (2004)
describes what he calls “university citizenship,” encouraging people to identify with
transformational goals in order to bridge the gap between individual and institutional
goal. While a few respondents identified situations where decisions were handed from
the top-down, overwhelmingly respondents felt they have had opportunities to take part
in decision-making. According to respondents, this has been especially true for efforts
promoting interdisciplinary connections and service learning, two of Mercer leadership’s
foci.
Taking Entrepreneurial Actions
Leaders of higher education institutions must be innovative and take risks.
Mercer leadership’s transformative efforts clearly indicate that they embraced change as
opposed to viewing it as a task. This is especially evident in President Godsey’s era. As
noted by respondents, there is probably no institution in the United States that has
undergone such a major transformation as occurred during Godsey’s twenty-seven years
as president. Godsey not only founded programs not common to liberal arts institutions,
but he also led efforts in academic freedom and community service.
Further, Mercer leadership has promoted transformative efforts supportive of
institutional missions by encouraging faculty members and students to develop
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initiatives. For example, under President Godsey, a faculty member along with a few
students began community development projects and under President Underwood, a
student initiated the sex trafficking conference on campus. By inspiring the entire
university community to take entrepreneurial actions, Mercer leaders have inspired the
creation of a shared vision.
Managing Resistance
Entrepreneurial efforts often produce resistance. Respondents discussed the
opposition faced by President Godsey when he opened the medical school and the
engineering school and when he closed the College of Arts and Sciences in Atlanta.
Higher education leaders must determine what changes are beneficial. For example,
Cohen (2003) stated that change should be implemented when dissatisfaction with the
status quo and vision for the future are greater than the cost of change. Mercer leadership
has demonstrated the use of this formula by listening to all viewpoints and gathering
information to make informed decisions in the best interest of the university. Mercer
leadership has understood that once the data and all viewpoints have been considered, a
decision must be made and the university must push forward, despite opposition.
However, Mercer leadership has maintained a balance between innovation and tradition
by aligning transformative efforts with founding missions. For example, when the
medical school was opened, President Godsey stressed that it was to serve rural
Georgians as well as to provide a unique type of medical education that would
incorporate Mercer’s liberal arts education values.
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Regardless of the supporting reasoning for change, resistance can be ever present
during a period of transformative change and this opposition can be either detrimental or
beneficial. Mercer University leadership has minimized the delays often created by
debate by setting deadlines and by creating and communicating clear expectations for
those involved in change efforts. For example when developing the new general
education program, a time limit was set in order to minimize unproductive faculty
discussions. Further, especially under President Godsey, unpopular decisions were made
with the support of the Board of Trustees and were pushed forth.
At the same time, opposition may be beneficial to transformative leaders.
Clearly, Mercer leadership’s dedication to openness, as well as academic freedom, has
served as a powerful tool during its transformation. According to respondents, Mercer
leadership has not only created a forum for open dialogue, but has encouraged it. As a
result, leadership has made decisions reflective of an awareness and understanding of the
Mercer community’s needs, concerns, and hopes. For example, President Godsey did not
oppose faculty members picketing for his termination and both President Godsey and
President Underwood have been willing to meet in person with dissenters to discuss
concerns. Respondents indicated that they felt free to express their views, even if they
did not agree with those of leadership. Further, the shared governance system
incorporated into Mercer has served to promote the inclusion of various viewpoints.
Further, Bolman and Deal (2003) have noted that transformation often creates a
loss of meaning for those affected by change, especially when they are not given
ownership of the change. President Underwood has sought to prevent a loss of meaning
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in regards to institutional missions by including faculty members in the development of
Mercer’s strategic plan. Respondents indicated that President Underwood led them to
believe that the document would be meaningful and not just sit on a shelf gathering dust.
Further, as previously discussed, leadership’s transparency has reduced the negative
impacts of resistance.
In summary, both President Godsey and President Underwood have demonstrated
important leadership attributes by establishing and maintaining a clear vision, by
implementing shared governance, by being active entrepreneurs, and by effectively
managing resistance.
Recommendations for Leaders of Liberal Arts Institutions
In addition to the primary research question previously discussed, this study also
included two sub-questions which will now be discussed in order. Sub-question 1 was:
How did Mercer University’s leaders balance the institution’s liberal education values
and goals while, at the same time, introducing professionally-oriented programs?
As noted in the literature review, scholars have argued that it is imperative that
liberal arts institutions refine student opportunities to make liberal education more
relevant to students. To do so often requires the leadership of liberal arts institutions to
use effective strategies and attributes to bring about transformative change.
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Reconceptualization of Liberal Education
The adoption of strategies to deal with this new reality is necessary for liberal arts
institutions. Scholars have suggested a reconceptualization, rather than replacement, of
liberal education. Mulcahy (2009) agreed that liberal education remains rich and
powerful but needs redefining. He stated:
It needs to be recast in a way that retains its emphasis on what Newman called cultivation of intellect, recognizes the importance of practical knowledge and education for action, accommodates the view that education of the whole person brings into play emotional, moral, and spiritual formation, and adopts a pedagogical stance that gives full recognition to the experience, capacities, and interests of the individual (p. 6).
Respondents indicated that President Godsey and President Underwood have led efforts
to ensure Mercer’s relevancy to today’s student market without straying from
foundational values, thus reconceptualizing rather than replacing liberal education.
Respondents also indicated that the use of the institution’s founding values should be
preserved to set it apart from competitors.
As noted previously, liberal education must implement practical learning to
survive. Findings indicate students increasingly demand professional programs.
However, scholars and respondents believed liberal education values do not need to be
sacrificed. Devitis et al. (1998) suggested that creating a linkage between liberal and
service learning and promoting critical reflection in all settings will position liberal arts
institutions to prove their relevance to society. Mercer University leadership has made
efforts to enhance liberal education both in service learning and by promoting liberal
education values including critical thinking, teamwork, leadership, and problem-solving.
223
Freeland (2009) proposed the goal of enriching liberal learning by connecting it
more strongly with the lives students will actually live after college through community-
based activities, study abroad programs, and internships. According to Freeland, liberal
education should empower students to be effective actors and problem solvers in
organizational, social, and civic settings. As previously discussed, Mercer leadership has
extensively supported service learning initiatives as well as others that are designed to
make lasting changes to students’ lives including Mercer on Mission. Astin and Astin
(2000) added that students need to be empowered by teaching them to lead. They noted
that it is difficult to be an effective leader without experiencing effective leadership in
one’s education. Again, Mercer leadership has made efforts to promote student
leadership by supporting programs such as the Mercer Service Scholars program and
initiatives led by students such as the sex trafficking conference. These programs will
make students’ experiences at Mercer more relevant to their lives beyond college,
supporting scholars’ beliefs that if liberal education commits to improving leadership,
students, as well as current leaders, will be capable of and committed to proving
relevancy in response to societal demands and needs.
In addition, liberal education needs to be more socially conscious and activist.
Undoubtedly, Mercer University has historically supported social activism from
integration and women’s rights movements to religious and academic freedom, and
leadership has linked liberal education to real-world situations. Mercer celebrates an
appreciation of social justice and academic freedom.
224
Respondents frequently discussed the unique programs offered by Mercer that
integrate liberal arts values including critical thinking, problem solving, and teamwork.
For example, the medical school offers a unique problem-based curriculum and the
business school integrates a thorough reading and writing component. The experience of
group challenges prepares engineering students for real-life situations. Also, small class
sizes and the large number of liberal education general courses support these values.
However, some programs, especially medical programs, are more difficult to inject a
large number of liberal education requirements into due to the rigidity of associated
organization standards.
Scholars claim that the implementation of professional program attributes should
prove simple due to the relationship between liberal and professional education. A
“profession” is defined as a field of endeavor whose practitioners have a collective idea
of the good in their work that does not overlap exactly with the self-interests of
individuals according to Lemann (2004) who stated “professionals do work that has a
public purpose” (p. 15). At Mercer, for example, the law school provides service to the
wrongly accused. The dedication to benefiting society correlates with liberal education
values. Lemann (2004) concluded that both liberal and professional education
demonstrate a commitment to a broad purpose that is not necessarily utilitarian. Grubb
and Lazerson (2005) promoted a similar notion. They asserted that a broad
understanding of professionalism provides its own avenues back to liberal education.
Professional education provides a logical connection to many elements of liberal
education.
225
Respondents indicated that liberal education is found in professional programs at
Mercer and its inclusion has seemed natural. Mulcahy (2009) agreed that this
reconceptualization is natural, stating that liberal arts education needs to simply develop a
new conception of a venerable idea. He suggested that liberal education take a multi-
dimensional approach, more broad in scope than traditional conceptions. The resulting
curriculum blends academic disciplines with practical studies. For example, Mercer
University leadership’s increased focus on research, which many view as professional in
nature, is combined with liberal education to encourage faculty and students to question
existing ideas and explore new ideas. This partial departure from largely academic
curriculum redefines liberal education at Mercer with ease.
Basically, a conversion that combines theoretical pursuits and practical pursuits
such as work, knowledge production, and service would make liberal arts institutions
more competitive. Clearly, Mercer University is an exemplary of this concept. Service
learning, for example, is integrated throughout the university, both within and outside of
the classroom. Thus, the integration of a professionally-based curriculum, such as
business, is based on the belief that vocational instruction and the arts and sciences are
complementary, not competitive. They are both integral elements of a complete
education (Arenella et al., 2009). A hybrid approach to learning emerges. Real-world
action should be integrated into the emphasis on intellectual qualities at liberal arts
institutions according to Freeland (2009). Mercer is an exemplar of this notion.
According to Kuh (2003), a more meaningful approach to evaluating an
institution is to determine how well it fosters student learning. Thus, a connection
226
between collegiate quality and student engagement is emerging. The incorporation of
practice-oriented curriculum provides an opportunity to engage students through a multi-
faceted, varied, and individualized educational experience will result. The Carnegie
Foundation (n.d.a) concurred, quoting Carnegie President Lee S. Shulman:
It’s important for students to learn to think, to reason, to interrogate text, and to understand it; but that is not enough. It’s also important that students learn to act, to do, to perform—but this is still not enough. Today’s undergraduates must learn to think and act responsibly, with integrity, civility and caring. Practical reasoning integrates these three habits—of mind, hand, and heart—that are essential for the formation of today’s students (p. 16).
Respondents frequently agreed. According to Respondent 13, President Underwood
frequently speaks of the importance of action to serve others and demonstrate faith.
Promoting Liberal Education
According to Mazzarol and Soutar (2001), because education is a service
industry, promoting qualities and benefits is more difficult than in product-oriented
industries. Perhaps a result of this challenge, many scholars have claimed that liberal
education has become undermined due to failure to promote its qualities. Thus, they
stressed that the values and benefits of liberal education need to be communicated and
promoted. Carol Schneider, president of the American Association of Colleges and
Universities, a group that promotes liberal arts education, discussed the disguise of many
liberal arts institutions. Many students of these institutions are unaware they are
receiving a liberal education. Thus, it is clear the general public does not understand the
features and values of this form of education. Schneider claimed that the public does not
value liberal education by name, but place great value in the intended educational
227
outcomes (AACU, 2009a). Thus, just as leaders must clearly communicate visions to
stakeholders, leaders must do a better job of articulating and justifying the value of liberal
arts according to DiMaria (2010). Liberal education needs to communicate a clearer
sense of what is implied by the idea of education as preparation for life.
The Liberal Education and America’s Promise National Leadership Council (n.d.)
noted the decreasing understanding and emphasis of liberal arts educational learning
outcomes nationally. Yet even business leaders believe that student learning outcomes
associated with a liberal arts education should be emphasized more. Thus, according to
Morrel and Zimmerman (2008), “It is incumbent upon colleges and universities
committed to the liberal arts to make concerted efforts to design strategies that effect
changes in understanding, attitude, and appreciation of liberal education among current
and prospective students and among broader constituencies” (p. 2). Mercer leadership
continually speaks to the importance of liberal education both internally and externally
while concurrently adapting existing modes of instruction to create a product desirable to
students according to respondents. They make conscious efforts refine liberal education
without sacrificing foundational values.
Both Presidents Godsey and Underwood have managed to maintain successfully a
balance between liberal and professional education. Despite the larger number of
professional schools with significantly more students than the CLA and humanities
majors within the College of Continuing and Professional Students, Mercer leadership
still speaks of the CLA as the cornerstone of the university and stresses liberal education
values including service learning.
228
Mercer University Leadership Successful Responses to Challenges
The second sub-question deals with specific obstacles faced by Mercer leadership.
What obstacles did Mercer University’s leaders encounter during the process of
transformation and how did they overcome these obstacles? Three key challenges were
identified—opposition, increased complexity and diversity, and maintaining foundational
values. As previously discussed in this chapter, respondents and scholars shared similar
views on leadership’s ability to manage opposition and Mercer leadership’s dedication to
maintaining liberal education values in the form of verbal, curricular, and monetary
support. Another challenge faced by leadership has been unifying an increasingly diverse
and complex university. It was noted that just prior to President Underwood’s tenure, the
university seemed to be comprised of highly separated colleges and schools.
Respondents discussed efforts President Underwood has been making to increase
collaboration and cohesiveness amongst the academic units at Mercer. Scholars,
including Wheatley (1999), have stressed that collaboration will yield a more adaptive
response to transformation. In congruence with this view, respondents indicated that
there has been a push by leadership to increase collaboration throughout Mercer.
Interdisciplinary efforts are supported and, at times, required. For example,
undergraduate and graduate curriculum committees ensure all academic units have a
voice in curricular changes and financial support is often provided to projects promoting
interdisciplinary studies. Other efforts, including the emphasis on service learning, have
been used in an attempt to unify the entire university. For example, Mercer on Mission
brings together faculty and students from a variety of academic units to serve others
229
globally. As stressed by Kezar et al. (2006), when collective action is not taken,
fragmentation results, impeding the ability to obtain institutional goals. These are efforts
identified by respondents to reduce debilitating fragmentation.
Limitations
There were limitations to the design of this study which may or may not have had
an impact on outcomes. First, there was limited availability of archival data. This was
especially true for information regarding the foundation of Mercer University. Thus,
secondary sources were used to develop an account of the Baptist college movement and
the early development of the University. On the same note, respondents frequently
reported on the foundation of Mercer as well as the transformative period, but did not
witness first-hand these periods in their entirety.
The self-reporting nature of interviews presents another limitation. Respondent
data may incorporate bias. In addition, respondents may have presented inaccurate data,
either intentionally or unintentionally.
Recommendations for Further Research
The research findings could be expanded upon through further studies. First, the
views of current students in regards to the transformation of Mercer University into a
comprehensive institution would provide insight into liberal and professional education
as well as transformative leadership strategies. These views would be compared and
contrasted with those analyzed in this study to ensure Mercer leadership is meeting
students’ needs and desires. Similarly, a historical case study of a liberal arts school that
230
has not implemented professional programs so as to compare and contrast findings to
those of this research may be beneficial to higher education leaders. Additionally, it
would be interesting to study a purely secular institution that has undergone
transformation to compare it to Mercer as a religiously-affiliated institution. A study of
the impact of Mercer University’s efforts to maintain founding values on the Mercer
community, including students, faculty, and staff, as well as external stakeholders,
including community members and those targeted by study abroad programs, to
determine the value of Mercer’s missions may legitimize leaderships’ efforts.
Studies not specific to Mercer University may provide valuable insight to leaders
of higher education institutions. A study of how professional schools have changed over
time may reveal future trends in higher education. Additionally, a comparative study of
professional programs offered by liberal arts institutions and those offered by institutions
founded on professional education may demonstrate the role liberal education actually
plays in these programs. An action research study of a liberal arts institution adding
professional programs for the first time would provide data directly observed by the
research regarding the transformative process and the role of liberal education. Lastly, a
study of the role of liberal education in all institutions would determine the potential of a
trend toward liberal arts education once reconceptualization has been implemented.
Summary of the Results
Mercer’s overall transformation and leadership activities and attributes during
transformative processes were the focus of this study. Respondents felt transformation
occurred due to President Godsey’s visionary motivations as well as a desire to serve
231
Georgia. Further, respondents indicated change has been necessary to compete for
student enrollment. Challenges including opposition, increased diversity and complexity,
and the preservation of founding values in light of significant transformation have been
faced by leadership. When discussing leadership efforts to overcome these challenges
and move Mercer toward its missions, respondents emphasized the significance of
developing and communicating a clear vision, implementing shared governance, setting
high expectations, implementing entrepreneurial ideas, managing resistance, role
modeling, obtaining the support of the Board of Trustees, and developing positive
external relationships.
An emphasis on leadership’s dedication to Mercer’s liberal arts foundational
values developed throughout the historical narrative. In terms of Mercer’s
transformation, respondents indicated that a strong liberal arts commitment has remained,
but has been challenged. This is due to the increased complexity and diversity that has
decreased the cohesiveness of the colleges and schools. On a positive note, respondents
identified that leadership has used Mercer’s liberal arts foundation to differentiate it from
other institutions as a source of competitive strength.
Conclusion
As society changes, so will the demands placed on higher education institutions.
It is the role of the leaders of these institutions to identify the dynamic forces that drive
students to choose colleges and universities in which to enroll. Liberal education has
held a steady position in the ranks of higher education. With its broad-based education
232
that promotes a skill set applicable to most any life situation, it has appealed to those
desiring a strong higher education. However, increasingly students have favored
professional educations designed to prepare them for specific careers.
Mercer leadership has identified this trend and determined that it is possible to
meet this demand without compromising its existing to commitment to liberal education.
Further, it can promote the livelihood of Georgians by educating students to serve
positions such as doctors, engineers, and teachers in areas in need of their services.
Mercer leadership has faced significant challenges, but has developed strategies to
manage them in order to push forward with the institution’s mission which has remained
essentially the same since Mercer’s foundation in Penfield in 1833. Mercer University is
an exemplar of an institution able to mold itself into a relevant and competitive institution
without losing sight of its founding identity.
233
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