Final RD Sector Report 19July - dmeo.gov.in

July 2021

S e c t o r R e p o r t

Rural Development

Copyright ©2021 Development Monitoring and Evaluation Office (DMEO), NITI

Aayog, Government of India

All rights reserved. This report or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or

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Sector Report: Rural Development

PREFACE

TheGovernmentofIndia(GoI)spendsclosetoRs.14lakhcroresannuallyondevelopmentactivities,

through nearly 750 schemes implemented by Union Ministries. To improve the effectiveness and

efficiency of public finance, and the quality of service-delivery to citizens, all schemes have been

mandated to undergo third party evaluations, to provide an evidentiary foundation for scheme

continuation from 2021-22 to 2025-26. In 2019, the DevelopmentMonitoring and Evaluation Office

(DMEO), NITI Aayogwas assigned the task of evaluating 28 Umbrella Centrally Sponsored Schemes

(UCSS),whichareschemes/programmesfundedjointlybytheCentreandtheStatesandimplemented

bytheStates.Thishistoricexercise,undertakenbetweenApril2019andFebruary2021,evaluated125

Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS), under 10 Sectors, together covering close to 30% of the GoI’s

developmentexpenditure,amountingtoapproximatelyRs.3lakhcrore(USD43billion)perannum.

Inordertofulfilthismandatetothehigheststandardpossible,tooptimizeboththerobustnessandthe

uptakeoftheevidencegenerated,DMEOadoptedanationallyrepresentativemixedmethodsevaluation

methodologyanda consultative reviewprocess for the reports.Throughqualitativeandquantitative

analysisofsecondaryliterature,analysiswasdoneatthreelevels:thesector,theumbrellaCSSandthe

schemeitself.Thestudiesthusproducedthenunderwentareviewprocessinvolvingconsultationswith

NITIAayogsubjectmatterdivisions,concernedMinistriesandDepartments,andexternalexperts.

The present report is an outcome of this evaluation study and presents an analysis of the Rural

DevelopmentSectorbasedonprimaryandsecondarydatacollection.InthisReport,weseektocover

ruraldevelopmentsector in India, identifyingthe intendedandactualcontributionofGoIschemesto

sectoroutcomes.Thisincludesareasformorefocusedefforttoachievenationalpriorities/SDGs.Italso

identifies opportunities for convergence of the schemes within the sector to other developmental

programmesoftheCentralandtheStateGovernmentsaswellaswithprivatesector,corporatesocial

responsibility(CSR)efforts,international,multilateralandbilateralaid,etc.

WehopethatthisReportwillfurtherourunderstandingoftheRuralDevelopmentSectorandhelpus

movetowardsachievingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandtheNationalDevelopmentAgenda,to

promotethewell-beingofallsovereigncitizensofIndia.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

WewouldliketoexpressourgratitudetoDr.RajivKumar,Vice-ChairmanNITIAayog,andShriAmitabhKant, Chief Executive Officer, who have been the driving force, first in entrusting this importantresponsibility to the Development Monitoring and Evaluation Office (DMEO) and subsequently asmentorsthroughoutthestudy,inprovidingallnecessarysupportandguidanceforthecompletionoftheproject.Wealsoexpressourgratitude to theMinistryofFinance for recognizing thecrucialneed forevidenceinthedeliberationsanddecisionspertainingschemebudgetallocations.OurinvaluablepartnersinthisexercisehavetheDepartmentofRuralDevelopment,withallitsofficials,withoutwhosecooperationthisevaluationwouldnothavebeenpossible.Wearegratefultothemforproviding us access to available data, for patiently sharing their expertise through Key InformantInterviews(KIIs),andforprovidingtheirvitalcommentsonthedraftreportsduringvariousstagesofthestudy.AdetailedlistoftheKeyInformantInterviewscanbefoundintheannexurestothisreport.Inourfederalstructure,equallyimportantpartnersinthisendeavourhavebeentheStateGovernmentsof Andhra Pradesh, Assam,Dadra andNagarHaveli, Gujarat,Haryana,Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,Meghalaya,Odisha,Rajasthan,Uttarakhand,UttarPradeshandTamilNadu,andtheirChiefSecretaries.OfficialsacrosstheStategovernmentshaveextendedtheirgraciouscooperationtothestudy,forwhichwearedeeplythankful.Next, we must thank our external experts, Mr. S Vijay Kumar, Ex-Secretary, Ministry of RuralDevelopment,TERI,andDr.PSivaRam,NIRD&PRforhelpingrefineandrationalizethereportthroughtheirinsightfulcomments,correctionsandfeedback.Fromthefundamentalsofthesectortothelatestdevelopments,theyhelpedensurethatthereportwasascomprehensive,cogentandtechnicallyrobustaspossible,withintheshorttimeframesavailable.M/s IPEGlobalLtd., theconsultant firm,hasdonearemarkable job,particularlygiventhesignificantchallengesofscale,timeandresourcespresentedbythisproject.Addingtotheconstraints,theglobalpandemicandtheCOVID-19lockdowndidnotstopthemfromdeliveringtopqualitywork.ParticularappreciationisduetoDr.ManojMishra(TeamLeader);Mr.AmodKhanna(DeputyTeamLeader)andtheir team; Kriti Gupta (Manager); Rai (Research Associate), Beatriz (Research Associate), Ashish(ResearchAssociate)andShipra(ResearchAssociate);andfieldpartnerKantarPublicledbyMs.PallaviDhall(Director);Mr.AbisonPaulAnchalackal(AssociateDirector)andtheirteam.AtNITIAayog,thisexercisewouldnothavegottenoffthegroundwithouttheconsistentsupportoftheProcurement Management Committee and Bid Evaluation Committee, particularly Mr. Sonjoy Saha,Adviser(PPP/PAMD),Dr.A.PSingh,Ex-Adviser(Agriculture)andMs.SanchitaShukla,Director,InternalFinance Division. Staffs at the NITI Aayog Rural Development vertical, particularly Ms. SanyuktaSamaddar(Adviser)andMs.VandanaSharma(DeputyAdviser)havealsobeeninstrumentalinseeingthis project to fruition. The Internal Finance Division further merits special mention here for theirextensiveefforts.

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DMEOteamhasbeenatthecoreofthestudies-inthissectorspecifically,Ms.PriyankaDua,Mr.SaumyaChakravortyandMr.RajpalSinghworkedonevery lastdetailof thisherculeanendeavour,undertheguidance of Mr. Akhilesh Kumar, Director and Dr. Shweta Sharma, Consultant-II. Special thanks areextended to Ms. Harkiran Sanjeevi, ex-Deputy Director General who played an important role incompletingthestudy.TheteamwouldalsoliketothankDr.AmritPal,Mr.LavBhardawaj,Ms.PriyankaSethi,Mr.VijenderKumar,Mr.AnkitChoudhary,Ms.AyeshaAyaz,Mr.JayantaPatelandMr.ManojPankajfortheirsupportatvariousstagesofthestudy.Acrosspackages,DeputyDirectorGeneralMr.AshutoshJain also oversaw coordination, standardization and monitoring of the study design, analysis andimplementationprocesses.TheyweresupportedbytheEvaluationsCoreTeam:Dr.ShwetaSharma,Mr.AnandTrivedi,Ms.SanjanaManaktala,Ms.VatsalaAggarwal,Mr.O.P.ThakurandMr.JayantaPatel.TheDMEOadministrationandaccountsofficers,includingMr.D.Bandopadhyay,Mr.MunishSinghal,Mr.D.S.Sajwan,Mr.ManojKumarandothersprovidedvitalsupportondocumentation,approvals,paymentsetc.Inaccordancewiththemassivescopeandscaleoftheexercise,thisreportowesitssuccessfulcompletiontothededicatedeffortsofawidevarietyofstakeholders.

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Contents1.SectorLevelAnalysis..............................................................................................................................................1

1.1. BackgroundoftheSector....................................................................................................................................11.2. PerformanceoftheSector...............................................................................................................................10

1.2.1.Infrastructure............................................................................................................................................22

1.2.2.Livelihoods.................................................................................................................................................28

1.2.3.SocialSafetyNet.......................................................................................................................................31

1.2.4.GlobalBenchmarking............................................................................................................................35

1.2.5.CrossSectionalAnalysis.......................................................................................................................42

1.3. IssuesandChallenges......................................................................................................................................127ANNEX1:DETAILSOFKEYINFORMANTINTERVIEWS(KIIS)....................................................................136ANNEX2:BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................................186

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ListofAcronymsAAP AnnualActionPlan

ABPO AssistantBlockProgrammeOfficer

ABPS AadhaarBasedPaymentSystems

ACA AdditionalCentralAssistance

ADB AsianDevelopmentbank

ADIP AssistancetoDisabledPersonsforPurchase

ADO AgricultureDevelopmentOffice

AGEY AajeevikaGrameenExpressYojana

AIBP AcceleratedIrrigationBenefitProgramme

AIC AtalIncubationCentres

AIR AllIndiaradio

ALP AadhaarLinkedPayments

ANPR AutomaticNumberPlateRecognition

APL AbovePovertyline

APR AsiaandthePacificRegion

AWC AnganwadiCentres

BBBP BetiBachaoBetiPadhao

BCC BehaviouralChangeCommunication

BDO BlockDevelopmentOfficer

BDSP BusinessDevelopmentServiceProviders

BMCU BulkMilkCoolingUnits

BMMU BlockMissionManagementUnit

BNV BharatNirmanVolunteers

BPL BelowPovertyLines

BPO BlockProgrammeOfficer

BPT BlockPlanningTeam

BRC BlockResourceCentres

CAD&WM CommandAreaDevelopment&WaterManagement

CAG ContemplorAuditGeneral

CAMC ComprehensiveMaintenanceContract

CAPART CouncilforAdvancementofPeople’sActionandRuralTechnology

CB CapacityBuilding

CBI CantilanBankInc

CBO Communitybasedorganisations

CBPWD Community-basedparticipatorywatersheddevelopment

CBRI CentralBuildingResearchInstitute

CCMA Citizen-CentricMobileApplication

CDM CommunityDevelopmentMovement

CDMU ClusterDevelopmentandManagementUnit

CEF CommunityEnterpriseFund

CEF CommunityEnterpriseFund

CEGC CentralEmploymentGuaranteeCouncil

CEO ChiefExecutiveOfficer

CEPT CentreforEnvironmentalPlanningandTechnology

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CFR Communityforestright

CFT ClusterFacilitationTeam

CGF CriticalGapFunds

CGTFS CreditGuaranteeTrustFundScheme

CIF CommunityInvestmentFund

CISF CommunityInvestmentSupportFund

CLF ClusterLevelFederation

CLRP CommunityLivelihoodsResourcePersons

CMAT CommunityMonitorsandAuditorsTeam

CMRD TheCentreforMediaandRuralDocumentation

CMSPGHS ChiefMinister’sSolarPoweredGreenHouseScheme

CNCPL ComprehensiveNewConnectivityPriorityLists

CPI ConsumerPriceIndex

CPI-AL ConsumerPriceIndex-AgriculturalLabour

CPIO CentralPublicInformationOfficer

CPI-R ConsumerPriceIndex-Rural

CPI-RL ConsumerPriceIndex-RuralLabour

CPMU CentralProgrammeManagementUnit

CRM CommonReviewMission

CRP CommunityResourcePersons

CRRI CentralRoadResearchInstitute

CSDCI ConstructionSkillDevelopmentCouncilofIndia

CSIR CouncilofScientificandIndustrialResearch

CSO CivilSocietyOrganisation

CSP CustomerServiceProvider

CSR CorporateSocialResponsibility

CSS CentrallySponsoredScheme

CSSC CommunitySocialSupportCommittee

CUPL ComprehensiveUpgradationPriorityLists

CWS CurrentWeeklyStatus

CWT CommunityWatershedTeam

CYSD CentreforYouthandSocialDevelopment

DAY DeendayalAntyodayaYojana

DBT DirectBenefitTransfer

DDP DesertDevelopmentProgramme

DDRS DeendayalDisabledRehabilitationScheme

DDUGJY DeenDayalUpadhyayaGramJyotiYojana

DDU-GKY DeenDayalUpadhayaGrameenKaushalyaYojana

DFID DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment

DLP DefectLiabilityPeriod

DMEO DevelopmentMonitoringandEvaluationOffice

DMF DistrictMineralFoundation

DMMU DistrictMissionManagementUnit

DP DevelopmentPlan

DPAP DroughtProneAreaProgramme

DPC DistrictProgrammeCoordinator

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DPM DistrictProgrammeManager

DPMU DistrictProjectManagementUnit

DPO DistrictProgrammeOfficer

DPR DetailedProjectReport

DRDA DistrictRuralDevelopmentAuthority

DRRP DistrictRuralRoadsPlan

DST DepartmentofScienceandTechnology

DWCRA DevelopmentofWomenandChildinRuralAreas

EAG ExpertAdvisoryGroup

EAS EmploymentAssuranceScheme

EC ExecutiveCommittee

ECAI ExternalCreditAssessmentInstitutions

EDD EmpoweredDeliberativeDemocracy

EDI EntrepreneurshipDevelopmentInstituteofIndia

EGS EmploymentGuaranteeScheme

EGS EmploymentGuaranteeScheme

EPWP ExpandedPublicWorksProgramme

ER ElectedRepresentative

ESDP EuropeanSpatialDevelopmentPerspective

EU EuropeanUnion

FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganisation

FC FinanceCommission

FGD FocusGroupDiscussion

FMS FundManagementSystem

FPC FarmerProducerCompany

FPO FarmerProducerOrganizations

FPS FairPriceShops

FRA ForestRightsAct

FTO FundTransferOrder

GAP GenderActionPlan

GB GoverningBody

GBC GenderBudgetCells

GDP GrossDomesticProduct

GGGI GlobalGreenGrowthInstitute

GHG GreenHouseGas

GOI GovernmentofIndia

GP GramPanchayat

GPDP GramPanchayatDevelopmentPlan

GPRMP GramPanchayatRoadMaintenancePlan

GPS GlobalPositioningSystem

GRIMMS GISenabledRoadInformationManagement&MonitoringSystem

GRRIS GeospatialRuralRoadInformationSystem

GRS GramRozgarSahayak

GS GramSabha

GST GoodsandServicesTax

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HDB TheHousingandDevelopmentBoard

HP HimachalPradesh

HR HumanResource

HSCAS HouseSite-cumConstructionAssistanceScheme

HSNP TheHungerSafetyNetProgramme

IAP IntegratedActionPlans

IAY IndiraAwaasYojana

IBS IndividualBeneficiaryScheme

ICAP IntegratedClusterActionPlan

ICAR IndianCouncilofAgriculturalResearch

ICDS IntegratedChildDevelopmentServices

ICT InformationandCommunicationTechnology

IDA InternationalDevelopmentAssociation

IEC InformationEducationCommunication

IFAD InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment

IFR IndividualForestRight

IGNDPS IndiraGandhiNationalDisabilityPensionScheme

IGNOAPS IndiraGandhiNationalOldAgePensionScheme

IGNWPS IndiraGandhiNationalWidowPensionScheme

IIFM IndianInstituteofForestManagement

IIPA IndianInstituteofPublicAdministration

IIT IndianinstituteofTechnology

ILO InternationalLabourOrganisation

IPC InterpersonalCommunication

IPPE IntegratedParticipatoryPlanningExercise

IRDP IntegratedRuralDevelopmentProgramme

IRMA InstituteofRuralManagement,Anand

ISRO IndianSpaceResearchOrganisation

IWMP IntegratedWatershedManagementProgramme

JAM JanDhanAadhaarMobileTrinity

JGSY JawaharGramSamridhiYojana

JRY JawaharRozgarYojana

KII KeyInformantInterview

KMC KnowledgeManagementandCommunication

KMU KnowledgeManagementUnit

KSS KesabchakSrijaniSangh

KVIC KhadiandVillageIndustriesCommission

LAC LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean

LBI LivelihoodBusinessIncubatorCenters

LFPR LabourForceParticipationRate

LGD LocalGovernmentDirectory

LIFE LivelihoodinFullEmployment

LPG LiquefiedPetroleumGas

LWE LeftWingExtremism

MB MeasurementBook

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MCP Micro-CreditPlan

MDMS Mid-DayMealScheme

MENA TheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica

MFI MicroFinanceInstitute

MGNREGA MahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct

MGNREGS MahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeScheme

MIP Micro-investmentPlan

MIS ManagementInformationSystem

MKSP MahilaKisanSashaktikaranPariyojna

MKSY MahilaKisanShramasakthiYojana

MLA MemberofLegislativeAssembly

MoA MinistryofAgriculture

MOOC MassiveOpenOnlineCourse

DORD MinistryofRuralDevelopment

MoWCD MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment

MPCE MonthlyPerCapitaExpenditure

MPRLP MadhyaPradeshRuralLivelihoodsProject

MSC MigrationSupportCentre

MSME Micro,SmallandMediumEnterprises

MSP MinimumSupportPrice

MUDRA MicroUnitsDevelopmentandRefinanceAgencyLtd

NABARD NationalBankforAgricultureAndRuralDevelopment.

NACER NationalCentreforExcellenceofRSETIs

NBCP NationalBio-MassCookstovesProgramme

NDDB NationalDairyDevelopmentBoard

Ne-FMS NationalElectronicFundManagementSystem

NEGF NationalEmploymentGuaranteeFund

NFBS NationalFamilyBenefitScheme

NFFWP NationalFoodforWorkProgramme

NFHS NationalFamilyHealthSurvey

NGO Non-GovernmentOrganizations

NHAI NationalHighwaysAuthorityofIndia

NHB NationalHousingBank

NHM NationalHorticultureMission

NIC NationalInformaticsCentre

NIC NationalInformaticsCentre

NIOS NationalInstituteofOpenSchooling

NIPFP NationalInstituteofPublicFinance&Policy

NIRDPR NationalInstituteofRuralDevelopment&PanchayatiRaj

NLEC NationalLevelEmpoweredCommittee

NLM NationalLevelMonitors

NMBS NationalMaternityBenefitScheme

NMMU NationalMissionManagementUnit

NPM Non-ChemicalPestManagement

NQM NationalQualityMonitors

NRDC NationalResearchDevelopmentCorporation

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NRDWP NationalRuralDrinkingWaterProgramme

NREP NationalRuralEmploymentProgramme

NRETP NationalRuralEconomicTransformationProject

NRIDA NationalRuralInfrastructureDevelopmentAgency

NRLM NationalRuralLivelihoodMission

NRLP NationalRuralLivelihoodsProject

NRM NaturalResourceManagement

NRO NationalResourceOrganisations

NRRDC NationalRuralRoadDevelopmentCommittee

NSAAC NationalSocialAssistanceAdvisoryCommittee

NSAP NationalSocialAssistancePlan

NSDC NationalSocialAssistanceAdvisoryCommittee

NSS NationalSampleSurvey

NSSO NationalSampleSurveyOrganisation

NSQF NationalSkillQualificationFramework

NTFP Non-timberforestproducts

NTFS Non-TimberForestProducts

NTSA NationalTechnicalSupportAgency

NU NationalUnit

OBC OtherBackwardCaste

ODR OtherDistrictRoads

OECD OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment

OFWM OnFarmWaterManagement

OJT On-the-JobTraining

OLM OdishaLivelihoodsMission

OMMAS OnlineManagement,MonitoringandAccountingSystem

OOMF Output-OutcomeMonitoringFramework

OPM OxfordPolicyManagement

PBF ProgramaBolsaFamília

PC ProducerCompanies

PCCBP Plasticcell-filledconcreteblockpavement

PCI PavementConditionIndex

PD ProgrammeDivision

PDO projectdevelopmentobjectives

PDS PublicDistributionSystem

PF ProgrammeFund

PFMS PublicFundManagementSystem

PHC PrimaryHealthcareCentre

PIA ProgrammeImplementingAgency

PIB PressInformationBureau

PIN ProfessionalInstitutionalNetwork

PIO PublicInformationOfficer

PIU ProjectImplementationUnit

PLFS PeriodicLabourForceSurvey

PMAY PradhanMantriAwaasYojana

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PMAYG PradhanMantriAwaasYojana-Gramin

PMGKYP PradhanMantriGaribKalyanYojanaPackage

PMGSY PradhanMantriGramSadakYojana

PMKKKY PradhanMantriKhanijKshetraKalyanYojana

PMKSY PradhanMantriKrishiSinchayiYojana

PMU ProjectManagementUnit

PMUY PradhanMantriUjjwalaYojana

PO ProgrammeOfficer

PPP PublicPrivatePartnership

PRC PerformanceReviewCommittee

PREM People’sRuralEducationMovement

PRI PanchayatiRajInstitute

PSNP ProductiveSafetyNetProgramme

PSS PanchayatSwayamSevak

PSU PublicSectorUndertaking

PTG PrimitiveTribalGroup

PTR PupilTeacherRatio

PURA ProvisionofUrbanAmenitiesInRuralAreas

PVTG ParticularlyVulnerableTribalGroups

PwD PersonwithDisability

PWL PermanentWaitingList

QR QuickResponse

RBI ReserveBankofIndia

RBS ResourceBlockStrategy

RBV ResourceBasedViews

RCIP RuralConnectivityInvestmentProgramme

RCPLWEA RuralConnectivityProjectsforLeftWingExtremismAffectedAreas

RD RuralDevelopment

RF RevolvingFund

RFIP RuralFinancialInstitutionsProgramme

RHKN RuralHousingKnowledgeNetwork

RKVY RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana

RLEGP RuralLandlessEmploymentGuaranteeProgramme

RPD TheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesAct

RS RozgarSahayak

RSBY RashtriyaSwasthaBimaYojana

RSETI RuralSelfEmploymentTrainingInstitutes

RTI RighttoInformation

RUDA RuralUrbanDisparityAnalysis

SAC SocialAuditCommittee

SAGY SansadAadarshGramYojana

SAPCC StateActionPlansonClimateChange

SARAS SalesofArticlesofRuralArtisansSociety

SAU SocialAuditUnit

SBD StandardBiddingDocument

SBM SwacchBharatMission

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SCC ScheduledCastesComponent

SCM SmartCitiesMission

SCs ScheduledCastes

SCSP ScheduledCasteSub-Plan

SCTS SocialCashTransferScheme

SDG SustainableDevelopmentGoals

SDP SkillDevelopmentPlan

SECC SocioEconomicCasteCensus

SECURE SoftwareforEstimateCalculationUsingRuralRatesforEmployment

SEGC StateEmploymentGuaranteeCouncil

SEGF StateEmploymentGuaranteeFund

SGA TheSelling,GeneralandAdministrativeexpenses

SGRY SampoornaGrameenRozgarYojana

SGSY SwarnJayantiGramswarozgarYojana

SHGs SelfHelpGroups

SLACC SustainableLivelihoodsandAdaptationtoClimateChange

SLBC StateLevelBankersCommittees

SLEC StateLevelEmpoweredCommitted

SLSC StateLevelStandingCommittee

SMF TheSocialManagementFramework

SMMU StateMissionManagementUnit

SNA StateNodalAgency

SOC SoilOrganicCarbon

SoR ScheduleofRates

SPMRM ShyamaPrasadMukherjiRurbanMission

SPMU StateProjectManagementUnit

SPV SolarPhotoVoltaic

SQC StateQualityControl

SQM StateQualityMonitor

SRLM StateRurallivelihoodMission

SSA Sub-SaharanAfrica

SSM StateSkillMissions

STC ScheduledTribeComponent

STs ScheduledTribes

STSA StateTechnicalSupportAgencies

SVEP Start-upVillageEntrepreneurshipProgramme

SVYM SwamyVivekanandaYouthMovement

TA TechnicalAssistant

TAG TechnicalAdvisoryGroup

TCE ThiagarajarCollegeofEngineering

TCPO TownandCountryPlanningOrganisation

TEDA TamilNaduEnergyDevelopmentAgency

TISS TataInstituteofSocialSciences

TRYSEM TrainingofRuralYouthforSelf-Employment

TSP TribalSubPlan

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TSPL TalandiSaboPowerPlantLimited

UCSS UmbrellaCentrallysponsoredscheme

UIF UnemploymentInsuranceFund

UN UnitedNations

UNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UNESCAP UnitedNationsEconomic&SocialCommissionforAsia&ThePacific

UNICEF UnitedNationsChildrenFund

UR UnemploymentRate

USAID UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment

VC VillageClusters

VMC VigilanceandMonitoringCommittee

VO VillageOrganizations

VPPC VillagePovertyReductionCommittee

VRF VulnerabilityReductionFund

VRP VillageResourcePersons

WHA WorldHealthAssembly

WHO WorldHealthOrganisation

WPR WorkPopulationRatio

YSD YouthforSocialDevelopment

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1. Sector Level Analysis

1.1. Background of the Sector The rural economyof India represents adomainof opportunity for India’s growthanddevelopmentwithin the currentpolicydiscourse.Thisperceptionof ruralopportunityalsobundles together ideasaboutthepropensityforinnovation1,technology,mechanisation,andentrepreneurshipandvaluechains.Thecurrentpushforinclusivenessandinvestingincollectivesforruralandnationaldevelopmentrestssquarely upon this set of intertwined ideas. DoRD has played a key role in steering rural India’sdevelopmentagendathroughimplementationofvariousprogrammes.Ithasbeenacatalystinaffectingchange in the rural panorama through poverty alleviation, employment generation, infrastructuredevelopmentandextendingsocialsecuritynettotheruralpopulation.

EvolutionoftheSector

Ruraldevelopmentasasectorhashadachequeredjourneyofevolution.SinceIndependencetherehavebeenfourphasesinwhichtheapproachtowardsaddressingissuesinruraldevelopmenthasundergonechangesinemphasis.Anoverviewofthesephasesisgivenbelow:

FirstPhase:StructuralReform

Theearlyphaseofruraldevelopmentlastedforalmostaquarterofacentury,fromtheFirsttotheFifthplanperiod,whichfocusedonestablishmentofCommunityDevelopmentBlocks,pilotedinthefirstplanandlaterextendedtocovertheentirecountry.TheSecondplanbroughtintheneedfortheestablishmentofvillagePanchayatsandformulationofDistrictPlansandhencebroughttheneedforstrongDistrictDevelopmentAdministrationtofunctionasanagencyofchangetowardsanewsocialorder2.

TheapproachduringtheThirdtoFifthplanwasanextensionoftheprincipleofcommunitydevelopmentlaiddowninthepreviousplanswithanaddeddimensionoftechnologyadoptionandmobilizationofresourcesbylocalinstitutionssothattheyareabletodecreasetheirdependencyonschematicassistancefromthecentreandbecomeself-reliantandlocallyrooted3.

RuraldevelopmentwaslargelysubsumedwithinagriculturewithintheThird,FourthandFifthplans.Therewasneitheraseparateministrynoradepartmenttodealwithissuesinruraldevelopmentforthefirstfourplans.ItwastowardsthebeginningofFifthplanperiodthataseparatedepartmentofRuralDevelopmentwasconstitutedwithintheconfinesofMinistryofAgriculture.

SecondPhase:TargetedApproach

TheSixthPlanwasanimportantmilestoneindefiningtheruraldevelopmentasasectorforthreemajorreasons:First,forthefirsttimeintheplandocuments,ruraldevelopmentemergedasaseparatesectorandachapterwasdevotedtoit.Second,theplanbroughttheelementofspecialareaapproachthroughlaunch of programmes like the Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), and Desert DevelopmentProgramme(DDP).Third,specialemploymentprogrammeswereformulatedandlaunchedduringthisperiod, namely the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) for self-employment and theNationalRuralEmploymentProgramme(NREP)forwageemployment.

1Sumberg,J.andHunt,S.(2018).RuralareasandInnovations:Claims,EvidenceandImplications.UnpublishedbackgroundpaperproducedforIFAD’sRuralDevelopmentReport2019,"InvestinginRuralareas".2PlanningCommission.(1956).SecondFiveYearPlan.GovernmentofIndia.3PlanningCommission.(1969).FourthFiveYearPlan.GovernmentofIndia.

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Thisphasewasinstrumentalininitiatingamoveawayfromgrowthorientedpublicinvestmenttowardsa targeted approach to address poverty and disparities. The approach continued andwas expandedduring the Seventh and Eighth plan periods with launching of Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment(TRYSEM)andDevelopmentofWomenandChildinRuralAreas(DWCRA).ThisaddedtoIRDP,RuralLandlessEmploymentGuaranteeProgramme(RLEGP)andJawaharRojgarYojana(JRY)assubsetsofNREP.

ThephaseexperiencedorganisationalchangesindealingwiththebusinessofruraldevelopmentattheCentrallevel.TheseparatedepartmentofRuralDepartmentwasupgradedtoafull-fledgedministryin1979asMinistryofRuralReconstructionand laterrechristenedasMinistryofRuralDevelopment in1982.TherewasashortperiodwhenruraldevelopmentwasmergedwithagricultureandtheministrywasreconstitutedasMinistryofAgricultureandRuralDevelopment(1985).However,since1991theMinistryofRuralDevelopmenthasbeenaseparateministryatthecentrallevel.

ThirdPhase:EntitlementBasedApproach

TheseedsofentitlementapproachweresownwiththeintroductionofNSAPandEmploymentAssuranceScheme (EAS) during the Ninth Plan period. The former created an eligibility framework thatmadespecific households entitled to benefit under the scheme. EAS, influenced byEmploymentGuaranteeScheme (EGS) of Maharashtra, assured guaranteed employment atminimumwages for 100 days indesignatedareasinthecountry.

TheNinthPlanalsosawintroductionofSwarnJayantiGramSwarozgarYojana(SGSY)programmethatwas further expanded in the Tenth Plan as a major livelihood diversification programme throughpromotionofmicroenterprisesusingtheinstrumentalityofSelfHelpGroups(SHGs).

Thedominantperspectiveforruraldevelopmentduringthisphasewasonstrengtheningtheproductivepotentialofruraleconomyandprovidingmoreopportunitiestotheruralpoorineconomicprocesses.

FourthPhase:EmpowermentApproach

Recognising multiple deprivations faced by the poor, and the socio-economic inequalities faced bydifferent social groups, the Eleventh Plan underwent a paradigm shift to design interventions thatempowerthepoorwhointurnwillcreatedemandandinstitutionstodirectlyaddresspovertyinallitsmanifestations.WageemploymentprogrammesweremergedintoMGNREGS(MahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeScheme)toguarantee100daysofunskilledworkalloverthecountry.Thisbecameademand-basedwageemploymentseekingprogrammethatwasself-targetingthepoor.SGSYprogramme was expanded in scope and further deepened in the Twelfth Plan as National RuralLivelihoodProgramme,whichaimsatcreatinganetworkofinstitutionsofpoorandbecomingthevehiclefordiversificationoflivelihoodsawayfromagriculture.

MovingawayfromtheBelowPovertyLine(BPL)approachtodeprivation-basedapproach,thisphaseusedSECCdatatotargetthepoorwithinclusionastheoperatingprincipleforinterventionforpovertyalleviation.

NationalPriorities

TheIndiaThreeYearActionAgenda4recognisedtheappearanceofanintegratedeconomywithblurringofdistinctionbetweenruralandurbanareasintherurallandscape.Thechallengehasbeentheinabilityof‘jobcreationtokeeppacewiththeshiftfromagriculturetonon-farm-basedsector”.Thus,theprimaryfocus was on increasing efficiencies in implementation, a greater emphasis on boosting skill and

4NITIAayog.(2017).ThreeYearActionAgenda,2017-18to2019-20.GovernmentofIndia.

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employment generation and ensuring basic service to all villages.With strengthening of Panchayats,enablingthemtorespondtolocalneeds,theneedforconvergencebetweenprogrammeswasunderlinedasastrategicconcerntocreatesynergeticimpactattherurallevel.

TheCSSinkeyidentifiedsectorsarebeingtakenupintheNationalDevelopmentAgenda.TheformationofShivrajSinghChouhanCommittee(2015)isatestimonytotheeffortsoftheUnionandStates/UTstoworkasTeamIndia in thespiritofCooperativeFederalismtowardsrealizationof thegoalsofVision20225.Theobjectivesincludetheprovisionofbasicamenitiestoallcitizensequitablyforensuringqualityoflife,withself-respectanddignity.Italsoincludestheprovisionofappropriateopportunitiestocitizenssotheycanrealizetheirpotential.Since,asignificantamountofPlanTransferstoStates/UTsareroutedthroughCSS,andsincemanyCSS interventionsare in thesocialsectors, theCommitteehasprovidedrecommendationsonthedesignofCSStobeeffectiveandoutcome-oriented.Moreover,itsuggestsforadequatefundingandimplementationofCSStobesufficientlyflexibletoenabletheStatestoefficientlyimplementthemaccordingtolocalrequirementsandconditions.

TheStrategyforNewIndia@756disaggregated41sectorsintofoursections-drivers,infrastructure,inclusionandgovernance.Thedrivers,asenginestoboosteconomicperformance,havelaidemphasisoncreation of good quality jobs. The aim is to absorb out-migration of labour from agriculture and toincreasewomen’sparticipation inworkforce. Creationofmodern rural infrastructure and integratedvaluechainisexpectedtobringintransformativeimpactinruralareasaslastmileconnectivitywillbeprovidedtoallvillagesandallGramPanchayatswillbedigitallyconnected.Inclusivitywillbeensuredbyimproving living conditions through housing for all that includes a pucca house with connection todrinkingwater,toilet,twenty-four-hourelectricsupplyandaccess.Recognisingtheregionalimbalance,117aspirationaldistrictshavebeenidentifiedwhichwillbeprovidedwithimprovementinhealthandnutrition,education,agricultureandwater resources, financial inclusion, skilldevelopmentandbasicinfrastructure.

CentrallySponsoredSchemesinRuralDevelopment

DoRDenvisagessocialandinclusivegrowthoftheruralsectorthroughmulti-dimensionalstrategiessuchasusingruralinfrastructureastheengineofdevelopmentandfacilitatingthegrowthofagriculturalandalliedactivitiestoimprovetheoverallqualityoflifeofthemasses.Roadsareoneofthekeydriversofdevelopmentuponwhichalmosteveryotherformofinfrastructuredepends.Theyarethecatalystsinbringingdevelopment to theareasofhealth, education, sanitation, and telecommunication.With thisview,theGovernmentofIndia(GoI)intheyear2000cameupwithanationwideplanunderthePMGSY.Housing is another social infrastructure that affects the ruralmasses. Housing for poor is seen as anecessary,publicentitlementwhichisrequiredtokeepthepoorfrombecomingevenmorevulnerableeither through unemployment, ill-health or political unrest. PMAY-G is the flagship programmecontributingtoDoRD’sfulfilmentofthisvision.

Akeyaspectthatcomestomindwhiletalkingaboutruraldevelopmentishowpeoplecanbepartnersinthisjourneytobringsustainablegrowthinsuchawaythatmeaningfulandsustainablelivelihoodsareprovided.MGNREGSisaflagshipprogrammeofDoRDandhasbecomeafrontrunnerinprovidingjobstothemasses.Thecomponentofdirectemploymenttotheruralpeoplehelpsineradicationofpovertyasthewagesearnedenhancetheincomeofthehouseholdswhiletheword“guaranteed”initselfprovidesassuranceofgivingsocialsecuritytoruralhouseholdsandcoveringthemagainsteconomicaswellasagriculturalshocks.Anotherschemethatcoversthedomainofpovertyeradicationandemploymentis

5ReportoftheSub-groupofchiefMinistersonRationalizationofCSS(October2015)6NITIAayog.(2018)[email protected].

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DAY-NRLM.Thisschemehasitsmandateinreachingouttothepoorestofthepoorfamiliesinruralareasinstead of just BPL households. The programme federates needy individuals into community basedorganisations(CBOs),namelywomenbasedSelfHelpGroups(SHGs)anditsfederations,linkingthemtosustainable livelihoods opportunities and nurturing them until they become self-sustainable. Theprogrammeseekstoempowerthewomenofthehousehold,inculcatemicro-savinghabitsandprovidethemwithfinancialassistanceviabanksfortakingupentrepreneuriallivelihoodactivities.

Whileable-bodiedandwillingpeoplearetakencareofbytheabovementionedschemes,thereremaincertainsectionsofsocietywhoarepredisposedtoriskssuchaspoorhealth,unemploymentandlossofearningmemberofafamily.NationalSocialAssistanceProgrammeprovidessocialassistancetothemostneedy and vulnerable groups – elderly, widows, peoplewith disability and those householdswhoseprimarybreadwinnerhaspassedaway.

Alltheseprogrammeshavesynergiespointingtowardsbetterinclusivityandsustainablegrowthofthesector,asenvisionedbyDoRD.PMAY-GallowsfortheconvergencewithMGNREGStocompensatethebeneficiaryfortheemploymentforegonewhileconstructinghisorherownhouse.Similarly,convergenceof DAY - NRLM and MGNREGS works (Category C works under MGNREGS) promote agriculturalproductivity by creating durable infrastructure required for bio-fertilizers (NADEP and Vermi-compostingpits)andpost-harvestfacilities,includingpuccastoragefacilitiesforagriculturalproduce.Considering the vulnerability of beneficiaries in NSAP, the scheme converges with DAY - NRLM forenrolmentofNSAPwomeninSHGsandcollectionandconvergenceofSHGnetworkdatatoNSAP.

AdetailedschemeanalysisofhoweachCSScontributestoDoRD’sgoalsandvisionsisprovidedbelow.

Figure1:ContributionofUmbrellaSchemestotheSector

Source:Analysisbyevaluators

ThenextsectionprovidesadetailedoverviewofthecontributionoftheCSStothethreethemesidentifiedabove–Infrastructure,LivelihoodsandSocialSafetyNet.

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(A)INFRASTRUCTURE

DoRDiscontributingtodevelopmentofruralinfrastructurethroughCSSschemes–PMGSYforroadways;PMAY-Gforhousing;MGNREGSthroughassetscreation;andSPMRMbyprovidingurbanamenitiesinruralIndia.

PMGSY

Launchedin2000,PMGSYaimstoprovideall-weatherroadstoallunconnectedhabitationsinruralareaswithapopulationof500andaboveinplainareasand250andaboveinhilly,desert,tribalandbackwarddistricts.TheprogrammedrawsonthemodelofdecentralisednetworkplanningforruralroadsthathavebeencarriedoutwithfullinvolvementofPanchayatinstitutions.

PMGSY-IIwaslaunchedin2013toconsolidateexistingruralroadnetworkbyupgradingexistingselectedroadsbasedontheireconomicpotentialandroleinfacilitatinggrowthofruralmarketsandhubs.PMGSY-IIIwaslaunchedin2019asaseparateverticalofroadconnectivityinLWE,initiallyaffecting44districtsofthecountry.

PMAY-G

RestructuringtheerstwhileIAYprogramme,thePMAY-Gwaslaunchedin2016tofulfiltheobjectiveofHousingForallby2022.Theprogrammeaimstoprovideapuccahousewithbasicamenitiestoallruralhouseless households and households living in kutcha and/or dilapidated houses. The programmeprovidesassistanceofRs.1.2lakhsinplainandRs.1.3lakhsinHillyStates,NorthEasternStates,difficultareas and IAP districts for construction of a house of 25 sq.m. The beneficiary is linked to SBM forassistanceofRs12,000forconstructionoftoiletand90/95persondaysofemploymentunderMGNREGSasfinancialsupportforunskilledwages.

MGNREGS

MGNREGShasbearingonrural infrastructurebywayof creationof sustainableassets.Theaspectofnaturalresourcemanagementunder theschemecontributes toenhancing thenationalresourcebase(throughwaterconservation,droughtproofing,renovatingwaterbodies,ruralconnectivityandsoforth)andfurtheringsustainabledevelopment7.

EligibleworksunderMGNREGSarereviewedregularlyandthelistofpermissibleworkshasexpandedfromitsoriginalmenu.Theemphasisisonworksthataimforsoilandwaterconservation;enhancementofassetsforagriculture,livestockandfisheries;infrastructurethatpromotesruraldrinkingwaterandsanitation;droughtproofingand floodcontrolworks;anddevelopmentofstructures thatexpandthescope for irrigation and/or enhance availability of water for agriculture and allied activities. Theguidelines of MGNREGS allow the Panchayats to select particular works from the framework ofpermissibleworksforimplementationaspartofMGNREGS.

SPMRM

Launchedin2016theSPMRMprogrammeisdesignedforeconomiesintransitionfrompredominantlyruralincharactertowardsurbaneconomyinstructureandcontent.Theprogrammeidentifiesarurbanclusterasaclusterofgeographicallycontiguousvillageswithapopulationofabout25,000to50,000inplainandcoastalareasandwithapopulationof5,000to15,000indesert,hillyortribalareas.

Programme entails a project-based approach for intervention that will attract funds from different

7MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2018).AnnualReport.

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schemestoconvergeresourcesandlinkagesforgivingimpetustothematicbasedgrowthofeconomicactivity.Theprogrammeiscomprehensiveasitencompassesprovisioningofurbanserviceintheclustersothatthecluster improves intermsofeaseof livingaswellaseaseofdoingbusiness.ToovercomeshortcominginresourcesthereisprovisionofgapfundinguptoRs30croresbasedontheDPRpreparedfor the cluster. The first phase of the programme targets intervention in 300 rurban clusters at thenationallevel.

(B)RURALLIVELIHOODSANDEMPLOYMENTGENERATIONPERFORMANCE

ThetwomainprogrammeswhichprovidenecessaryconnecttotherurallivelihoodsbuildingblocksareDAY-NRLMandMGNREGS.WhileMGNREGSaimsatenhancingthelivelihoodsecurityofpeoplelivinginruralareasbyguaranteeinghundreddaysofwage-employmentinafinancialyeartoaruralhouseholdwhoseadultmembersvolunteer todounskilledmanualwork,DAY–NRLMaimsat eliminating ruralpoverty throughpromotionofmultiple livelihoods foreachruralpoorhouseholdandenhancingself-employmentandskilled-wageemploymentopportunities.

MGNREGS

Indiahasalonghistoryofimplementingworkfareprogrammestoprovideunskilledworkerswithshort-termemploymentonpublicworksthatbecomesthebasisforincometransfertopoorhouseholdsduringperiodsofabsenceofemploymentopportunities.Theseprogrammeshaveusedthisworkforcetocreatedurableassetsthatareconsequentlyexpectedtogenerateasecondroundofemploymentbenefitstothelabour force.Theexperiencesofwageemploymentprogrammes implementedbyStateGovernmentswithCentral assistance led to the enactmentofMGNREGA in September2005.Apart fromprovidingemploymentguarantee,MGNREGAalsoaimedat creatingdurableassets to strengthen the livelihoodresourcebaseoftheruralpoorsothatinthelongrun,ifsuccessful,theprogrammewillself-eliminateitself.

TheimplementationprocessofMGNREGSutilisesabottom-upapproachbasedondemanddriven,self-selecting, and rights based architecture programme. Restrictions on the use of machines to ensureemploymentoflabour,regulatinglabour,materialratio,mandatingfemalelabourforceparticipationrate(33percent), givingpreference to vulnerable groups forwageemploymentopportunities (women inspecialcircumstances,personsbelongingtoparticularlyvulnerabletribalgroups,etc.),taskbasedwagedetermination,provisionsofunemploymentallowancesareaspectsthatdistinguishitfromtheearliersimilarattemptsatworkfareprogrammes.Directincometransferlaysthefoundationforexpansionofbanklinkagesandbanktransferofwagesforalargesectionoftheruralpopulationthatwashithertofinanciallyexcludedfromtheformalbankinginstitutions.

DAY-NRLM

DAY-NRLMseekstoreachouttoallruralpoorhouseholdsandimpacttheirlivelihoodssignificantlyby2024–25.Thisisenvisagedtobeachievedthroughuniversalsocialmobilisationofruralpoorwomen,their institution and capacity building, financial inclusion, creating an enabling environment forsustainablelivelihoodsandruralself-employment.ItemphasisesconvergencewithotherprogrammesoftheDoRDandotherCentralMinistries,programmesofStategovernments,withNon-GovernmentalOrganisations(NGOs),CivilSocietyOrganisations(CSOs)andtheprivatesector.Conceivedinitiallyfor13 States8, that accounted for almost 85 percent of the poor in India, DAY-NRLM seeks to establishefficientandeffectiveinstitutionalplatformsforruralpoorthatwillenablethemtoincreasehouseholdincome through sustainable livelihood enhancements and improved access to financial and publicservices.Ithasattemptedtoleverageresources(capitalandservicedelivery)forthepoorfromprivate

8Assam,Bihar,Chhattisgarh,Jharkhand,Gujarat,Maharashtra,MadhyaPradesh,Odisha,Rajasthan,UttarPradesh,WestBengal,KarnatakaandTamilNadu.

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commercialbanksandothergovernmentprogrammes.

(C)SOCIALSAFETYNETS

Indiahas started conceptualisingSocial SafetyNets as a crucial and critical tool to fightpoverty andachievedesireddevelopmentinterventionssince1950.Drivenbytherights-basedinitiative,Article41oftheIndianconstitutionhasclearlyemphasizedtheroleofStateinprovidingpublicassistancetoitscitizensincaseofunemployment,oldage,sickness,anddisabilityor“othercasesofundeservedwant”.TheprincipleoffundamentalrightsofthecitizeninensuringsocialsafetynetsisalsoinconformitywiththeglobalmandatesonensuringSocialSafetyNets.“Minimumsocialprotectionfloor”hasbeenwidelyacknowledgedandacceptedbyUnitedNations(partofSustainableDevelopmentGoals)anditsvariousagencies, including the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization(WHO).

ThefivemainprogrammeswhichprovideaplatformtothesocialsecurityarchitectureinIndiaarePublicDistribution System (PDS), Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), Mid-Day Meal Scheme(MDMS),MGNREGS andpensions forwidows, disabled and elderly as part ofNSAP. Theyhave beenconceptualisedtoaddressstructuralrootsofpovertythroughcombiningsafetynets(foodandnon-food)withstructuralreformsandlong-terminterventionswiththeaimofincreasinghumancapabilitiesandaddressingstructuralpovertythroughthem.

TherearefiveschemesunderNSAPthatarepresentlybeingimplementedbyDoRD.TheseschemestargetBPLbeneficiarieswhoalsofallunderthefollowingeligibilitycriteria:

IndiraGandhiOldAgePensionScheme: TheschemeprovidespensiontopersonsbelongingtoBPLfamilieswhoareabove60years-old.AsumofRs.200permonthisprovidedmonthlybytheCentralGovernmenttopersonsintheagegroupof60to79years-oldandRs.500topersonsabove80years.

IndiraGandhiNationalWidowPensionScheme: Targets widows above 40 years-old. MonthlyassistanceisgivenintheamountofRs.300permonthbytheCentralGovernmentandraisedtoRs.500forwidowsabove80years-old.

IndiraGandhiDisabilityPensionScheme:Personswithatleast80percentofdisabilitywhoareabove18years-oldareprovidedmonthlycashassistanceofRs.300permonthbytheCentralGovernment.TheamountisraisedtoRs500aftercompleting80years.

NationalFamilyBenefitScheme:AsumofRs.20,000isprovidedasone-timeassistanceintheeventofdeathofthehousehold’sprimarybreadwinnerbytheCentralGovernment.Thedeceasedneedstobeintheagegroupof18-59years.

AnnapurnaScheme:The scheme targets senior citizenswho, thougheligibleunder IGOAPS, arenotreceivingpension.Theyareentitledtoreceive10kgoffoodgrainpermonthasassistancebytheCentralGovernment.

TheStatesnotonlytopsuptheamountofassistanceprovidedbytheCentralGovernmentbuthavealsoextendedtheschemetootherbeneficiariesforwhichtheyutilisetheirownsourcesoffunds.

TheruraldevelopmentsectorhasalwaysbeenattheforefrontofIndia’sprioritiesintermsofputtinggreateremphasisonincreasingthebeneficiarycoverageandbudgetoutlayontheseCSSsovertheyears.Besides,oldersafetynets’disbursementlikein-kindsubsidymechanism(PDS)havebeensupplementedby cash transfers orDirect Benefits Transfer (DBT) in the formof pensions for elderly,widows anddisabled(NSAP)andMGNREGSpayment.

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RuralDevelopmentand73rdAmendment

The73rdAmendmenttotheConstitutionprovidesconstitutionalstatusandinstitutionalframeworktoPanchayatstostrengthengrass-rootdemocracythroughelectedlocalself-governingbodiesintheruralareasofthecountry.TheAmendmentenvisagesthatthePanchayatsbeendowedwithsuchpowerandauthority thatwill enable them toplanand implement schemes foreconomicdevelopmentand socialjustice(Article243,ConstitutionofIndia).Tofacilitatefunctionaldecentralization,theamendmentlisted29subjectsintheEleventhSchedulethatcanbeentrustedtoPanchayatsinthecountry.

The rural development sector engages with Panchayats at three critical levels: to bring functionalcoherencebetweentheprogrammesofthesectorandthefunctionalroleassignedtoPanchayatsunderthe constitution; to remove dissonance in planning so the Panchayats can fulfil their constitutionalmandate;andtobringaboutconvergencebetweenprogrammesatdistrictandsub-districtlevels.

(a)Functionalcoherence

Among the subjects entrusted to Panchayats, there are specific ones directly related to the ruraldevelopment sector. These subjects include land improvement including soil conservation; minorirrigation, water management and watershed development; social forestry and farm forestry; ruralhousing;povertyalleviationprogrammes;socialwelfare,includingthewelfareofthehandicappedandmentallyretarded;welfareofweakersection,particularlyScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes;andmaintenanceofcommunityassets9.

TheimportanceofthesubjectsdevolvedtoPanchayatswasreinforcedbytheSub-GroupofChiefMinisterforRationalisationofCSS.Theprioritysub-sectorswithinruraldevelopmentidentifiedbytheSub-Groupincluded,amongothers:povertyelimination-livelihood,jobsandskilldevelopment;ruralconnectivity-electricity, access roads and communication; and housing for all- rural and urban10. The Sub-Groupreiterated that the list of RD sector flagship schemes was to include MGNREGS, NSAP, PMGSY, IAY(reformulatedasPMAY-G),andDAY-NRLM.Withintheseschemes,theSub-GroupidentifiedMGNREGSandNSAPas the “Coreof theCore schemes” (alongwithother5other schemes) implying that theseschemeswillhavethefirstchargeonfundsavailableundertheNationalDevelopmentAgenda.

(b)DissonanceinPlanning

Since the enactment of the 73rd amendment, the State governments have been creating enablingprovisionsandenvironmentforthePanchayatssothattheycanfulfiltheirconstitutionalmandatetoplanforeconomicdevelopmentandsocialjustice.TherewereseriousshortcomingsthatwererestrictingtheprocessandscopeofplanningbyPanchayats.ThedevolutionreportoftheMinistryofPanchayatRaj11notedthatthenormativeformula-basedgrantshavebeen“overshadowedbythediscretionarywindowofgrant-in-aidforpublicpurposebyCSSandStateschemeinvolvingparastatalsandparallelstructuresbypassinglocalgovernments”.Thenetresultwasthatthelocalgovernmentfocusedalotoftheirtimeandeffortinperformingtheagencyfunctionratherthanonstrengtheningtheirownsystemsforrevenuecollection,improvinggovernance,anddeliveryoflocalservices.

The Gram Panchayats Development Plan Guidelines 2018 listed institutional challenges andopportunitieswhichhavethepotentialtoenablePanchayatstoplanforsustainabledevelopmentandsocial justice. These challenges included the need to enhance the degree and level of people’sparticipationintheGramSabhas;harnessingsocialcapitalintheformofPRI-SHGconvergence;bringingabout convergence of funds, schemes, and initiatives; creating a robust MIS and e-enablement ofPanchayats;andintegratingspatialandsectoralplanning.

9ThesubjectsmentionedareastheyarelistedinEleventhscheduleoftheConstitutionofIndia10SameasFootnote21.11T.I.S.S.(2016).DevolutionReport-WhereLocalDemocracyandDevolutioninIndiaisheadingtowards?

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(c)Convergence

The14thFinanceCommissionrecommendedthateachGramPanchayathaveoneDevelopmentPlan(DP)thatwillencompassplansforallthe29subjectslistedintheEleventhScheduleoftheConstitution.AsingleDPprovides an opportunity for generating synergies in benefits and impacting the individual,groupandvillagelevel.ThesesynergiesareonlypossibleifaframeworkforconvergenceisusedandimplementedforthedevelopmentofGPDPs(GramPanchayatDevelopmentPlans).

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1.2. Performance of the Sector WindsofChange

Inhistory,ruralIndiastandsatthecuspofgoldeneraofgrowthandprosperity.Theevidenceisallthereto see: rural demographic advantage - education rather than just the age12, propensity of economicmobility13,tele-density14,transitionfromapredominantlyruraltoquasi-urbansociety15,renewedvigourofcopingstrategiesadoptedbytheruralhouseholdsundershocks–internal,externalandpricerelated16,propitious appreciation for circular economy particularly among the youths and the maturing gigecosystem17.

Thedemographicadvantagetransitionoffersopportunitiesandchallenges.Theyincludeanincreasedlaboursupply,increasingsavings,investmentofrelativelymoreresourcespercapitaleadingtobetterhealthandeducationaloutcomes,andincreasingdomesticdemand,withincreaseinconsumptionlevels,leadingtoincreasingGDPpercapita,anddecreasingdependencyratio.Withallitsdiversityandpluralitytherurallandscapesareweavinganewparadigmofaninclusiveruraltransformation that is characterised by: increasing the growth rate of climate adaptive agriculture;increasecommercializationandmarketablesurplusesbyrecognisingstronginterdependenciesbetweenruralandurbansettlements;diversificationinproductionpatternsandlivelihoods;expansionofdecentnon-farmemploymentandentrepreneurialopportunities; improvement in ruralwagesandaccess toservices and infrastructure; and greater access to rights and entitlements through enhanced socialcapital. Thesechangeshavemaderural spacesmulti-layeredwith in-built complexities thatdemandnuancedpublicpoliciesthatareabletocreatesynergeticimpactsto:

1. Deliver improvedwell-being for ruralpopulation (across economic, social andenvironmentaldimensions);

2. Growthdynamicsforruraleconomyacrossvariousregions;3. Deployrangeofpolicyinstruments(infrastructure,investments,addressingmarketfailures,and

supportsustainableinnovations);4. Foster multi-sectoral approach that engages public agencies, the private sector and non-

governmentorganization,andisinclusiveofdifferentpopulationgroupsandgeographies;5. Integratedeliverytoenablesectoralpoliciesthatmatchtheneedsandcircumstancesofdifferent

ruralregions;6. Understand the spectrum of rural regions ranging from those in an urban area to remote

representingdifferentpolicyopportunitiesandchallenges.

Panchayats:Institutionalarchitectureforchange

The73rdAmendmenttotheConstitutionprovidesconstitutionalstatusandinstitutionalframeworktoPanchayats.Itaimstostrengthengrass-rootdemocracythroughasystemofelectedlocalself-governingbodiesintheruralIndia.TheAmendmenthasendowedPanchayatswithpowerandauthoritytoplanandimplementschemesforeconomicdevelopmentandsocialjustice(Article243,ConstitutionofIndia).The

12Lutzet.al.(2019).Educationratherthanagestructurebringsdemographicdividend,PNAS,June25,2019,vol.116,no.26,12803.13Li,Millimet,Roychowdhury(2019).EconomicMobilityinIndia:estimationusingnoisydata.14Governmentof India. (2019).EconomicSurvey. (Vol.2)2018-2019.MinistryofFinance,DepartmentofEconomicAffairs,EconomicDivision.NewDelhi.15I.I.P.S.(2018).IIPSestimates.16Shah,A.(2017).Patterns,processesofreproductionandpolicyimperativesforpovertyinremoteruralareasofIndia,paperpresentedatinternationalworkshop“Understandingandaddressingspatialpovertytraps:aninternationalworkshop”.SpierEstate,Stellenbosch,SouthAfrica;ChronicPovertyResearchCentreandtheOverseasDevelopmentInstitute.17 Bhandari and Dubey. (2018). Let’s think afresh about how to govern India’s gig workforce. Retrieved athttps://www.livemint.com/opinion/columns/let-s-think-afresh-about-how-to-govern-india-s-gig-workforce-11581874414509.html.Accessedon17/02/2020.

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strengtheningofdemocraticgovernancepavedthewayforthecitizenshipparadigm-basedsafetynet,whichgivesthecitizenasenseofentitlement18.

India’s citizenship paradigm-based safety net is founded on principles of rights-based approach anddisplaysapatternthatreducesthelikelihoodofclass-basedconflict19.ForruralIndia,thetransitionhasbeenamovementfromsocialcitizenshipthatentailscivilrights(suchasfreedomofspeech,faithandothers),towardspoliticalrightsandfinallyrestingonsocialrightswhichisthedriverofwelfarestateexpansion20.Regardlessofthedirectionsanddesign,ruralIndiaisacombinationofdemocraticneeds,competitivepolitics,risingeconomicinsecurityandgenuineconcernsforthepoor.Theeffortistobreaknew ground by deploying solutions for rapid, sustainable and resource-efficient growth both at thehouseholdandindividuallevel.

Qualitative interviewshave highlighted the importance of local institutions in the implementation ofRuralDevelopment schemes. GramPanchayatswerementioned as the first important institution forimplementationofschemes.BlockandDistrictlevelofficialsinJharkhand,Rajasthan,HimachalPradesh,UttarPradesh,AndhraPradeshandMeghalayahaveconfirmedthattherolesandresponsibilitiesofGramPanchayatsarekeyinawarenessgeneration,identificationofbeneficiariesandcoordinationwithotherdepartments.

“AllStategovernmentschemesareimplementedviaRuralDevelopmentDepartment,ZillahParishadandPanchayatRaj, departmentwhich is a three-tierPanchayatRaj system. (…)Withproper coordinationwith thePanchayatCommitteeandZillahParishad,weimplementalltheschemesintroducedbytheStateaswellasCentralgovernment.Ourobjectivebehindallthisisthateveryeligiblepersonshouldgetbenefittedfromtheschemes”-DRDA,Rajasthan

“Forpublicparticipation,thereistheGramPanchayats,thePanchayatfunctionaries,thepeoplelivinginthatareaandthedepartmentalfunctionaries,likePanchayatsecretary,ADO,BDOandnodalofficers”-DRDA,UttarPradesh

Infact,J-PALevidenceonruraldevelopmentfromthefinanceandgovernancesectorsshowtherelevantcontribution of awareness generation and information dissemination efforts to social welfareprogrammesacrossthecountry.

Box1:CaseStudyonInformationandApplicationAssistanceinSocialWelfareProgrammes

InformationandApplicationAssistanceinSocialWelfareProgrammes

Simplerenrolmentproceduresandassistancewithbureaucraticmediationcanhelpincreasetakeupofsocial

programmes,especiallyforthemostvulnerable.Eligiblecitizensmaylackinformationregardingtheprogramme

ordemonstrateconfusionabouttheapplicationprocess,leadingthemtoselectoutoftheseprogrammes.

● InarandomizedevaluationinthecontextoftheWidowPensionSchemeinDelhi,groupsofwomenwere

providedwithinformation,basicassistancetofilloutapplicationsandintensiveassistancetomediate

withbureaucrats.

● Providinginformationaloneincreasedapplicationrates,butonlyamongliteratewomen.

● Applicationratesincreasedingroupsofwomenwhoreceivedbasicandintensivemediationassistance

with the impactbeinggreater for vulnerablewomen, including thosewhowere illiterate, politically

disconnectedorlackedautonomyinthehousehold.

18Daigneault,Pierre-Marc(2014).ThreeParadigmsofSocialAssistance.SAGEOpen.ÉcoleNationaleD’administrationPublique(ÉNAP),Québec,Canada.19Pingalietal.(2019).Reimagingsafetynetprograms,transformingfoodsystemsforarisingIndia.Pp.135-164.Retrievedathttps://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007percent2F978-3-030-14409-8_6.pdf.Accessedon15/02/2020.20Kapur,D,Nangia,P.(2015).SocialProtectioninIndia:AWelfareStateSansPublicGoods?IndiaReview,14:1,73-90,DOI:10.1080/14736489.2015.1001275.

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Source:Gupta,S.(2017).PerilsofthePaperwork:TheImpactofInformationandApplicationAssistanceonWelfareProgramTake-UpinIndia.JobMarketPaper.

RuralTransformation

Ruraltransformationreferstothemetamorphosisoftheeconomic,socialandspatialstructureoftheruralIndiathroughmultipleprocesseswhichincludechangesinthestructureoftheproductionsystem,livelihooddiversification,rural–urbanlinkages,infrastructuredevelopment,educationalattainmentandchangesintheaspirationandwayoflifeandmanymore21.Exogenousandendogenousfactorsinfluencetheseprocesses.Itincludeslandreforms,infrastructuredevelopment,innovationsinagriculture,rural-industrialization,accesstowaterforcultivation,methodofcultivation,croppingpattern,patternoflandownership, etc22. The heterogeneous nature of rural transformation shows that in the wake oftransformation of the rural economy, the importance of agriculture is declining, aided by multiple“distress-push”and“demandpull”diversification,therebyleadingtooccupationaldiversificationowingtostructural transformation.Thishasvaried implications forhouseholds inruralareas.Thesituationdemandsastrategyofconsolidationandastrategyofsurvival23.

TheensuingparagraphspresenttheevidenceoftransformationthatruralIndiafacesatpresent.

(a)Decliningshareofagricultureinruralincome

Inthelastfourdecades,Indianruraloutputhasincreasedbyalmostseventimes—Rs.3,199billiontoRs.21,107billionat2004–05prices—buttheshareofagricultureinrural incomehasreducedfrom72.4percentto39.2percent24.Nationallyrepresentativedatasuggeststhat88percentoffarminghouseholdsrely on some form of non-farm income sources to sustain their livelihoods25. Non-farm income isbecominganimportantsourceoffoodsecurityanddietarydiversity26.Asthecentralagrarianquestionin India remains the availability of productive land, non-farm sector helps maintain income for thelandlessandthesmallholder.ItiswellestablishedthatIndianagricultureisdominatedbysmallholders,andfragmentationoflandistherootcauseofpovertyandinequalityinruralareas27.Incomefromthenon-farm sector is potentially amajor poverty-reducing strategy and often picks up the slackwhenagricultureisnotdoingwell28.

(b)Movementtowardsruralnon-farmsector

The transformation of the workforce in India away from low-productivity agricultural sector intomanufacturingandothertertiaryactivitieshasbeenslow.Morethan60percentoftheruralworkforcecontinuestobeemployedinagriculture-basedlivelihoods,despitetheshareofagricultureoutputbeing

21Guin,Debarshi(2018).FromLargeVillagestoSmallTowns:AStudyofRuralTransformationinNewCensusTowns,India.InternationalJournalofRuralManagement,14(2)87–109,InstituteofRuralManagement;SAGEPublications.22Rao,Nair (2003).ChangeandTransformation inRuralSouth India:Findings fromVillageStudies.EconomicandPoliticalWeeklyVol.38,No.32(Aug.9-15,2003),pp.3349-3354.23Nagaraj,Bantilan.(2014);DynamicsofrurallabormarketsinIndia:Implicationsforinclusivedevelopmentstrategy;workingpaperseriesNo.57;ICRISATresearchprogram;Markets,InstitutionsandPolicies;24Chand,Srivastava,Singh(2017);ChangingstructureofRuraleconomyof India: Implications foremploymentandgrowth;Discussionpaper,NITIAayog.25Chandrasekhar,Mehrotra,(2016);Whatwouldittake?DoublingFarmers’incomeby2022;EPWCommentary,vol.51,Issueno;18;30thApril201626Mishra&Rahman(2018);Doesnon-farmincomeaffectfoodsecurity?EvidencefromIndia;IGIDR,MumbaiandTata-CornellInstitute(TCI);DysonSchoolofappliedeconomicsandmanagement,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY.27Chakravorty, Chandrasekhar, Naraparaju (2016); Income generation and Inequality in India’s Agriculture sector; theconsequences of land fragmentation, IGIDR, November 2016 http://www.igidr.ac.in/pdf/publication/WP-2016-028.pdfaccessedonFeb10,202028Haggblade,S.,Hazell,P.,&Reardon,T.(2010).Theruralnon-farmeconomy:Prospectsforgrowthandpovertyreduction.WorldDevelopment,38(10),1429–1441.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.06.008

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around17percent.Therehasbeenadecline in the shareof cultivators,but the shareof agriculturallabourhasincreased;thedesiredtransitionfromruraltourbanoccupationhasnottakenplace.

With overall economic growth, better rural infrastructure and declining rural-urban travel timedistances, the composition of the rural non-farm sector in India has changed; construction andmanufacturingsectorshavebecomemajoremploymentsources.AccordingtotheestimatesbasedontheNationalSampleSurvey (NSS), constructionsectoremploys30.1percentof the totalnon-agriculturalemployment29.Manufacturing employment, on theotherhand, stands at22.1percent,while servicesemploy45.1percentofthelabourforce.Unprecedentedgrowthintheconstructionandtheservicesectoroverthelastdecadehasledtoagreaternumberofjobsbutalsoledtogreatercasualizationofthelabourforce.Lackofformalwrittencontractsbetweentheconstructionworkersandtheiremployersraisestheissue of job quality. Even among the formal sector employees in the non-farm economy, such asmanufacturingorservices,only60percenthaveaformalcontract,deprivingamajorityofsocialsecuritybenefits30.

29NationalSampleSurvey30Saha,P.,&Verick,S.(2017).Casualizationandshiftofruralworkerstonon-farmactivities.InRurallabourmobilityintimesofstructuraltransformation(pp.127–150).Singapore:SpringerSingapore.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5628-4_7

14

Sector Report: : Rural Development

Figure2:EmploymentTransitionTrend(agriculturalshareintotalemployment)

Source:CensusData(1991,2001and2011)

15


Theagriculturalshareintotalemploymenthasnearlyhalvedfrom1991to2011,decreasingfrom57percentto28percent(Figure-2above).However,Stateshavebeentransitioningatdifferentpaces.Lessthan20percentofthepopulationremainsengagedinagricultureinGoaandKerala,butinStateslikeMizoram and Andhra Pradesh, slightly more than 40 percent of employment still comes from theagriculturalsector.

Despite urban wages growing faster than rural wages31, census records indicate that rural to ruralmigrationpatternsdominatemigrationstreamsandmanyindividualscontinuetoworkasagriculturallabourers.Also, labourmarketshavenotbeenabletoemployexcessunderemployedlabourfromtheagriculturalsectorandagriculturallabourproductivitycontinuestoremainlowwithvastdifferencesbyregion.

(c)Migration:afactoflife

Regionalcomparativeadvantages(orthe lackof it) inresourceavailabilitybenefitsomeregionsoverothers.Inadditiontothegrowthoflocalandglobaldemandforgoodsandservices,thesecomparativeadvantages in inputs have intensified regional disparities in growth rates. Secondly, various labourmarketresistanceshaveinhibitedasmoothtransitionoflabourfromagriculturaltothenon-agriculturalsectors32.

TheruraltoruralmigrationintheagriculturalsectorislargelyowingtothedifferenceinagriculturalproductivityacrossStates.Lowruraltourbanmigration,morecharacteristicoftheagriculturaltonon-agricultural migration, has been slower due to poor access to appropriate skills, in addition togeographicalchallengesthatmigrationposes.Thephysicalgeographicaldistancehasarobustnegativeassociation with internal migration across Indian districts and States33. The stock of “rural-rural”migrantsisalsonegativelycorrelatedwithpercapitaNetStateDomesticProduct,anditspatternacrossStatesmirrors“intrastate”migrationflows,withUttarPradeshandMadhyaPradeshcharacterizedbyadisproportionatelyhighstockofrural-ruralmigrants34.

ThefindingsoftheGovernmentofIndia’srecentEconomicSurveyreinforcetheimportanceofculturalsimilaritiesthroughastrongcontiguityeffect;controllingfordistance,Statesthatsharecommonbordersseeabout65percentmoremigrationbetweenthemthanStatesthatdonotsharesuchaborder.Also,becauseofthemigrationofproductivemalelabour,anincreaseinthefeminizationofagricultureistakingplace35.Inviewofitstrendsofmigration,Indiacanlooktoborrowsomelearningsfromothercountrieswho have instituted mechanisms to reduce rural to urban migration. Some of these learnings arepresentedbelow:

Box2:CaseStudyonReducingruraltourbanmigration

Reducingruraltourbanmigration

Migrationaffectsthelivesofhundredsofmillionsofpeopleworldwide.Inthenextdecades,demographictrends,

globalization,inequality,andclimatechangearelikelytofurtherincreasemigrationpressuresbothwithinand

acrosscountries.Itisoftenseenthatasaresultofmigration,ruralareasloseavitalandpotentiallydynamic

31Bhagat,R.B. (2017).Migration andurban transition in India: Implications fordevelopment.UnitedNations expert groupmeetingonSustainableCities,HumanMobilityandInternationalMigration.Retrievedfromhttp://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/events/pdf/expert/27/papers/V/paper-Bhagat-final.pdf32Kone,et.al(2016).InternalBordersandMigrationinIndia,Mimeo,TheWorldBank,WashingtonD.C.33SameasFootnote43.34Nayyar&Kim(2018);India’sInternalLaborMigrationParadox:TheStatisticalandtheReal;Policyresearchworkingpaper(8356),WorldBankGroup–Finance,competitivenessandinnovationglobalpractice(February2018)35Pattnaik, I.,Lahiri-Dutt,K.,Lockie,S.,Pritchard,B. (2017):The feminizationofagricultureor the feminizationofagrariandistress? Tracking the trajectory of women in agriculture in India, Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, DOI:10.1080/13547860.2017.1394569

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shareoftheirworkforce.Thisraisesquestionsregardingthefutureofagriculturegiventhat,worldwide,farmers

areageingwhiledeep-seatedchangesinagriculturalpracticesareneededtostepupfoodproductivityandmake

agricultural production sustainable36. FAO, in its information note on rural transformations, highlightedchallengesandopportunitiesforruralareasintermsofmigration.Thisispresentedbelow:

Challenges Opportunities

• Lossofhumancapital,highlyskilledworkersandagriculturallabourmayaffectcropproductionandfoodavailability.

• Migrationofyoungmenmaycauseageingandfeminizationofruralpopulationsandincreasedworkburdensonthoseleftbehind.

• Remittancesmaybeusedtowardsconsumptionratherthanproductiveinvestments.

• Remittancesmayleadtochangesinlanduseandtitling.Conversionofagriculturallandtolandforhousingmayleadtorisinglandpricesandfallingagriculturalproduction,whichmayaffectfoodsecurity.

• Irregularordistressmigrationmaybedangerousforthemigrantsthemselves.Low-skilledmigrantsaremorevulnerabletoprecariousjobs,unsafeworkingconditions,andweakaccesstosocialprotection.

• Migrationcanreducepressuresonlocallabourmarketsandresources,asmigrantsfindemploymentopportunitieselsewhere.

• Femalemigrationandwomen’scontroloverremittancescancontributetoruralwomen’sempowerment.

• Remittancesreduceliquidityconstraints.Theycancoverforbasicneeds,provideinsuranceincaseofcrisisandshocks,orbeinvestedinagriculture.Remittancescanimprovethestabilityofaccesstoqualityfoodandsupportfoodproduction.

• Migrantscanincreaselocalhumancapital,throughskillsandtechnologytransfers,knowhow,andsocialnetworks.

FAOalsoidentifiedsomelearningsfromcountriestoaddressissuesaroundmigration.Someofthemhavebeen

outlinedbelow37:

• ConductingasituationanalysisinGhanaandaddressingdatagapsforpolicyformulation:Ghanaiswitnessingincreasinginternalmigration,emigration,transitmigrationandimmigrationinvolvingregular,

irregular,seasonal,temporaryandvoluntaryandforceddimensionsofmigration.Datagapswereidentifiedasasignificantissueinunderstandingandaddressingthevariablecomponentsofmigrationandresulting

impactsonfoodsecurityandnutrition.Toaddressthis,Ghanafirstundertookasituationanalysisof the

existingdatasourcesandcurrentpracticesamongdatacollectionagenciesandministries,resultinginthe

formulationofthestrategyfortheNationalMigrationDatabaseforGhana.Partofthestrategyalsoincluded

coordinationamonggovernmentministries.GhanahasusedthisinformationtodevelopMigrationProfiles

–orcharacteristicsofvariousmigrants–inordertotargetpoliciestoaddresstheirneeds.

• ZimbabweestablishedadedicatedMigrationandDevelopmentUnit:WithintheMinistryofEconomicPlanningandInvestmentPromotion,thisunitactsasafocalpointforallmigrationanddevelopmentissues,

includingfoodsecurityandnutrition.Theaimistohaveadedicatedunitthatcouldmaptherangeofpolicies

andcoordinatewithalltheentitiesinvolvedwithoutcreatingcompetingprioritiesorresponsibilities.The

unit intends to: (i) formulate/implement/monitor nationalmigration and development policy, legal and

institutional frameworks; (ii) facilitate mainstreaming of migration policy and practice in national and

sectoraldevelopmentplanssuchasnationalbudgets,youthpoliciesandnationalcensusesandsurveys;(iii)

identifyandcommissionresearchonmigrationanddevelopment;(iv)identifyandengagewithdiasporas

for investment and development initiatives; (v) formalize and harness the positive impacts of labour

migrationfornationalsocio-economicdevelopment;(vi)ensureenforcementofmeasurestoprotectand

promotethehumanrightsandwell-beingofmigrants;(vii)identifyandinitiateskillsretentionprogrammes

36FAO,Reducingdistressmigrationthroughdecentruralemployment.RuralTransformations-InformationNote#4,201537FAO,StrengtheningSectorPoliciesforBetterFoodSecurityandNutritionResults,2017

17


andmeasurestomitigatebraindrain;and(viii)identifyandinitiateeconomicandcommunitydevelopment

formigrationprogrammestoaddressrootcausesofmigration.

• InVietnam,studieshaveshownthatmigrationisakeystrategyforhouseholdsineconomicdifficultyand

searchingforbetterlivelihoodopportunities;atthesametime,theyfaceconsiderablerisksasaresultofa

lackofadequatesocialprotectioncoverage.Currentschemesareresidence-based,whichreducesmigrants’

abilitytotakebenefitswiththemastheymove.Thepolicyframeworkisnotveryresponsiveto“spontaneous

migration”fromruraltourbanareasortotheincreasingamountofcircularandtemporarymigration.This

hasresultedinatwo-foldproblem:(i)vulnerabilitiesofmigrantworkersasaresultofpoorenforcementof

labourlawsintheformalsector;and(ii)lackofawarenessofmigrantsoftheirrightsoravenuestoexpress

concernsorproblems.Addressingtheseissuescanhelptoensurethatrural-to-urbanmigrantsinVietnam

becomeagentsofdevelopmentanddiminishtheriskstheyfaceintermsoffoodinsecurityandmalnutrition.

Inconclusion,FAOidentifiesspecificobstaclestopolicychangeandpotentialsolutionsasgivenbelow38:

Obstacle Howtoaddress

Competinginterestsamongmigrationand

foodsecurityandnutritionauthoritiesand

lackofinter-sectoralcoordination

Createmulti-ministry/inter-sectoralcoordination

group(s)andincorporatefoodsecurityandnutrition

actorsinmigrationpolicy-makingandviceversa

Lackofunderstandingoffoodsecurityand

nutritionissues

Conducttraining/workshopsonfoodsecurityand

nutritionformigrationauthorities

Lackofunderstandingofmigration,labour,

socialprotectionandyouthissuesamong

agriculturalstakeholders

Conducttraining/workshopsforagricultural

stakeholders

Policiesandprogrammesnotaddressingthe

mostvulnerable/thosewhorequirethemost

assistance

Incorporatethemostvulnerableintopolicydialogue

Lackoffundingforpolicyandprogramme

implementation

Identifypotentialresourceswithinthegovernmentand

externallyamongpartners,aswellasexplore

innovativefinancingmechanisms(e.g.diaspora

support;migrantinvestmentsandcontributions)

Lackofmonitoringandevaluationofpolicy

impacttomakethecasethatchangeisneeded

Createamonitoringandevaluationframework,

includingimpactassessments,withdedicatedrolesand

resources

(d)Emergenceofruralurbancontinuums

Thetrendsofmigrationhaveledtoblurringofurban-ruraldistinction.Itisbecomingincreasinglyhardtodistinguishbetweencensustownsandtownswithurbanadministrativestatus.Villagesproximatetocensustownsarenotverydifferentfromthoseproximatetostatutorytowns39.Hence,insteadofarural-urban binary, we now have a rural-urban continuum which is expanding along with structuraltransformationoftheeconomy.Villageshavebeguntoexhibiturbancharacteristics-peri-urbanization.Peri-urbanregionshavebecomeimportanthubshelpingthediversificationofeconomicactivitythrough

38SameasFootnote54.39Chandrasekhar,S.,&Mukhopadhyay,A.(2017).Thechangingnatureofrurality:Reframingthediscourseonmigrationandcommuting. In Rural labour mobility in times of structural transformation (pp. 183–207). Singapore: Springer Singapore.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5628-4_9

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creatingagglomerationeffects,andaccesstoamenitiesandgenerationofemploymentbeyondfarms.Invillageslocatedclosertotowns,theshareofnon-farmactivitiescouldbeaslargeas70percent40.

(e)Declininglabourforceparticipation

Table1:Sector–WiseGrowthratesduringFY2014-15to2018-19

Sector RealGrowthbetweenFY2016-17toFY2019-20Agriculture,ForestryandFishing 2.8%

Industry 2.5%

Services 6.9%

GrossValueAdded 3.9%

Source:Economicsurvey2019-20,Vol.2GovernmentofIndia,MinistryofFinance41

Thegrowthratesreflectthechangingcontoursofthesectoratlarge.Thegrowthinagriculturesectorhasbeenfluctuating.It increasedfrom-0.2percentinFY2014-15to6.3percentinFY2016-17,andthendeclinedto2.8percentinFY2019-20.Theoverallindustrialsectorgrowthisestimatedtobe2.5percentinFY2019-20ascomparedto6.9percentgrowthinFY2018-19.Theindustrialgrowthwassubdueddueto decrease in domestic demand for key sectors such as automotive and pharmaceuticals andunderperformance of exports and liquidity crunch owing to reduced lending byNBFCs. The servicessectorgrowthratealsohadadecelerationtrendduringFY2019-20.Itisexpectedtogrowat6.9percentin FY 2019-20 as compared to 7.5 percent in FY 2018-19. The gross value added for FY 2019-20(estimates)exhibitsaweakeningmomentumowingtodownwardgrowthrateofthekeysectors.

AsperPeriodiclabourForceSurvey(PLFS)estimates,LabourForceParticipationRate(LFPR)inIndiahasdeclinedto36.9percentin2017-18from39.5percentin2011-12(NSSO)asperusualstatus.Inruralareas,ithasdeclinedby3.6percentagepoints.TheWorkerPopulationRatio(WPR)hasdeclinedto34.7percentin2017-18from38.6percentin2011-12(NSSO).TheWPRhasdeclinedby4.9percentagepointsinruralareas.Theunemploymentrate(UR)inIndiastoodat6.1percentwith5.3percentinruralareasasperusual status.AsperCurrentWeekly StatusApproach (CWS), theURwas8.9percentwith8.5percentinruralareas.Further,asperPFLS2018-19estimates,labourforceparticipationisnotedtobe55.1percentformalesand19.7percentforfemales.

Table2:KeyLabourMarketindicatorsforallAgeGroupsinFY2017-18(inpercent)Indicators Rural

UsualStatus:activitydeterminedonthereferenceperiodof365daysprecedingthedateofthesurvey.LFPR(LabourForceParticipationRate) 37.0

WorkParticipationRate(WPR) 35.0UnemploymentRate(UR) 5.3

CWS:personwhoisunabletogetworkevenforanhourinthelastsevendaysofreferenceweekdespiteavailableandseekingforworkisconsideredasunemployed

LFPR 35.7WPR 32.6UR 8.5

Source:Annualreport,PLFS(2017-18)

(f)Consumptionpickingup

Consumptionhasalwaysbeenastrongandmajordriverofgrowthintheeconomy.Withintotal finalconsumption,itistheprivatefinalconsumptionexpenditurethathasamajorshare(closeto60percent)intheeconomy’sGDP.Theshareoffoodintotalconsumptionhasgonedownbyaround6.5percentage

40Sharma,A.(2016).UrbanproximityandspatialpatternoflanduseanddevelopmentinruralIndia.TheJournalofDevelopmentStudies,52(11),1593–1611. 41Growthratesatbasicpricesfor2016-17to2019-20(estimated).

19


points in rural areas.Ruralwages growthwhichwasdeclining seems tohavebottomedout andhasstartedtoincreasesincemid-201842.

(g)Accesstobankingservices

Access to banking services towards enabling financial inclusion to promote economic growth andreducingpovertyand inequality isessential.Thedataonthepenetrationofbanking infrastructure inruralIndiaintermsofpercentageofbankslocatedintheruralregionsshowsthat34.2percentofthetotalbankbranchesarelocatedinruralareasofthecountry.Thecoverageinthecentralregionisthehighest(23.6percent)followedbyeasternandsouthernregions(21.5and21.1percent,respectively)43and lowest being in the north eastern region (4.1 percent). Considering the operational cost pertransaction for the bank to operate in a rural region, a digital channels / platform offers potentialsolutions including creating low-cost service models that offer incentives to multiple industryparticipants(suchastelecomproviders,banks,andpaymentproviders),improvingdigitalliteracy,andexpandingbroadbandanddigitalbankinginfrastructurewithinthecountry.ThePhilippinesexperienceofimprovingfinancialinclusionprovidesvaluablelessonsintheboxbelow:

Box3:CaseStudyonimprovingaccesstobankingservicesinPhilippines

42SameasFootnote31.43Retrievedathttps://m.rbi.org.in/Scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=19374.Accessedon19/02/2020.44ADB.(2019).Cloud-BasedCoreBankinginthePhilippines.

ImprovingaccesstobankingservicesinPhilippines

InPhilippinesCaragaregion, theaverage familypoverty incidence is30.8percent, compared to thenational

averageof 16.5percent.Only around24percent of families in this regionhavebankdeposits. Further, it is

estimatedthat7outof10adultsaverskeeptheirsavingsathome,andborrowerstapinformalsourcesforfunds

suchasfamily,relatives,orfriends(62percent)orinformallenders(10percent).Betterinclusionofthislarge

unbankedorunder-servedpartofthePhilippinepopulationintotheformalfinancialsystemwillhelpreduce

vulnerabilityandriskfortheindividualsandislikelytohaveapositiveeffectoneconomicdevelopment.

Philippines’ National Strategy for Financial Inclusion propagates that the financial system also reaches the

underservedormarginalizedsectorsofthepopulationthroughtheuseoftechnologyandotherinnovationstoreachthefinanciallyexcluded.Withthisbackground,AsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)andCantilanBankInc.(CBI)signedanagreementtoconductapilotstudyoncloud-basedcorebankingtechnology.Undertheproject,CBI

movedfromaconventionalon-sitecorebankingsystemtothecloud-basedSaaSInstafin.InJanuary2019,CBI

turnedoffitslegacysystemleadingtoamoreefficientandflexiblewayofdoingbusinessleadingtocuttingcosts,

improvingclientconvenience,and,inturn,drawingmorepeopleintotheformalfinancialsystem.Theoutlineof

theprojectisgivenbelow44:

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Governmentinterventions

WithruralIndiabeinghometo65.97percent45ofthepopulation,havinganannualgrowthrateof0.4percent, and being endowed with vast majority of the land, water and other natural resources,complementarytocitiesthroughconnectionsrelatedtotheflowofpeople,goodsandservices,diversifiedeconomiesbeyondagricultureandothernaturalresourcebasedsectors,structuralchallengesandaboveall with a huge potential for significant contribution to the national productivity growth, DoRD hasembarkedonavisionofanall-inclusiveandsustainablegrowthmodel46.

Thefocusistodeliveralevelofwell-being,aqualityoflifethathaseconomic,socialandenvironmentaldimensions.Economically,theneedistomakelocalemploymentproductiveandcompetitive.Socially,theneedofhouseholdsistohaveaccesstoabroadsetofservicesandacommunitythatiscohesiveandsupportive.Environmentally,theneedistoprovideapleasantplacetolive.

Thepolicyfocusevolvesawayfromshort-termandsectoralsupporttowardshelpingtobuildconditionsfavourable for the long-term growth of rural economies. It focuses on investing in human capital,infrastructure,innovationwhichareenablingfactorsforgrowth,ratherthanshort-termresponsesthatseektoprotectexistingeconomicactivities.Ineffect,thepresentruralpoliciesinvolve:

45Retrievedathttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL?locations=IN.Accessedon19/02/2020.46Retrievedathttps://rural.nic.in/sites/default/files/Visiion%20and%20Mission%20of%20the%20Ministry.pdf.Accessedon09/10/2020.

Learnings

• Building in timeallowance for “theunknown” into the implementationschedulemay leadtoamorerealistictimeline.

• Workingwithacloud-basedSaaSandaserviceprovider inadifferent timezonecanbechallenging,especiallyduringtechnicallyintenseperiods.

• Thelonger-than-expectedtransitionprocess—operatingoldandnewsysteminparallelformorethanayear.

• Continuoustrainingtoensureeffectiveuseofthesystemisnecessary,buttraditionalforms—bringingbranch level staff to headquarters—is costly and time consuming. Using new communicationstechnologieswouldreducecostsandsavetime.

21


i) An engagement of a broad array of actors and multi-level governance mechanisms. Thisnecessitates collaboration and engagement of governments (both Central and the State) atmultiplelevelsandinvolvementoftheprivatesectorandthethirdsector.

ii) Buildingcapacitiesfortheimplementationofalltheruralprograms.Theattemptisforlongtermcapacitybuildingthatmakesruralcommunitiesmoreengagedinprocessesofdevelopmentandmoreresilienttoshocks.

iii) Focusonintegratedinvestmentsanddeliveringservicesthatareadaptedtoandmeettheneedsofruralcommunity/areas.Thereisstronginterconnectednesstomakebetteruseofinvestmentsandmoreefficientlydeliverservices.

iv) Coordinated and mutually reinforcing sectoral policies and the mix between them that arerebalancedtomeetdifferinglocalneeds.Shifthasbeenonframingofpolicyinterventionsthatdonottargetadministrativeboundariesinsilostoharnesssynergiesthatarepresentbetweenruralandurbanareas.

Qualitative evidence described the context of implementation of Rural Development programmes intermsofadministrativecapacitytoachievesuchobjectives.Ontheonehand,officialsfromUttarPradesh,Jharkhand,AndhraPradesh,andRajasthanpointedoutthecurrentshortageandlimitedcapacityofstaffto implement schemes in the Rural Development sector. On the other hand, coordination amongimplementingbodiesatdifferentlevelswasperceivedpositivelybyDistrictandBlockofficials.

“Wehaveaverygoodcoordinationwiththestateaswellaswiththelocalbodies.Weshareagoodcoordinationwithourrurallocalbodiesandalsoagoodcoordinationwiththestateadministration.Wedon'tfaceanykindofproblems at the time of release of the state components or at the time of reporting etc”-DistrictMagistrate,Haryana

“WehavegreatcoordinationwiththeDistrictlevel.ThecoordinationisattheDistrictlevel.TheDCisalsoinvolvedinsomeschemes.Wehavemonthlyreviewmeetingswhereallthecentrallysponsoredschemesarereviewed.WetakeactionandwekeepgettingdirectionsfromtheDistrictlevel”-BDO,HimachalPradesh

“ThemanpowerstructureattheDistrictandBlocklevels facechallenges.TheydonothavesufficientnumberofBDOswhich is required.ThePanchayatSecretaries,whoruntheentire systemonthe field,arenot inadequatenumbers.Theyareless,duetowhichthereisdoubleloadonasinglemanpower”-DRDA,UttarPradesh

“Skilldevelopmentshouldbedoneandstaffshouldbeincreased"–DistrictMagistrate,AndhraPradesh

“Thereisalackofhumanresourcesinsomedepartments”-DistrictMagistrate,Jharkhand

“If 100 posts are there, then only 50 percent is filled. The rest 50 percent is always unfulfilled. Lack of humanresourcesisanissuehere”-ADF,Rajasthan

CSSProgrammesinRuralDevelopment

TheinterventionsundertakenbyDoRDcomprisethree-prongedstrategies,whichincludestrengtheninginstitutions to be drivers of change to bring about transformation in the life and livelihoods ofbeneficiaries;creatinganenablingenvironmentforbuildingsocialcapital;andmakingconvergencebetweenschemesandprogrammesarealitytogeneratesynergiesinimplementationandimpacts.Thisevaluation attempts to answer how rural development as a sector contributes towards (a) bringingtransformationinthewaythingsareplannedandexecutedwithafocusoninfrastructure,livelihoodsandsocialsafetynetasacriticalenablerofgrowthandprosperity inruralareas(b)creatinganenablingenvironmentforthepeopleandsystems,withafocusonmainstreamingthepopulationthroughvariousinstitutionsandensuringinclusivenessand(c)facilitatingconvergenceamongandbetweeninstitutions,

22


systems,andcommunities47tocometogetherattheinput,processandoutputlevels.TheseaspectshavebeenelaboratedbelowforthethreethemesofInfrastructure,LivelihoodsandSocialSafetyNet:

1.2.1. Infrastructure Transformation

Developmentofruralinfrastructurepromoteseconomicgrowth,improvesthestandardoflivingofthepopulationandreducesthe incidenceofpovertybygeneratingboth farmandnon-farmemployment.According to a World Bank estimate, a 1 percent increase in the stock of infrastructure leads toproportionateincreaseintheGDPofacountry48.Inspiteoftheimportanceofinfrastructure,significantdeficiencieshavepersistedinruralinfrastructure.Thequantityandqualityofinfrastructurefacilitiesaresubstantiallylowerinruralareasthaninurbanareas.

Forexample,asperthe76thRoundoftheNSS(2018),96percentofthehouseholdsinruralareashaveowndwellingunitandamongthese76.7percenthaveahouseofpuccastructure.However,56.6percenthouseholdsinruralareashadaccesstoabathroom.Outofthese48.4percentusedbathroomattachedtothedwellingunit.

Figure3:Percentageofhouseholdsbytypeofhouseinruralareas

Source:NSS76thRound,2018

TheNSSfurthernotesthatamonghouseholdslivinginhousesinruralareas,93.9percenthadelectricityfordomesticuse.However,48.6percentofhouseholdsinruralareashadexclusiveaccesstoprincipalsourceofdrinkingwater.

TheneedforruralinfrastructureismetthroughvariousschemesoftheDoRD.Roads,HousingandPublicWorks are among some of the key basic infrastructures, which have a direct bearing on livelihoodgeneration,ruraltourbanmigrationandoverallqualityoflife.AllthreeareapartofDoRD’sschemesforassetcreationinruralareasthroughPMGSY,PMAY-GandMGNREGS.

Till2000,around30percentofIndia’spopulationlackedaccesstoall-weatherroadseventhoughIndiahasoneofthelargestanddensestroadnetworksintheworld,withatotalof3.3millionkm.Moreover,a

47EvidencebasedandoutcomefocusedconvergencewithinstitutionssuchasIIT,IRMA,NIRD,NIPFP,IEGetc.andcreationofvariousotheradvisorygroupsforhumanresourcestowardsoutcome-basedstaffing(inPanchayats)informationtechnology(creation of DISHA platform for assessment of all flagship programmes), financial inclusion (flow of bank credit to SHGs),marketsandvaluechain(tocreateaninstitutionalframeworkfortakingruralproductstoscale,nationallyandinternationally)andinternalauditforriskanalysis.48 Ghosh, Madhusudan. (2017). Infrastructure and Development in Rural India. Margin. The Journal of Applied EconomicResearch.

23


largepartofruralroadswasinpoorcondition49. Inlate2000,GoIlaunchedtheNationalRuralRoadsProgramme(PMGSY)toimproveruralconnectivityinasystematicmanner.

Alongwithroads,publichousingprogrammeshavebeenpresentforalongtimeinIndia.TheystartedwiththerehabilitationofrefugeesimmediatelyafterIndependenceandsincethen,ithasbeenamajorfocusareaofthegovernmentasaninstrumentofpovertyalleviation.Ruralhousing,asanindependentprogramme, started with Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) in January 1996. Although IAY addressed thehousingneedsintheruralareas,therewerecertaingapsinthescheme,suchaslackoftransparencyinthe selection of beneficiaries, non-assessment of housing shortage andweakmechanism for schememonitoring.ToaddressthesegapsandinviewoftheGovernment’scommitmenttoproviding“HousingforAll’’bytheyear2022,IAYwasre-structuredintoPradhanMantriAwaasYojana–Gramin(PMAY-G)w.e.f.1stApril201650.

Along with a focus on roads and housing, India has engaged in several Public Works programmes,particularly in timesof famine.The largest experimentwas theMaharashtraEmploymentGuaranteeScheme(EGS),whichbeganasadroughtreliefprogrammeinthe1970sandcontinuedasananti-povertyprogramme.TheEGSservedasamodelfortheadvocacyofruralemploymentprogrammesintheearly2000s.Followingthe2000droughtinRajasthan,astrongpeople’smovementemergedwithademandforjobstoproviderelieffromdrought.Inaseparateyetrelateddevelopment,theSupremeCourtofIndiaalsoexpressedanopinioninresponsetoPublicInterestLitigationlinkingtheRighttoFoodwithRighttoWorkandaskedforspeedyimplementationaswellasexpansionofSampoornaGraminRozgarYojana(Total Rural Employment Scheme), the precursor of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural EmploymentGuaranteeAct.Agrowingeconomycombinedwithrisinginequalitymadeitdesirableto implementaprogrammewithbroadappeal,givingrisetoMGNREGS51.

Despitecreatingopportunitiesforemployment,infrastructurefacilitiesavailableinurbanareasremainapullfactorforruraltourbanmigration.Againstthisbackdrop,theRurbanMissionaimstobringurbanamenitiestoruralIndiabybuilding300ruralclustersofgrowthacrossthecountrytobridgetherural–urbandividerelatedtoinfrastructureandservices;actasavehicleofregionaldevelopment;andattractinvestmentinruralareas52.ThecurrentRurbanMissionhasitsgenesisintheideaofformerPresidentDr.APJKalam,whoproposedapolicycalledProvisionofUrbanAmenities inRuralAreas(PURA).Heemphasizedtheneedforgreaterconnectivity—physical,electronicandknowledge-related—inruralareas.Whenintroducedin2004,PURAwascritiquedforchallengesrelatedtoinadequateinstitutionalcapacityand lackof convergenceamongexisting ruraldevelopmentprogrammes53. In its remodelledform as PURA 2.0, water supply, sanitation and physical infrastructure gained prominence overconnectivity as the basic tenets of reducing urban–rural disparity54. In 2016, PURA 2.0 gaveway toSPMRMwithaddedprovisioningofeconomicactivities,developingskillsandlocalentrepreneurship.

Apart from fulfilling national priorities, the rural development CSS schemes are essential to achieveinternationallycommittedSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)55.RuralInfrastructuredevelopmentthrough these schemes is contributing in the achievement of SDG 1 (No Poverty)by providing ruralpopulationwithaccesstoresources;equalopportunitytofulfilbasicneeds(house,water,sanitationand

49WorldBank(2011).IndiaRuralRoads.50Retrievedfromhttps://rural.nic.in/.Accessedon09/12/19.51Desai,S.,Vashishtha,P.,&Joshi,O.(2015).ACatalystforRuralTransformation.52SameasFootnote14.53LikhiA(2014)GrowthCenteredApproachunderPURA:TheWayForward for theWorldBank IndiaCountryPartnershipStrategy2013–2017.WorldBankBlog.54ChatterjeeS(2014)The‘Rurban’SocietyinIndia:NewFacetsofUrbanismanditsChallenges.IOSRJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScience19(8),14–18.55NITIAayog.(2018).SDGIndiaIndex:BaselineReport2018.NewDelhi:NITIAayog.

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energy)andearnalivelihood,bycreatingpublicworksassets.Theyalsocontributeintheachievementof SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and Resilient Infrastructure), SDG 10 (Reduce Inequality) and SDG 11(SustainableCitiesandCommunities)56.

Fromtherough,mountainousterrainofHimachalPradeshtothedry,ruggedlandscapeofRajasthan,roadsconstructedinruralareasarenowrevitalizinglocaleconomy,raisingincomes,andimprovingthequalityofrurallife57.Withimprovedaccesstorawmaterialsduetoconstructionofroads,smallindustrieslocatedinruralareashavebeenabletoreapthebenefitsofeconomiesofscale.Apartfromtheeconomicimpact, the social impact of improved connectivity in rural areas is alsonoteworthy. ConstructionofPMGSYroadshascontributedtoregularteacherattendanceofschools.Further,thereisimprovementintheaccesstopreventiveandcurativehealthfacilities,whichinturnhasimprovedthequalityoflifeofpeoplelivinginruralareas58.Ontheotherhand,ruralroadsalsofacesignificantchallenges.Ruralroadnetworksconsistpredominantlyofroadsofgravelorearthconstruction.Theproblemwithgravelroadsisthat,duetoerosionandwear,itslifespanisreducedsignificantly.TheroadsconstructedunderPMGSYalso facequality issues, considering thatonly28percentof roads constructedunder the schemearewithin the 5 year maintenance period. The remaining 72 percent have outpaced the timeline ofmaintenance,whichshouldoccuratleastoncewithin5yearsofconstruction59.

AlthoughPMGSYfocusesonprovidingnewfeederroadstolocalitiesthatdidnothavepavedroads,inpractice - many projects upgrade pre-existing roads60. Since the scheme’s objective was to connectgreaternumberoflocationstotheexternalroadnetworkatthelowestpossibleprice,routesterminatinginhabitationswereprioritisedoverroutespassingthroughhabitationsandlinkedtolargerroads.Theprioritisationoriginallyaimedtoconnectallhabitationswithpopulationsgreaterthan1,000peopleby2003, all habitations with population greater than 500 people by 2007, and all habitations withpopulationover250peopleafterthat.Thethresholdswerelowerindesertandtribalareas,aswellashillyStatesanddistrictsaffectedbyleft-wingextremism.Roadsconstructedinruralareashaveabearingonhouseslocatedwithinthehabitations.Thecostofmaterialsusedinhouseconstructionreducesdueto improved connectivity. Further drainage facilities to be provided in the houses improve due toavailabilityofpuccaroadsandpropersewerage.ImpactAssessmentstudyonPMGSYinUttarPradeshsuggeststhatdrainagesystemsincommunitiesmustbeconsideredinthedesigningandconstructionofroads61, as there is a significant correlation between improved road infrastructure and improvedresidentialinfrastructure.

Movingfurther,thediscussionssurroundingtheideaofaffordablehousinginruralIndiahavecomealongway from IAY toPMAY-G.Withahigherunit cost,PMAY-Gallows for the constructionof largerhouses(min25sq.m)usinglocalmaterialsandlocalhousedesigns.Amenitiesincludeacookingarea,toilet,LPGconnection,electricityconnectionandwatersupplythroughconvergence,andbeneficiariescanplantheirhomesaspertheirneed.TheuseofSECCdatafortheselectionofbeneficiariesinPMAY-GinsteadofBPLpopulationasperIAYisalsoarelevantstep.Thisfilterhasensuredthatgenuinelypoorhomelessandthoselivingindilapidatedhouseswereselected.Further,alargenumberofhouseholdsfromvulnerablegroupsandalsowomenhavebeenselectedasbeneficiaries62.

PMAY-Ghasalsoleveragedthebenefitoftechnology.Theuseoftechnologythroughgeo-taggingofassetsandpaymentdirectlyintotheaccountofbeneficiarythroughIT-DBTplatformhaveensuredtransparent,

56Kumar.(2019)DiscussionPaperonRuralRoadsandSDGs:TERI.57SameasFootnote66.58Retrievedfromhttp://pmgsy.nic.in/pmgi112.asp#4.Accessedon9/12/2019.59Retrievedfromhttps://rural.nic.in/sites/default/files/PMAYG_0.pdf.Accessedon12/11/2019.60AsherS,NovosadP,TheEmploymentEffectsofRoadConstructioninRuralIndia,201461Retrievedfromhttp://pmgsy.nic.in/pmgi112.asp#4.Accessedon9/12/2019.62Retrievedfromhttps://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=160647.Accessedon9/12/2019.

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hassle-freeandqualityprogrammeimplementation63. InthefirstphaseofPMAY-G,98.27lakhhousesweresanctioned,ofwhich89.78lakhhavebeenreportedtobecompleted,againstthetargetof1crorehouses in rural areas. However, the scheme is facing the challenge of providing houses to landlessbeneficiariesasitapproachesitstargetcompletion.Inaddition,thefull implementationofAwaasPluswouldpushforarevisionoftheexistinglistofbeneficiaries.

MGNREGShasabearingonruralinfrastructurebywayofcreationofsustainableassets.Theaspectofnaturalresourcemanagementunder theschemecontributes toenhancing thenationalresourcebase(throughwaterconservation,droughtproofing,renovatingwaterbodies,ruralconnectivityandsoforth)and furthering sustainable development64. It has been found that MGNREGS has helped in cropintensification anddiversification andhas also led to an increase inhousehold income. For example,improvedmanagementofnaturalresourceshasincreasedthepotentialofirrigationinagricultureandhasfurtherledtoanincreaseingroundwatertable.Thebenefitofimprovedassetscreation(suchasfarmponds,vermi/Nadeppits,soakpits,wells,ruralhousing,goatsheds,cattlesheds)providesathrustonlivelihoodsecurity.

The Ministry went further from improving different facets of rural infrastructure to develop entireclusterswhose population can leverage urban amenities. Such clusters have 21 desirable amenities,which are all encompassing in nature65. A 'Rurban cluster', is a cluster of geographically contiguousvillageswithapopulationofabout25,000to50,000inplainandcoastalareasandwithapopulationof5,000to15,000indesert,hillyortribalareas.Theamenitiestobeprovidedarefurtherclassifiedintothreeheads:66

BasicAmenities: Sanitation, PipedWater Supply, Solid LiquidWastemanagement, Street lights andelectrification,accesstovillagestreetswithdrains,inter-villageroadsconnectivity,publictransport,LPGgasconnectionandallied.

SocialandDigitalAmenities:Health,Education,DigitalLiteracy,CitizenServicesCentres,EnvironmentConservation,Housing,SportsInfrastructure,SocialInfrastructure,andSocialWelfare.

Economic Amenities: Skill development linked to economic activities of cluster, Agri-Services,processing,andalliedactivities,MSMEsstrengthening&SHGformation,TourismPromotion67.

EnablingEcosystem

Thebenefits generateddue todevelopmentof infrastructure facilities in rural areasenable the ruralpopulation to raise their standards of living. Rural road connectivity is a key component of ruraldevelopmentasitcreatesanecosystemthatenablesaccesstoeconomicandsocialservicesandhencegenerates increased agricultural incomes and productive employment opportunities in India68.Specifically,greatermarketintegrationandtherebyenablingecosystemsresultsfromtheimplicationson prices of goods imported from outside the village, variety in the household consumption basket,technology adoption in agriculture, human capital investments in children and adolescents, andoccupationchoicesofadolescentsaswellasadults,labourforceparticipationrateofprime-agedwomenhavingadirectbearingonprofitability,suchassellingperishablegoods69.

63Retrievedfromhttps://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1510200.Accessedon9/12/2019.64SameasFootnote23.65MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2019).PresentationonSPMRM-MissionBrief.ProgrammeDivision.66Retrievedfromhttp://rurban.gov.in/cluster.html.Accessedon7/12/2019.67Sameasfootnote83.68Retrieved from http://vikaspedia.in/social-welfare/rural-poverty-alleviation-1/schemes/pradhan-mantri-gram-sadak-yojana.Accessedon11/12/201969Agrawal, Shilpa (2018); Do Rural Roads create pathways out of poverty – evidences from India. Journal of DevelopmentEconomics133(2018)375–395

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In a similar manner, affordable housing enables the use of houses as units of consumption andproduction.This isespeciallyrelevant inthecontextofruralareasaspeopleusetheirhouses forthepurposeoflivestockshelter,whichinturncontributesastheiradditionalsourceofincome.

MGNREGS hasmultiple layers of enablement attached to it. The scheme’s planning process starts atvillage levelwithGramSabhas,where individualsandhouseholds register their interest inobtainingwork.ThisstepstrengthensthePanchayatiRajinstitutionsoflocalself-governance.Further,enablementattheimplementationstageofMGNREGSmandatesinvolvescompulsorywage-employmentforwomen.45 percent of womenworkers under the scheme stated that it was their first cash earning activity.Secondary literaturehas identifiedaccesstopaidworkasakeyenablingfactorforarise inwomen’sbargaining power within the household70. The “Support Modules” in MGNREGS - Social Audit, CostEstimation,Grievance,Staffing&Training-captureinformationrequiredforenablingprocessesandthushelpineffectivedecisionmaking71.SPMRMasaschemeisconceptualisedaroundtheideaofprovidinganecosysteminruralareasthatenablestransformationofruralareasintourban.

QualitativeinterviewsacrossthecountryhaveraisedsomeofthepositiveimpactsofRuralDevelopmentinfrastructureinitiativesinthelivesofschemebeneficiaries.OfficialsfromDistrictandBlocklevelsofadministrationhavepointedoutthespillovereffectsofinfrastructureadvancementsinthewell-beingofruralcitizens.

“Therehavebeenmanychangesinruralinfrastructure.Earlier,thevillageswerenothavinganyconnectingroads.Thestreetsinvillageswerealsonotcleanandproper.Theroadshavebeennowimprovedtotheextentof60and70percent. In the villages at present, there are Anganwadi buildings, Panchayati buildings. All these have beenconstructed”-DistrictMagistrate,AndhraPradesh

“At many places, there were no roads. Now, we have constructed the roads and we are joining the last mileconnectivity.Especiallybecausetherearehillyareas,therewasatroubleintransportationandtherearealotofcanalsandriversandallinthisarea.Sowehavemadesmallbridgesalsoonthosewaterbodiessothatthelandmassescanbejoined”-DistrictMagistrate,Jharkhand

“Before 2.5 years, the scenario of Godda was lacking in infrastructure so much in the sense of production,preservation, quality ofwork etc.Thisareawas lacking inall these things. Sincewe started implementationofschemes,weareseeinghugechangeinthesethings.(…)Total328kilometresofroadshavebeenbuilttillnow,201PanchayatBhavanshavebeenbuilt,andelectrificationisdoneinallofthem.Thereare171Panchayatscurrentlywhere SCE establishment is done. We have made drinking water facilities available at all common places insaturation mode. We have achieved 61 percent of our goal in housing” - Aspirational District Fellowship,Jharkhand

“Huge investment isgone intoallkindsof infrastructure. In roadsconnectivity,bridges. (…)There is significantimprovement in harbour facilities and there is recent improvement is agricultural warehouses”- DistrictMagistrate,TamilNadu

“Ifwearetalkingaboutdevelopment,Ihavenoticeditinallthe3levels.Oneisinfrastructureanddevelopment,thelivelihood and their standard living and also social and financial. 80 percent of the constructed roads and theinterlocking roadshavegot connected.And theseare connected tovillagesandcitiesaround.Thereareproperdrains,andbecauseofthesefacilitiesproperhousingfacilityhasdeveloped.Sobecauseofallthese,therehavebeenchangesinthecleanlinessofthevillageandthelivelihoodoftheruralareas.Similarly,therearefacilitiesfortoilets,grocerymarket,communityPanchayatcentreisthere.Sothishasbroughtchangesintheirmindsetofthesocietyalsoandwhenthepeopleacquiresocialandfinancialstability,theirmindsetandtheirlivelihoodandalsointheiractionsyoucannoticeadevelopment.Thisleadstofurtherdevelopmentasawhole”-BDO,UttarPradesh

70SameasFootnote68.71Retrieved from https://nrega.nic.in/Circular_Archive/archive/Operational_guidelines_4thEdition_eng_2013.pdf.Accessed5/12/2019

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“Thebiggestchangesthatcanbeseenareinroadconnectivity.Earlieritwasless,butnowalmosteveryvillagehasroadconnectivity,andtherehavebeenchangesinconstructionofhousesalso.Thequalityofworkisbetterthanbefore”-BDO,Jharkhand

Convergence

ThecurrentconvergenceeffortsoccurringwithinDoRD fordevelopmentof rural infrastructurearepresentedbelow:

• PMAY-GandMGNREGS–ThebeneficiariesofPMAY-Greceive90-95persondaysofwageemploymentfortheconstructionoftheirrespectivehousesthroughMGNREGS.

• MGNREGSandDAY-NRLM–SynergybetweenDAY-NRLMandMGNREGSisutilizedbyfacilitatingthefarmers identified under Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojna (MKSP) and other sustainableagriculture-basedinterventions,takenupunderDAY-NRLMtocreateandaccesstheseassetsunderMGNREGS72.

• PMGSY and MGNREGS - Schedule-I of MGNREGS reads as: “Providing all-weather rural roadconnectivitytounconnectedvillagesandtoconnectidentifiedruralproductioncentres”.TheMinistryhasstandardizeditsspecificationsforallnon-PradhanMantriGramSadakYojana(non-PMGSY)roadstobetakenupunderMGNREGSprogramme73.

• DAY-NRLM and MGNREGS- Category C Works under MGNREGS are classified as ‘CommonInfrastructureforNRLMCompliantSelf-HelpGroups’.Theseincludeworksforpromotingagriculturalproductivitybycreatingdurableinfrastructurerequiredforbio-fertilisersandpost-harvestfacilitiesincludingpucca storage facilities for agricultural produce, and commonwork sheds for livelihoodactivitiesofself-helpgroups.74

• NSAPandDAY-NRLM-TheStateLivelihoodMissionshavebeendirectedtoproactivelyenrolallthewomenbeneficiariesofNSAPintheSHGsofDAY-NRLM.Atthemicro-level,usingtheSHGnetwork,dataontheneedsofeachfamilyshouldbecollectedandconverged75.NSAPguidelinesalsosuggestthe use of DAY-NRLM in the process of identification of beneficiaries and gives priority to NSAPbeneficiariesand/ortheirchildrenintrainingsunderAajeevikaSkillsProgramme.

• NSAPandMGNREGS-MGNREGSguidelinesprovideforproactivelyseekingandprovidingjobcardsand employment to NSAP beneficiaries of rural areas and/or their family members under theprogramme.76

• NSAPandPMAY-G-PMAY-GimplementingagencieshavebeendirectedtoundertakespecialeffortstoprovidehousingundertheprogrammetoeligiblebeneficiariesunderNSAP77.

ApartfromwithinDoRD,theMinistrycreatessynergieswithotherMinistriestobringharmonyinruraldevelopment.For instance, inorder tobuild toiletsandprovideelectricity inAwaashouses,PMAY-GconvergeswithSBM-GofMinistryofJalShakti78andSaubhagyaofMinistryofPower,respectively79.The

72SameasFootnote88.73DepartmentofRuralDevelopment.(2018).MGNREGAMasterCircular-Aguideprogrammeimplementation.74SameasFootnote88.75DepartmentofRuralDevelopment.(2014).NSAP-ProgrammeGuidelines76SameasFootnote92.77SameasFootnote92.78PreviouslypartofMinistryofDrinkingWater&Sanitation.InMay,2019MinistryofJalShaktiwasformedbymergingoftwoministries;Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga RejuvenationandMinistry of Drinking Water andSanitation.79DepartmentofRuralDevelopment.(2018).MGNREGAMasterCircular-Aguideprogrammeimplementation.MinistryofRuralDevelopment.

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aboveconvergencetakesplaceattheleveloffinancialresources,asRs.12,000fromSBM-GisprovidedtoAwaasbeneficiaryforconstructionoftoilets.Further,constructionofAnganwadicentresisattimestaken up under MGNREGS using appropriate labour intensive and cost-effective technologies.ExpenditureuptoRs.5lakhsunderMGNREGSisallowedandthebalancecostaspertheState-specificestimatemaybemobilisedfromtheICDSschemeoftheMinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment80.Convergencewithmultipleministriesisalsowitnessed.Forexample,acomponentofNaturalResourceManagement (hereafter,NRM)withinMGNREGSconvergenceswithPradhanMantriKrishiSinchayeeYojana(PMKSY),IWMPandCommandAreaDevelopmentandWaterManagement81.Here,PMKSYfallsundertheMinistryofAgriculture&Farmer’sWelfare,IWMPfallsundertheDoRDandCAD&WMfallsundertheMinistryofJalShakti.

1.2.2. Livelihoods Transformation

Rurallivelihoodsarethesetofactivitiesinwhichthesocio-economicsystemsconstitutetodeterminetheincomegenerationinruralareas.InacountrylikeIndia,whereagriculturemostlydependsontheadventofthemonsoon,thefarmerisalwaysexposedtothevagariesofweatherandeconomicshocksandvulnerabilities. Inmanypartsofthecountry,thefarmersgettoworkontheirfarmsforonlyoneseason,i.e.kharifwhichprovidesaround80-100daysofemployment,leavingthemunemployedformostofthetimeinayear.Inlinewiththis,theEconomySurvey(2018)notedthatweatherpatternscanimpactfarmincomesintherangeof15percentto18percentonaverage,andupto20percentto25percentforun-irrigatedareas.

Althoughagricultureisstilltheprimaryincome-generatingactivityandfarmersproducefoodcropsfortheirsubsistenceinordertoaddresstheirfoodsecurity,thustheincomegeneratedfromthesaleofthecropsisnottheonlysourceofincometheyrelyon.Apoorhouseholdinruralareasisalsodependentonotherself-employedwork(forinstance,collectionofforestproduce,animalhusbandryetc.)orascasualwagelabour.Infact,inthenon-agriculturalsector,wageemploymentconstitutesaround62percentoftotalemployment82. In2011-12,outof195millionwageemployees,74million(or38percent)wereregular/salariedemployeesand121million(or62percent)werecasualwageworkers.41percentofthemaleswereinregular/salariedemploymentand59percentincasualemploymentandwomenwereevenlessprevalentthanmeninregular/salariedemployment.Theirshareinregular/salariedemploymentandincasualworkwas30percentand70percentrespectively,indicatinghighercasualizationofwagelabouramongstwomen.83

The Government of India took cognizance of the need and importance of uninterrupted access tolivelihood of the poor and the need for ensuring livelihood securitywith aminimumand equal pay.MGNREGSwasthuslaunchedtoprovideemploymentinleanagriculturalseasonandalsotoaddresstheexploitationofcasualworkersintermsofdepressedwagesandtopromoteahighershareofwomeninwagelabour.Theschemeaimsatenhancinglivelihoodsecurityoftheruralpoorbyprovidingatleastonehundred days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adultmembersvolunteertodounskilledmanualwork.

Agriculture and other sources of employment in the farm and non-farm sectors in rural areas areunorganised.DAY-NRLM,withitsnetworkofprimaryandfederatinginstitutions,aimsatcreatinganecosystemthatorganizestheunorganized.Sub-schemeswithintheprogramme,suchasMKSPandthe

80SameasFootnote96.81SameasFootnote96.82InternationalLabourOrganization.(2018).IndiaWageReport,wagepoliciesfordecentwageandinclusivegrowth.83SameasFootnote99.

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concept of Krishi Sakhi and Pashu Sakhi, address various agricultural segments. Non-farm sectorpotentialanddemandiscateredtobyRSETIsestablishedateachoftheLeadDistrictstoconducttrainingforruralunemployedyouthtotakeupself-employmentventures.RSETIsofferaneed-basedexperientialtrainingprogrammefollowedbysystematichandholdingsupportandbanklinkage.Banksareinvolvedin selection, training and post-training follow-up stages. Further, Start-up Village EntrepreneurshipProgramme (SVEP) initiated in 2014, follows a strategic approach of knowledge, incubation andentrepreneur ecosystem, capacity building, directed financial products (community enterprise fund)throughfederatedinstitutions(clusterlevelfederations)andcommunitymonitoring(withperformancetrackingsystembycommunityresourcepersons).

Inthepost-reformera,theruralsectortoohasbeentransforming,keepinginmindtheopenmarketandcompetitivenatureofbusinesses.Thefarmersaretransformingintoentrepreneursandheadingtowardsvaluechaindevelopment.Theyaremorethanagriculturalistswhoworkinthefieldsandgetsmoneyfortheproduce.Theyareusingsubstances,materialsand/orcommoditiestosell inthemarkete.g.,Non-TimberForestProducts(NTFPs)andprocessingofagricultureandhorticultureproduce84.

With creation of infrastructure, the private and public core banking services have penetrated in thedynamicallychangingruralmarketandcustomerneeds.Paymentbanksarefanningoutintotherural,remoteareasof the country, offering limitedbut critical services suchasmoney transfers, loansanddepositcollection85.Otheragencieshaveaddedtheirownprogrammesto furtherconcretise financialinclusionoftheruralpoorwithinitiativeslikeJAMtrinityandMUDRAloansforlivelihoodventuresandentrepreneurship.

Theruralregionsarealreadycoveredbythevasttelecommunicationservicesandwiththeaugmentationofsmartphonetelephony.Peoplearedigitallyconnectedevenintheremotestoftheregions.ThroughitstheDigitalVillageproject,GoIprovidedhigh-speedinternetconnectivityandinstalledWi-Fihotspotsatmorethan1,000GramPanchayatsacrossIndiaandtheCommonServiceCentresarebecominghubsforprovidingbasicdigitalservicesatthedoorstepofthepoor.AccordingtoTRAIestimates,currentlythereare32.24Internetsubscribersinruralareasper100populationin2020asopposedto25.46in2018.Internethasbecomeacost-effectivemeansforthepooraswell,overcominggeographicalbarriersandbroadeningtheirreach.ProjectslikeGovernmente-marketplace(GeM)aretryingtobringtheruralpoorintothee-commercefoldwhereintheyarenowabletoselltheirproductsonline.

Enablingecosystem

Government of India seeks to create an enabling environment for livelihood generation through anemphasisonrights-basedapproachtodevelopmentthroughMGNREGS,andonsocialcapitalforthepoorthroughDAY-NRLMandMGNREGS.This,apart fromgenerating livelihoodopportunities for theruralpopulationtolivewithdignity,alsoindirectlyenableshouseholdstobreakthecycleofdebttrapfromlocal money lenders and its associated miseries. Financial inclusion has been ensured as currentpaymentsundertheschemearemostlydonebywayofdirecttransferintobeneficiaryaccounts.Theseaccountshaveaidedaccesstobankcreditforthehouseholds.

Apart from employment, MGNREGS has taken measures for skill enhancement of workers throughinitiativeslikeBareFootTechniciansandProjectLIFE(LivelihoodinFullEmployment)86.ProjectLIFEtargeted persons who have completed 100 working days under MGNREGS and do not have furthersourcesofemployment.Thestrategyoftheprojectwastocatalyseashiftwithinpoorhouseholds,from

84MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2019).FarmLivelihoodsInterventionsunderDAY-NRLM:Strategy,ConvergenceFramework,Models.85ReserveBankofIndia.(2018).AnnualReport-CreditDeliveryandFinancialInclusion.86Retrievedfromhttps://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=159668.Accessedon10December2019.

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unskilledtoskilledlabour,frompartialemploymenttofullemploymentthroughcapacitybuildingandskilltraining87.Currently,ProjectUnnatiseekstotrainoneadultmember(between18and45years)perhousehousehold,whohascompleted100daysofworkunderMahatmaGandhiNREGAinthepreviousfinancialyear.

DAY-NRLMcontributesbycreatinganecosystemandan institutionalplatform for inclusivepro-poorgrowth and a favourable investment climate in otherwise underserved regions and for poorerhouseholds.Responsibleclientsforfinancialsectorareformedandinformedandawareusersofpublicandprivateservicesaredeveloped.These individualsare trained toassertandensureaccountabilityfromserviceproviders.Theschemeisdesignedtocreateopportunitiesforsmallproducerstoparticipateincommoditymarketsandalsoprovideyouthfrompoorhouseholdaccesstolabourmarketsandjobopportunities.

Both MGNREGS and DAY-NRLM have significantly contributed to the creation of gender centricecosystems by providing them with opportunities for non-domestic work and gain recognition asproductivemembersofthehouseholdbycontributingtowardsincome.Thisincreasestheirautonomousspacewithinthefamilyandaddstotheirself-esteem.Amongthesub-componentsofDAY-NRLM,MKSPaimstoimprovethestatusofwomenfarmersthroughincreasingtheirparticipationandproductivityinsustainable agricultural livelihood opportunities. However, informed literature has pointed out thatgender-responsive livelihoods focus underDAY-NRLM requires a design of livelihood strategies thatrecognises women as economic actors, and ensures their enhanced income security and economicempowerment,ratherthantargetinghouseholdlevelpoverty88.

Convergence

Atthesectorlevel,DoRDadoptsamulti-dimensionalapproachtoenhancerurallivelihoodopportunities.Theintentistocreateaself-sustainingeco-systemoflivelihoods,onesupportedbytheconvergenceofeffortsbyotherschemes,Ministries,developmentpartnersandcommunitybasedorganisations.Withintheruraldevelopmentsector,convergenceisundertakenatthreelevels:betweenandamongschemesofDoRD;institutionallyatinter-Ministerialprogrammaticlevel;andthroughpartnershipsbetweenpublic,privateandcommunityinstitutions.

The generation of employment envisioned through scheme level convergence across the two majorlivelihood enhancement schemes of the DoRD,MGNREGS and DAY-NRLM has beenmade functionalthroughtheirschemeguidelines.Forinstance,thefederationsformedunderDAY-NRLMparticipateinpreparingworkplansand labourbudget forMGNREGS throughan IntegratedParticipatoryPlanningExercise(IPPE).SHGmembersparticipateinGramSabhatofacilitatesuitableworksidentification(forlivelihoodsassetsandwageemployment)andforprovisionofjobcardsandworktotheneedy.Similarly,individualandcollectiveassetsforSHGmemberscanbedevelopedthroughMGNREGS,whichcanfurtherbeusedforlivelihoodgenerationbythegroups.89

OtherDoRDschemeswhoseeffortsconverge in livelihoodcreation includeDDU-GKY,whichseeks todiversify the incomes of rural poor families and advance the careers of rural youth through skilldevelopment, trainingandtheRuralSelfEmploymentTraining Institutes,whichprovidetrainingandskillupgradationtoruralyouthsoastofurthertheentrepreneurshipdevelopmentagenda.

Inter-Ministerial convergence plays a role in securing rural livelihoods holistically. The goal of rurallivelihood creation ismet bymany schemes alignedwith differentMinistries. TheDoRD’s livelihood

87Roy,T.S.(2017).ProjectLife-ANewWayofSustainableLivelihoods.JournalofRuralDevelopmentReview.88Tanka, R. (2014). Engendering Rural Livelihoods: Supporting Gender Responsive Implementation of the National RuralLivelihoodMission.UNWomen.89NationalInstituteofRuralDevelopmentandPanchayatiRaj.(2016).TheHandbookonConvergence.NRLMResourceCell.

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interventionsarecomplementedbythenationalskillingagendaofthePradhanMantriKaushalYojana(implementedby theMinistryofSkillDevelopment&Entrepreneurship).While the former isgearedtowards guaranteed rural employment and creation of people’ institutions, the latter promotes skilldevelopment for the youth throughout the country, thereby creating a well-equipped workforce.Similarly,theschemesandprogrammesofDepartmentofRuralDevelopmentandMinistryofAgriculture(MoA),bothoperateinruralIndiaandprimarilytargetthesamepopulation.Inparticular,theSPMRMensuresinter-Ministerialconvergenceofschemeswithinacluster,therebyensuringmulti-dimensionalbenefits for the beneficiaries. According to the SPMRM Framework of Implementation, some of theschemesthatcanconvergewithinasector includeDDU-GKY(forskilldevelopmenttraining linkedtoeconomicactivities);PradhanMantriKrishiSinchaiYojnaandParamparagatKrishiVikasYojana (foragri-services and farm productivity). The convergence of such schemes, alongside the provision ofinfrastructuresupport,helpscreateavibranteco-systemoflivelihoodopportunitiesunderSPMRM.

ThenewpermissibleworksunderMGNREGS issued inMay2012(which includeNADEPcomposting,Vermi composting, Poultry shelter, Goat Shelter, Fisheries in seasonal water bodies on public land)present ways to strengthen the synergy with agriculture to enhance rural livelihoods90. This inter-sectoralapproachopensupopportunitiesforconvergencewithvariousMoAschemesgearedtowardsagriculturallivelihoodssuchasRashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana(RKVY)andNationalHorticultureMission(NHM).

Convergencepresentsopportunitiestounlockpositiveexternalities.Astudyacross5States-Rajasthan,MadhyaPradesh,AndhraPradesh,Karnataka,andSikkim-showedthat,whereverMGNREGSisbeingimplemented, it isgeneratingmultipleenvironmentalbenefits, leadingtoimprovedwateravailability,soil fertility and increased crop production, thereby creating synergies with agriculture basedlivelihoods91.

DoRD has a sharp focus on developing Public-Public, Public-Private, and Public-Private-CommunityPartnershipstobuildsynergiesinlivelihoodprogramming.Forinstance,DAY-NRLMworkscloselywithRBI,NABARD,BanksandotherFinancialInstitutions,andInsuranceCompanies,tobuildplatformsforPublic-Private-Community Partnerships in key livelihoods sectors, such as agriculture, livestock, andnon-farm sectors. The purpose of these partnerships is to develop selected value chains or productclusters,andmarketlinkages.Theyarealsodirectedtowardsstrengtheningtheaccessoftheruralpoortotheirrightsandentitlements,publicservices,expertiseandotherservices92.

1.2.3. Social Safety Net Transformation

AsarticulatedbyJeanDrezeandAmartyaSen,socialsafetynetsareparamountto‘protectandpromote’the standards of living in a society. Driven by the rights-based initiative, which recognises basicentitlementstowork,foodandeducationasafundamentalrightofthecitizen,safetynetprogrammeshavebeenenshrinedinIndia’sconstitution.93Vulnerabilitiesarepresentinallstagesofhumanlife,butthey are most pronounced for the disabled, the elderly and widows. Debilitated health and theincapabilityofbeingeconomicallyproductiveaugmentthedependencyofthesegroups94.Theproblemis more persistent among the poor as constant deprivation prevents them from making any safety

90MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2013).ConvergenceofMGNREGAandProgrammesofMinistryofAgriculture91IndianInstituteofScience.(2013).EnvironmentalBenefitsandVulnerabilityReductionthroughMahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeScheme.Bangalore.92Retrievedfromhttps://aajeevika.gov.in/content/convergence-partnerships.Accessedon10/12/2019.93Dreze,J.,Hills,J.,&Sen,A.(1991).Socialsecurityindevelopingcountries.E.Ahmad(Ed.).Oxford:Clarendon.94Gupta,A.(2013).Old-agepensionschemeinJharkhandandChhattisgarh.EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,54-59.

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arrangements.Further,eventhehealthypopulationofruralIndiafaceschallengeswithanincreaseinseasonalhungerduringtheleanagriculturalseason95.

Increasing dependency ratio and divyang population highlights the need for comprehensive socialprotectioninIndia,asshowninthefigurebelow:

Figure4:PopulationbyAgeStructure(percentofpopulation)

Source:EconomicSurvey2018-19

InitscommitmenttotheachievementofSDGs,Indiaaimsatreducinginequality,eradicatingextremepovertyby2030forallpeopleeverywhereandreducingatleasthalftheproportionofmen,womenandchildrenofallageslivinginpovertyinallitsdimensions.Further,Article41oftheConstitutionofIndiadirectstheStatestoprovidepublicassistancetoitscitizensincaseofunemployment,oldage,sicknessanddisablementandinothercasesofundeservedwant,withinthelimitof itseconomiccapacityanddevelopment.Byprovidingpublicassistancetoitscitizensincaseofoldage,widowhood,disablementanddeathofthebreadwinner,NSAPissecuringadequatemeansoflivelihoodtocitizensandraisingthestandardoflivingbyalleviatingpoverty.Likewise,MGNREGSguarantees100daysofemploymenttoallhouseholds willing to undertake unskilled manual labour to safeguard against seasonal or periodicdeprivation.TheguidelinesofMGNREGSalsoinstructStatestotakespecialcareofvulnerablegroupssuchasScheduledCastes(SC),ScheduledTribes(ST),women,Divyang,singlewomenandotherminoritygroups96.

GoI has increasingly realised the important role that social policy can play in building a strong andresilienteconomy97.Itrecognisedthatsocialprotectionschemesalsoplayavaluablepromotionalrole,helpingstrengthenhumancapitalinthecountry,improvingproductivity,andreducingdamagingsocialcosts. The 2013 Task Force,which reviews and suggestsmore comprehensive social assistance, hasrecommended further increase ofmonthly pensions and the expansion of coverage, the reduction ofminimumagerequirementforIGNWPSfrom40yearsto18years,additionalfocustodivorced,separatedandabandonedwomeninIGNWPS,provisionofassistanceintheeventofthedeathofanyadultmember(and not just male members) to the bereaved family under NFBS, an index of pension amounts toinflation, and a proactive identification of beneficiaries, without demanding elaborate documentaryproof. The DoRD has revised programme guidelines for NSAP in October 2014, reflecting abovesuggestionsmadebytheTaskForce.

95SameasFootnote36.96UNDP.(2016).SustainableDevelopmentGoalsandGramPanchayats:HandbookforTrainersandGramPanchayats.UNDP.97Dutta,P.,Howes,S.,Murgai,R.(2010).Smallbuteffective:India’stargetedunconditionalcashtransfers

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MGNREGShasbeenshowntonotonlyprovideasafetynetforworkerswhocannotfindworkelsewherebuthasalsobeenshowntohavesignificantimpactsonruralwagesbeyondtheprogramme,aswellasonthepropensityofruralinhabitantstomigratelookingforwork98.NSAPisanequallyimportantcentralgovernmentschemeofIndia’sminimumsocialprotectionfloor,whichhasbeenwidelyacknowledgedandacceptedbyagenciessuchasInternationalLabourOrganisation(ILO)andWorldHealthOrganisation(WHO).UnlikeMGNREGS,whichisastatutorylivelihoodsecurityschememandatedbylaw,NSAPisnotgovernedbylegislation.Instead,itisagovernmentinitiativeaimedatfulfillingIndia’sobligationstoitscitizensundertheIndianConstitution’sDirectivePrinciples.

NSAPextendsitsbenefitsonlytothepopulationwhichfallsbelowpovertylinetosupplementorprovideadditional assistance to the especially vulnerable population. In the Estimates Committee ReportSummaryReport onNSAP, the currentmethod of identification of BPL has been criticised for beinginaccurateandrecommendsthattheselectionofbeneficiariesbedoneusingtheSocio-EconomicCasteCensus(SECC)99.AlthoughbudgetestimatesforNSAPhavebeeninaconstantrisesinceFY2015-16,theactualexpenditurehasbeendecliningsinceFY2016-17.ActualexpenditureunderNSAPdroppedfromRs8,854croreinFY2016-17toRs8,418croreinFY2018-19100.ResourcegapremainshighforalmostallschemesunderNSAPandbudgetaryallocationisinsufficientevenatthecurrentmandatedpensionamounts101.

Socialsafetynetswithintheruraldevelopmentsectorareaimedatpreventingoralleviatingpoverty,vulnerabilityandsocialexclusion.Majorityofolderpersons,particularlyinruralareas,sufferfromlackofaccesstomoneyandpoorfinancialstatusisamajorfactor,responsiblefortheirmiserableconditionin old age102. Financial assistance to the elderly empowers them and improves their social status,independence,self-esteemandoverallqualityoflife103.Itispresumablethatpeoplewithdisabilitiesandwidows–groupswhichareasvulnerableastheelderly-willhavesimilarimpactsto

financialassistance.Itisalsoobservedthat,inspiteofavailabilityofseveralsocialsecurityschemesandsocialprotectionfloorsatdifferentlevels,mostelderlypeople,particularlyolderpeopleabove80,arenotcapableofavailingthebenefitsduetomanyhindrances,includinglackoftransportationfacilities,lackofcaregiversandalso lackofawarenessabout theschemesbeingrun for thewellbeingofolderpersons104.Doorstepbankingandsocialauditmechanismsthroughdigitalfootprinttrackingaresomemechanismswhicharebeingpilotedincertainareas.

ThroughMGNREGS,theruralpopulationgetswagesduringdistresssituationssuchasdroughtstohelpthepeopletideovervulnerabletimesandtherebyreducemigrationtocities.ThesuccessofMGNREGScomesfromitsdemand-sidedesign,whichguaranteeswageincome105.AnemergingchallengeforIndiain viewof vast geographic spread and population is that there is no uniform social protection floor.Instead,therearemanykindsofsocialprotectionfloorsinplaceindifferentstagesandfordifferentsets

98Imbert,C.,Papp,J.(2012).EquilibriumDistributionalImpactsofGovernment.EmploymentProgrammes:EvidencefromIndia'sEmploymentGuarantee.99GhoshJ(2014)EstimatesCommitteeReportSummaryNSAP,PSRIndia100Retrievedfromhttps://rural.nic.in/finance/budget.Accessedon7/12/2019101Vij,S.(2017).ResourceGapAnalysisofNSAP.CentreforBudgetandGovernanceAccountability102AgewellFoundation.(2019).StatusofSocialSecurityandSocialSecurityFloorsinIndia.AgewellResearch&AdvocacyCentre.103Jothi,S.,LakshmiNarayanan,S.,Ramakrishnan,J.,&Selvaraj,R.(2016).BeneficiarysatisfactionregardingoldagepensionschemeanditsutilizationpatterninurbanPuducherry:Amixedmethodsstudy.Journalofclinicalanddiagnosticresearch:JCDR,10(9),LC01104Sameasfootnote120.105Pandey, R. (2017). MGNREGA and its role in rural development.International Journal of Scientific and ResearchPublications,7(11),198-202.

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ofpeople106.Further,manyStategovernmentshavetheirownsocialpensionschemeswithvastvarianceinguidelinescreatingdifferencesinthelevelofsocialassistanceamongdifferentStates/UTs107.

EnablingEcosystem

Safetynetsareapartofthebroaderstrategyofpovertyreduction.Theyinteractwithandworkalongsideprogrammesinareassuchashealth,educationandfinancialservicesandprovisionof infrastructureslikeroadsandvariousotherpolicieswhichaimatreducingpovertyandmanagingrisks.Safetynetsaimatredistributingincometothepoorestwithanimmediateimpactonpovertyandinequalityreduction108.ProgrammessuchasNSAPandMGNREGSprovidebeneficiarieswithaccesstoemploymentanddurableassets, thus creatingdemand for goods and services,which improves the quality of life for the ruralpopulation. The latest edition of theWorld Bank’s annual report creditsMGNREGS for unleashing a“revolutioninruralIndia”aswellasestablishingamodelofinclusivedevelopment.“India’sMGNREGSillustrateshowgoodgovernanceandsocialmobilizationgohand-in-hand,”theBank’sreportstates.

While these social protection programmes under DoRD provide direct benefit transfer to thebeneficiariestoenablethemwiththechoiceoftheirconsumptionbasket,thesuccessofcashtransferscriticallyreliesupontheenablingenvironmentandavailabilityof localmarkets.ThemostvulnerablepopulationsofruralIndialiveinremotepartsandtheirmarketaccessibilityislimited.Cashtransfersrequirefinancialinfrastructures,suchasthepresenceofbanksandpostoffices.Indialackssuchruralinfrastructure,withoutwhichasuddenmovetowardscashcouldincreasedistress,atleastintheshortterm.Also,openmarketpricesexhibitcyclicfluctuations.Ifcashtransfersarenotindexedtoinflation,thebenefitsarelikelytobeeroded109

An example of a step towards creating an enabling environment is the use of Aadhaar universalidentification number scheme, which is a key recent government initiative aimed at improving thetargeted uptake of a wide variety of schemes bymaking eligibility requirements subject to a singleuniversaldatabaseforsocialprotectionschemes.SuchadvanceshintattheincreasinglycomprehensivenatureofsocialprotectionsystemsinIndia,inlinewithinternationalstandardsonwhatconstitutesaminimumsocialprotectionfloor110.

Convergence

Ruraldevelopmentprogrammesaimataddressing the issueofmulti-faceteddeprivation. Inorder toachieve the macro SDG goals of ending poverty, zero hunger, sustainable growth, consumption andproduction,greateremphasisneedstobegiventoaddressingtheissueofconvergence.OnewaythatconvergenceisbeingusedtoachieveholisticruraldevelopmentisconvergingdirectbenefitprogrammeswithAadhaarandJan-DhanYojana,afinancialinclusionprogramme,underwhicheverycitizenwouldhaveabankaccount,andwiththeexpansionofthecoverageofmobilephones–resultingintheJAM(JanDhan-Aadhaar-Mobile)trinity111.

Convergencebetweenschemesserving thesamebeneficiaries isanothersignificantrequirement.Forinstance,forDivyang,monthlyassistancewasextendedtothetuneofRs.300to500permonthunderNationalDisabilityPensionScheme.Also, priority is given forhandicappedpersonsunderMGNREGSwork and they can appoint aworker asmate. Disabledworkers are paidwages equivalent to otherworkers.Otherprioritiessetfordisabledpersonsarespecialdiscountinrates,selectionofsuitablework

106SameasFootnote122.107MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2014).NationalSocialAssistanceProgramme-Guidelines.108Grosh,M.E.,DelNinno,C.,Tesliuc,E.,&Ouerghi,A.(2008).Forprotectionandpromotion:Thedesignandimplementationofeffectivesafetynets.TheWorldBank.109SameasFootnote36.110Srivastava,R.S.(2013).AsocialprotectionfloorforIndia.InternationalLabourOffice,SubregionalOfficeforSouthAsia.111SameasFootnote127.

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forthemandorganizationofgroupsfordisabledpersons.UnderMGNREGSinFY2017-18,around4.7lakh disabled workers were provided employment; thereby generating 1.57 crore person days.112However, furthereffort isneeded to increase convergencebetween sub-schemesofNSAP toaddressmultipledivestituressuchasinthecaseofadisabledelderlywidow.

1.2.4. Global Benchmarking Our planet faces enormous economic, social and environmental challenges and despite importantprogress,fewcountriesareon-tracktoachieveallSDGsby2030.Theneedfortransformationalchangeto achieve truly socially inclusive and sustainable economies and societies requires a system-basedapproach.Achievingthesystemchangeishighlycomplexanditrequiresalargescaleandfundamentaltransformationsofthesocietalsystemsdrivingthecurrentstructuralchanges.Suchtransformationswillrequirechangesincurrentinstitutions,practices,technologies,policiesandapproach.Also,thesedeepandlongchangesrequirearoadmap.Globalbenchmarkingtranslatessocietalexpectationsintomatrices,thusprovidingaclearpathforward.Thebenchmarkprovideswheretheindividualeconomiesstandintheirjourneytherebyequippingfinancialinstitutions,governments,civilsocietyandindividualstoexerttheirfullinfluenceandhelpthecountrymovefromaspirationtoactiontoachievement.

Poverty:RelativePositionofIndia

Thekey linkagesbetween rural growthand the real incomesof ruralpoor takes intoaccount,directreductionsinincomefromlowerproductivitygrowth;changesorfluctuationsinwagerates/earningsofunskilledworkers;changesinkeycommoditypricesforincomes,andchangesinthecostofliving.Onthebasisofsuchestimates,globalpovertyline113of$1.90hasbeenestablishedbytheWorldBankbasedonhouseholdsurveys114from164differentcountries.

Povertyreductionacrossregionshasbeenveryuneven.AsevidentintheTable3below,in2015,morethanhalfoftheglobalpoorresidedinSub-SaharanAfricaandmorethan85percentofthepoorlivedineitherSub-SaharanAfricaorSouthAsia.Theremaining15percentoftheglobalpoor,orabout106millionpoorpeoplelivedintheremainingfourregions.

Table3:PovertyattheInternationalPovertyLineof$1.90/day

Region Headcountratio(percent) No.poor(millions)

2013 2015 2013 2015EastAsiaandPacific 3.6 2.3 73.1 47.2EuropeandCentralAsia 1.6 1.5 7.7 7.1LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean 4.6 4.1 28.0 25.9MiddleEastandNorthAfrica 2.6 5.0 9.5 18.6SouthAsia 16.2 12.4 274.5 216.4Sub-SaharanAfrica 42.5 41.1 405.1 413.3WorldTotal 11.2 10.0 804.2 735.9

Source:PPP,2011In all regions except Sub-Saharan Africa, the regional average rates range from 1.5 percent to 12.4percent,whileinSub-SaharanAfrica,around41percentlivebelowtheinternationalpovertyline.The

112Retrievedfromhttps://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=178358.Accessedon10/12/2019113WorldBank(2017)Povertylinesfrom15poorestcountriesconvertedtocommoncurrencybyusingpurchasingpowerparity(PPP)exchangerates,reflectstheamountofmoneyneededtomeetaperson’sminimumnutritional,clothing,andshelterneeds.114Householdsurveysarecarriedoutindependently,typicallybynationalstatisticalofficesornationalplanningministries.Mostcountriesimplementhouseholdsurveys,whicharecomplexandlengthy,abouteverythreetofiveyears.Inaddition,ittakestimetogather,process,andanalyzethedata.Duetotheinfrequencyandtimelags,2015isthemostrecentyearforwhichthereissufficientdatatoestimatepovertyatagloballevel.Giventhesegapsandthefactthatextremepovertydoesnotgenerallychangemuchfromyeartoyear,theWorldBankGroupproducesglobalpovertyestimateseverytwoyears.

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MiddleEast andNorthAfrica (MENA) region sawan increase in extremepoverty rates, even thoughpovertyiscomparativelymuchlowerintheregion.TheshareofthepopulationinextremepovertyinMENAincreasedto5percentin2015,upfrom2.7percentin2013,whilethenumberofpoorrosefrom9.5millionin2013to18.7millionin2015.Fragilityandconflictintheregion–particularlyinSyriaandYemen–arehurtinglivelihoodsandcausingtherecentspikeinpoverty115.Theextremepovertyrateissignificantly lower inIndiarelativetotheaveragerate inSub-SaharanAfrica,butbecauseof its largepopulation,India’stotalnumberofpoorisstilllarge.TheextremepovertyrateandthenumberofpoorinSouthAsiahavebeensteadilydecliningandareexpectedtocontinuethattrend.TheresultofthistrendisashiftinpovertyfromSouthAsiatoSub-SaharanAfrica116.

Thefigurebelowrepresentsallcountriesbytheshareoftheglobalpoorin2015.Halfofthepeoplelivinginextremepovertyin2015canbefoundinjustfivecountries.Povertyreductionacrossregionshasbeenveryuneven.ThemostpopulouscountriesinSouthAsia(BangladeshandIndia)andSub-SaharanAfrica(DemocraticRepublicofCongo,Ethiopia,andNigeria)arethefivetoppingthelistofcountrieswiththegreatest number of extremepoor. India,with over 170million poor people in 2015, has the highestnumberofpoorpeopleandaccountsfornearlyaquarterofglobalpoverty.IntheSouthAsiaregion,fouroutoffiveextremepoorresideinIndia.Despiteapovertyrateof13.4percent,India’slargepopulationof1.3billionresultsinahighnumberofextremepoor.

Figure5:GlobalDistributionoftheExtremePoorbyRegionandCountry,2015

Source:PovcalNet(onlineanalysistool),http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/.WorldBank,Washington,DC.

115WorldBank(2018)Piecingtogetherthepovertypuzzle-Povertyandsharedprosperityreport,2018

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Analysingthenumberofpeoplelivinginextremepoverty(andasapercentageofthetotalpopulation),wefindthatIndia’sabsolutefiguresofextremepovertyremainalarminglyhighincomparisontoChinaandBangladesh.Whilepercentageofpeople living inextremepoverty in Indiahasdeclinedbetween2016and2020,thedeclineisfarlessthanwhathasbeenexperiencedinBangladeshduringthesamereferenceperiod.

Figure6:PeoplelivinginExtremePoverty

Source:WorldPovertyClock,2020

80percentoftheworld’sextremelypoorpeopleliveinruralareas,and,inmanyregions,ruralareashaveexperiencedfewpositivechangesintheiroverallwellbeing117.Ruralsocietiesareasimportantasever,includinginthedevelopedworld118.

The SustainableDevelopmentGoals (SDGs) are calling for the elimination of extremepoverty for allpeopleeverywhereby2030.Developmenteffortsthattargetsomeofthemostvulnerablepopulations,suchaswomen,indigenouspeoplesandthosewithoutland,whilebalancingtheseeffortswithoveralllocaldevelopmentalsoneeds tobebasedonreducing inequalitiesbetweenruralandurbanareas tostimulateinclusivegrowth.

InSouthAsia,boththepovertyrateandthenumberofpoorpeoplehasbeensteadilydeclining,butgiventhesheersizeofthepopulations,theregion’scontributiontoglobalpovertycontinuestobehigh.ThisisincontrasttoSub-SaharanAfrica,wherethetotalnumberofpoorpeoplehasbeenincreasing,essentiallyshiftingtheconcentrationofpovertyfromSouthAsiatoSub-SaharanAfrica.In2030,forecasts119suggestthatnearly9 in10of theextremepoorwill live inSub-SaharanAfrica.Additionally, theslowdowninpoverty reduction between 2013 and 2015 reflects, in part, the sluggish economic growth and lowcommoditypricesthathinderedmanydevelopingeconomiesoverthatperiod.Also,ofthe164countriesforwhichtheWorldBankmonitorspoverty,morethanhalf–84countries–havealreadyreachedlevelsbelow3percentasof2015120.Therearenowfewercountriesthanbeforewithlargepopulationsofpoorpeople. As extreme poverty becomes increasingly concentrated, significant progress in reducing theglobalpovertycountwillonlyoccurifprogressismadeinthosecountrieswherepovertyisgreatest.

RuralTransformation

Sincethe1950s,thenotionofdevelopmenthasframedourthinkingaboutissuesofhumanwell-beingand happiness. Several developing countries particularly in the Asia/Pacific region have witnessedunprecedenteddevelopment.Somecountriesinthisregionhavemodernizedatasteadypace.Thepercapitaincomesofasignificantpopulation,forexample,inRepublicofKorea,Singapore,Malaysia,and

117FAO(2018)EndingExtremePovertyinRuralAreas118Scoones,I.,M.Edelman,S.M.BorrasJr.,R.Hall,W.Wolford,andB.White.(2017).“EmancipatoryRuralPolitics:ConfrontingAuthoritarianPopulism.”JournalofPeasantStudies45(1):1–20.119WorldBank.(2018).Yearinreview2018in14charts.120Attheextreme,samplesurveysessentiallycannotcrediblymeasureapovertyrateofzero.

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Thailand,nowcomparewithincomesinthedevelopedworld.Inadditiontothepersistenceofpovertyandunfulfilledbasicandelementaryneeds,inequalityacross,between,andwithincountriesappearstobegrowing.Thepercentofpopulationat riskofmultidimensionalpovertyranges fromas lowas0.8percentintheRussianFederationtoashighas23.2percentinKenya,anditsintensityrangesbetween35.3 percent in theUnitedArab Emirates to 57.3 percent in Senegal.121 The share of the poorest 20percent innationalconsumptiondecreaseddramatically inall themajorregionsoftheworldwiththeexceptionoftheArabRegionwhereitremainedconstant.122

Thepopulationof thedevelopingworld is stillmore rural thanurban: some3.1billionpeople,or55percentofthetotalpopulation,liveinruralareas. InLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,andinEastandSoutheast,thenumberofruralpeopleisalreadyindecline.Elsewhere,thegrowthofruralpopulationsisslowing.Numberswillstarttodeclinearound2025intheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaandinSouthandCentralAsiaandaround2045insub-SaharanAfrica123.

Forthesakeofcomparison,theRuralTransformationindex124thatcomprisesofallvariablesthatpresentrelevantstatisticalinformationwhichsupport,illustrate,elaborate,andexplainasmuchaspossiblethekeyissuesandchallengesfacedbytheruralsectorinbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountrieshasbeenconsidered. It should be emphasised that the rural transformation indicators have to be about ruralpeopleandruralareasbutseenwithinanationalperspective.Forabalancedgrowthanddevelopmentthreekindsofgapshavetobenarrowedandeliminated:

• ThegapbetweenpercapitaruralGDPandpercapitanationalGDP

• ThegapbetweenruralHDIandnationalHDI

• The gap between the ratio of agricultural GDP to total GDP and the ratio of agriculturalemploymenttototalemployment

Aproposedmacroindexcalledruraltransformationindex(RTI)mayexamine:

(1) whethertheruraleconomyofagivencountryhasbeentransformedortendingtobetransformedovertime;

(2) thepatternandnatureof such transformation—whethertheimportanceoftheservice-sector-orientedactivitiesareontheriseinruralareasorwhethertheimportanceofnon-serviceand/ornon-agribusinesshasbeenrising;and

(3) whethertheroleoffarmandnonfarmsectorsarecomplementaryorsubstitutableinthecontextofoveralleconomicdevelopment—theinterdependenceofthefarmandnonfarmsector

The variables viz.; Rural Economic Development, Rural Social Development & Rural InfrastructureDevelopmentthatincorporatesagricultureoutput,productivityofrurallabour,ruralconsumptionlevel;GenderRatio,ruralinfrastructuredevelopment,livelihoodindicators,aregeneralandintuitiveindicatorsthatcanbeconsideredcomprehensively.

121WangL,KhanQU,ZhangD(2012)RuralTransformationIndex:MeasuringRural–UrbanDisparities,SpringerPublications122Headcountorincidenceofmultidimensionalpoverty:theproportionofpeoplewhoarepooraccordingtotheMPI(thosewhoaredeprived in at least one thirdof theweighted indicators). Intensityofmultidimensionalpoverty: theweighted averagenumberofdeprivationspoorpeopleexperienceatthesametime.123IFAD.(2016).Ruralpovertyreport2016–Fosteringinclusiveruraltransformation.Rome:InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment(IFAD).124SameasFootnote138.

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For the sakeof comparison, the countrieswithin theAsiaPacific region (APR)havebeenconsideredduringthepresentstudy.ThelargestgroupofcountriesinthiscategoryisinSub-SaharanAfrica(SSA),althoughseveralareinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(LAC)andAsiaandthePacific(APR).

APR is an extremely diverse region in its demography, economic and social development, naturalresources,physicallandscapes,andculturalandhistoricallegacies.Around3.8billionpeopleinhabitthe29countries,withpopulationsrangingfrom0.1millionto1360million,andnationalpopulationdensitiesfromaslowastwopeoplepersq.kmoflandtoashighas1,200.ChinaandIndiatogetheraccountformorethan60percentoftheregion’spopulation.

Morethanhalftheregion’spopulationliveinruralareas,mostofwhomarestillengagedinagriculture.Urbanizationratesvarywidelywithinthesub-region.Morethan70percentofthePacific’spopulationresidesinurbanareaswhileinSouthandSouth-WestAsiaonly34percentofthepopulationhasbeenurbanisedsofar.

TheAPRregionhaswitnessedremarkablegrowth inGDP inrecentdecades,averaginganannual4.5percentin1980-2000and4.4percentin2000-2013,comparedwith2.6percentand2.0percentintherest ofworldover theseperiods. SuchperformancewasdrivenbyChina and India, the region’s twolargest developing economies, which achieved together annual growth of 7.4 percent in 2011-2015.Although growth rates have variations across countries, its overall pace underpinned a gradualconvergenceof lowermiddle-incomecountriestowardshighermiddle-incomecountries inpercapitaterms.

GrowthinAPRhasgenerallybeenassociatedwithasteepdeclineinpovertyandmalnourishment.Thepovertyrateintheregion’sdevelopingcountriesfellfromabout71percentin1981to15percentin2011,basedonthepurchasingpowerparity(PPP)US$1.25-a-daypovertyyardstick,andfrom91percentin1981to40percentin2011,basedonthePPPUS$1.90-a-dayyardstick.125Aswithgrowthrates,povertyreductionhasprogressedunevenlyacrosstheregion,withChinaandIndiaaccountingformostoftheregion’soverallreduction,inviewoftheirlargepopulations.

LabourProductivity:Duringthelastfewdecades,theprocessesofruraltransformationintheregionhavecoincidedwiththedeepestandfasteststructuraltransformationindevelopingcountries126.APRdisplays theusual patternof structural transformation inwhich labourproductivity in agriculture islowerthanitisinothersectorsoftheeconomy,renderingthedecliningshareofagricultureinGDPlowerthanthelabourshare.Agriculture’sshareinGDPhasfallenfarfaster(about2.5percentayearsincethe1970s,fasterthantheworldaverage),thanitsshareintotalemployment(1.7percentayear,slowerthantheworldaverage). InAPR, therehasbeenagrowingdivergence in labourproductivitybetween theagriculturesectorandtheremainingsectorsoftheeconomy.ThisdivergenceinsuchlabourproductivityisnotedtobewiderinAPRthaninotherpartsoftheworld.Thisdivergenceisanimportantcomponentoftheincreasinginequalityintheregion’sincomedistribution,whichisparticularlyacuteformiddle-incomecountriesfacingdifficulttrade-offbetweenincreasingfarmers’incomesandkeepingfoodpriceslowandstable.

Table4:Agriculturallabourproductivity(AsiaPacificRegion)

Countries

Country

AddedValue(Constant2005US$)

AnnualChange(percent)Baseyear Endyear

Baseyear Endyear National Regionalaverage

Bangladesh 267.0 602.0 3.44 2.21 1990 2014

125IFAD(2014)StructuralandruraltransformationinAsiaandthePacific.126SameasFootnote142.

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China 317.0 754.0 3.83 2.21 1990 2013India 459.0 689.0 1.71 2.21 1990 2014

Indonesia 613.0 1,079.0 2.38 2.21 1990 2014Cambodia 349.0 514.0 1.86 2.21 1993 2014Philippines 826.0 1,152.0 1.39 2.21 1990 2014Vietnam 266.0 489.0 2.57 2.21 1990 2014LaoPDR 345.0 522.0 1.74 2.21 1990 2014Pakistan 857.0 1,083.0 0.98 2.21 1990 2014

Source:Worlddevelopmentindicators(WorldBank2015)

PercapitaIncomeratio:Thepercapitaincomeratio127betweenurbanandruralareashasbeenabout2inIndia,thePhilippinesandVietnamoverthepasttwodecades,witharisingtrendinIndia,andafallingoneinVietnam(from2.3in1999to1.89in2012).ThesameratiohasstayedlargelyunchangedinthePhilippines.Chinahasthewidestgap,despitetherapidgrowthoffarmers’income.Theratioincreasedfromabout2.0intheearlyreformperiodtoapeakof3.33in2009,andthendeclinedto2.92in2014.

Transformationvs.Poverty: Basedon thevariousparameters the speedof rural transformation ininfrastructure,livelihoodandsocialsecurityvariables,aqualitativestatusofcountriesinAPRemergesisas followswhere India at present is positioned as slow in poverty reduction and slow in structuraltransformationandhenceruraltransformation.

Table5:RuraltransformationandInclusioninAsiaandPacificRegion

SpeedofStructuralandRuralTransformation RuralPovertyReduction

Fast Slow

FastStructuralTransformation FastRuralTransformation China,Vietnam

SlowRuralTransformation LaoPDR,Cambodia

SlowStructuralTransformationFastRuraltransformation Indonesia Bangladesh

SlowRuralTransformation Philippines,Pakistan,India

Source:IFAD,2016.(Note:Structuraltransformation(ST)isaprocessofeconomicdevelopmentduringwhichaneconomyreallocateseconomicactivitiesacrossitsagriculture,industryandservicesectors(Herrendorf,Rogerson,&Valentinyi,2013).STischaracterizedby the declining share of the agricultural sector and a declining share of agricultural employment (P. Pingali, 2007a); Ruraltransformation(RT)growthinlifeexpectancy,improvementsineducation,health,waterandsanitation,increasedruralandurbanemploymentopportunities,andempowermentofwomenandminorityanddisadvantagedgroups)

Thedeclines inpovertyandundernutritionwere sharpest inAsia,withChinaalone reducing its ruralpovertyratefrom66.6percentin1990to6.5percentin2012.CasestudiesofChina,India,thePhilippinesand Vietnam confirm that policies, institutions and investments are fundamental to the speed andinclusiveness of rural transformation. The design and implementation of institutions, policies andinvestmentsineachofthesecountrieshaveinfluencedthepathandspeedofruraltransformationandtheiroutcomes for inclusionandpovertyreduction. Inall fourcountries, landreform,rural investmentsandsectoralpolicieshavebeendecisive.

Thereisastrongpositiverelationshipbetweenagricultureandstructuraltransformation.Countrieswithhigheragriculturalproductivityorproductiongrowth(China,VietnamandCambodia)alsohavehigheroveralleconomicgrowthandstructuraltransformationthanthosewithloweragriculturalgrowth(thePhilippines,Bangladeshand India), reflecting the linkagesandmultipliereffectsbetweenagriculturalproductivity,agriculturalgrowthandstructuraltransformation.Theseincludereleasingsurpluslabourforindustry,construction,services,producinglow-costfoodthatallowswagesforworkersinindustrytobekeptdown,producingfibreandothercropsthatcanbeinputstoproductioninotherpartsofthe

127SameasFootnote2.

41


economy,supplyingexportablecommoditiesthatcanhelpfinanceimportsofkeytechnologypackagesandcapitalequipment,andraisingruralincomesthatcanincreasedemandforindustrialproducts.

Combining the countries into categories based on their speed of structural transformation, ruraltransformation,andruralpovertyreduction,yieldstheresultsinthetableabove.

Insummary:

• No country has reduced rural poverty slowly in the presence of both fast-structuraltransformationandfastruraltransformation(thetop-rightcornerisempty).

• Countries that have gone through both fast-structural transformation and fast ruraltransformationhavealsoreducedruralpovertyquickly(ChinaandVietnam).

• Countries that have not gone through both fast-structural transformation and ruraltransformationhavenotreducedruralpovertyquickly(Philippines,PakistanandIndia).

• Countries that have gone through either significant structural transformation or ruraltransformation have mixed outcomes, reducing rural poverty either quickly (Indonesia, LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicandCambodia)orslowly(Bangladesh).

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1.2.5. Cross Sectional Analysis (i) AccountabilityandTransparency

Introduction

TransparencyandaccountabilityarecriticalfortheefficientfunctioningofDoRDandforfosteringsocialwell-being.InIndia,Stateaccountabilityisofcrucialimportancetomillionsofcitizens-particularlythosewho aremembers of socially vulnerable groupswith limitedmeans to influence public decisions.128Simplyput,accountabilityrefers toenforceableresponsibility. Itoccurswhere ‘‘someactorshavetheright toholdotheractors toa setof standards, and to imposesanctions if theydetermine that theseresponsibilitieshavenotbeenmet’’129.

Therearevariouselementsthatcometogetherinthenotionofaccountabilityincludinganswerability–theneedforsatisfactoryjustificationofactions,enforcement-thesanctionsthatcouldbeimposediftheactionsorjustificationfortheactionsarefoundtobeunsatisfactory,andresponsiveness-theabilityofthoseheldaccountabletorespondtothedemandsmade.Crucially,accountabilityrequirestransparencysoactionscanbescrutinized,andperformancecanbeassessed.Transparencyensuresthatinformationisavailablethatcanbeusedtomeasuretheauthorities'performanceandtoguardagainstanypossiblemisuseofpowers.Transparencyintargetingmechanisms,beneficiaryselection,fundutilizationetc.isimportantinprovidingassurancetocommunitiesthatthepowerheldbyauthoritiesisnotonlyeffective,butalsonotabused.

Background

Inthelastfewdecades,DoRD’sschemeshaveevolvedintermsoffinancialoutlays,geographicalcoverageandbeneficiaryoutreach. Inaddition, theschemeshaveevolvedintermsofcomplexity indesignandcomponents, with convergence linkages with other schemes, Departments and Ministries. Withimplementation,fundflowandlinesofreportingacrossmultiplelevels,DoRD’sschemesrequireintensecoordination and each implementing official to discharge his/her responsibilities effectively. As theschemeshaveevolvedandexpanded,theneedtomonitorschemeimplementationandtargetcompletionhasalsogrown.Alongwiththis,therehasbeenanevolutionintheactorsandmechanismsinvolvedinensuringaccountabilityandtransparencyinDoRDschemes.

Accountability for DoRD schemes assumes two forms: horizontal and vertical. While verticalaccountability ismaintainedthroughelectoralreformsandawareness initiatives,accountabilityonthehorizontalfrontisenvisionedthrougheffortssuchasreorganizationofauditandaccountmechanisms.In2018,anExpertAdvisoryGroup(EAG)consistingofretiredexpertsfromadministration,accountsandauditwasconstitutedbytheDoRDforrecommendingmeasuresaimedatexpandinganddeepeningtheapplicationoftheinternalauditfunctionacrossprogrammesatalllevelsofimplementation.TheExpertGroupdevelopedaroadmaporestablishingtheinternalauditfunctionasaninstrumentforenhancingefficiencyandeffectivenessofDoRDschemes.Itsuggestedmeasuresforstrengtheninginternalauditasaninstrumentofmanagementcontrolacrossprogrammesuptograssrootslevel.130

Moreover,incaseofthehorizontalaccountability,theroleofPRIsiskey.Overtheyears-keepinginviewlocal aspirations- PRIs have been involved in the programme implementation of CSSs and theseinstitutions constitute the core of decentralized development of planning and its implementation.Panchayatshaveemergedasthethirdstratumofgovernance,vestedwithpowersandauthority.Atone

128Brulé,R.(2015).AccountabilityinruralIndia:Localgovernmentandsocialequality.AsianSurvey,55(5),909-941.129Golden,M.,&Min,B.(2013).Distributivepoliticsaroundtheworld.AnnualReviewofPoliticalScience,16.130 Press Information Bureau, Government of India. (2018). Expert Advisory Group submits report for Improvement andStrengtheningofInternalAuditSystemsandProcessesinRuralDevelopmentSchemes.

43


level,PRIsneedtobetransparentintheirfunctioningandbeheldresponsiblefortheiractions.Atanotherlevel,PRIs themselvesassumecrucial roles inground-levelmonitoring, thereby feedingback into thesameself-sustainingmonitoringmechanismsthatmeasuretheirperformance.Both,verticalandhorizontalaccountabilityareofequalimportanceforDoRDschemes.

Further, in recent years, it has been acknowledged in research, policy and practice that traditionalaccountability channels have their own limitations. This has ushered in the era of societal actorsparticipatinginStateactivitiestostrengthenaccountabilityandresponsivenessinservicedelivery.WithsocietalactorsengagingactivelytoimproveStateaccountability,thepracticeof‘socialaccountability’hasreceived a strong impetus. 131 India’s civil society has also emerged as a crucial space for citizens tomobiliseandmakedemandsforaccountabilitywithintheState.ThemappingofaccountabilityeffortsofcivilsocietygroupsinIndiaisgivenbelow.

Table6:MappingofaccountabilityeffortsofcivilsocietygroupsinIndia132

Accountability and oversight of interventions within rural development space takes place throughmultiplemechanisms:one, regularmonitoringofperformancebasedonanaccountability frameworkthroughwebbasedMIS system that also includes geo tagging of assets for physical verification, and

131PosaniB.andAiyarY.(2009),StateofAccountability:Evolution,PracticeandEmergingQuestionsinPublicAccountabilityinIndia132SameasFootnote148.

Stage�of�Service�Delivery

StrategiesandInstrumentsResearch�for�Lobbying�and�

Advocacy

Creating�an�EnablingEnvironment

Direct�Citizen�Engagement

Legislation�and�Policy�Formulation

• Public�Interest�

Litigations�(PILs)

• BudgetAnalysis

• Capacitybuildingforlegislators

• ElectionWatchSMSCampaign

• Participationtoinfluencepoliticalpartymanifestos

Standard�Setting • CitizenCharters• Pro-activedisclosures

throughRTIs

Planning�and�Implementation�

Design

• Communityradio• LocalGovernance

capacitybuilding

• Participatorybudgeting

Program�Implementation�and

Operation

• GramSabhamobilisation

• Watershedmanagement

Process�Monitoring

• Publicexpendituretracking

• CorruptionWatch/CorruptionPerceptionIndex

• CapacitybuildingforusinginstrumentssuchasRTIs

• Socialauditsandpublichearings

• Citizenbasedvigilancecommittees

• E-toolssuchasSMSbasedcomplaintmechanisms

Outcome�Evaluation

• Citizenreportcards• Participatory

researchforevaluatingoutcomes

• Performanceevaluationofelectedrepresentatives

• Communityscorecards

• Politicalpartymanifestowatch

44


monitoring by DISHA Committees at district level; two, periodic oversight, which is formed by fieldmonitoring missions and field level monitoring, and includes assessment by NLMs (National LevelMonitors), reportsbyCRMs (CommonReviewMissions), and reports fromNationalLevelEvaluationStudies of schemes; and three, audit mechanism that includes compliance audits and social auditmechanisms.Socialauditsandcommunitymonitoringofferopportunitiestomakecitizensawareoftheentitlementsthattheyhaveaccesstounderspecificgovernmentschemes/interventions,toallowcitizenstoparticipateinitsregularandinstitutionalisedmonitoring,andtoenablecitizenstoplaytheprimaryroleintheidentificationofanomalieswithinitsimplementation.Withitsevolution,DoRD’saccountabilityandtransparencymeasureshaveseensignificantprogressacrossitsthreebroadmechanisms:

(a)Regularmonitoringofperformancebasedonanaccountabilityframework

• AccountabilityFramework:TheDepartmentofRuralDevelopmenthasdevelopedaverystrongandrobustaccountabilityframeworkforallitsprogrammes.Theframeworkbuildsontheprincipleof eligibility through Socio Economic Census 2011, and accountability through themulti-prongedframeworkofSocialAudit,FinancialAudit,Geo-tagginganduseofIT-DBT.133

• Management InformationSystems(MIS):Akey intervention towardsgreater transparencyhasbeenthattheMISofeachoftheschemesimplementedbyDoRDhasbeendevelopedasadashboardandhasbeenplacedinthepublicdomain.TheseMISprovidereal-timeinformationandgeo-taggedphotosinatransparentmanner,forexample-NREGASoftforMGNREGS,AwaasoftforPMAY-GandOMMASforPMGSY,eGovNRLMforDAY-NRLM.TheseMISfunctionasweb-basedMISaswellase-governanceplatforms.Over2.43croreMGNREGSassetsand/allPMAY-Ghomesatdifferentstagesofconstructionareallgeo-taggedandavailableonthepublicwebsite.UnderDAY-NRLMadatabaseofnearly 4.7 crores members of Self Help Groups are placed in the public domain. Further,disaggregatedblocklevelreportsonkeyperformanceindicatorsoftheMissionarealsoavailable.134TheNSAPportalmakesdata available for all theNSAP schemes, therebyprovidingpathways forpublic scrutiny and enhanced accountability. Similarly, RurbanSoft has been developed to trackdifferentcomponentsofSPMRMandhasbeenpopulatedwithdatainpublicdomain.

• Output-OutcomeMonitoringFramework(OOMF):Toachievegreateraccountabilityinbudgetaryexpenditureofpublicinvestment,theruraldevelopmentsectortoohasmovedtowardsdevelopingOutput-OutcomeMonitoringFrameworks(OOMF)foritsschemes.Theframeworkdefinesoutputs,directly measurable product(s) of programmatic activities and outcomes as result/qualitativeimprovementsaftertheservice/benefithasbeendelivered.Thisistoensurethatschemeperformanceismeasuredtangibly,therebymakingthesectoralinterventionpurposefulintotality,andhencemoreaccountable.

• Vigilance & Monitoring Committees (VMCs): The Vigilance & Monitoring Committees (VMCs)constituted by the DoRD at State and District levels are expected to function as an importantinstrument foreffectivemonitoringof implementationof ruraldevelopmentprogrammes.TheVMCmeetingsaretobeheldonceineveryquarter.TheMinisterofRuralDevelopmentoftheconcernedStateistheChairmanofStatelevelVMCandSecretary-in-chargeofRuralDevelopmentschemesintheStateistheMemberSecretary.Thesecommitteesprovidechannelsforchallengestobeaddressedinamorelocalisedmannerandallowforareaspecificaccountabilityandground-levelmonitoring.

133Press InformationBureau,Governmentof India. (2018).MinistryofRuralDevelopmentrollsoutarobustAccountabilityFramework.134SameasFootnote150.

45


(b)Occasionaloversightmechanisms• NationalLevelMonitoring: Recognizing the importanceof regular independentmonitoringof its

programmes,DoRDlaunchedacomprehensivesystemofNationalLevelMonitoringintheyear2003-04inordertoachieveunbiasedandobjectivemonitoring.UnderNLM,threetypesofmonitoringisobserved -RegularMonitoring ofmajor Schemes ofDoRDandMinistryofPanchayatiRaj;SpecialMonitoringofIndividualSchemes;andcomplaints/enquiries.TheDepartmentofRuralDevelopmentalreadyhadasystemofNationalLevelMonitoringInstitutionsthatvisit600districtsofthecountryin tworoundseachyearanddoa randomlyselectedsampleverificationof thework in the field.Scheme-wiseobservationsareprovidedintheNLMReports.ThelatestNLMreportavailableonthewebsiteistheRegularMonitoringReportbyNationalLevelMonitors2018-19Phase-I.

• CommonReviewMission: To assess theprogressofprogrammes in States, theDepartmenthasintroduced a system of Common ReviewMission (CRM). Eight States are visited by a total of 32independentprofessionalsaspartoftheCRMeachyear.TheteamvisitstwodistrictsineachStateandgivestheMinistryitsfeedbackonhowtheprogrammesaredoingatthefieldlevel.ThreeCRMshavebeenundertakensofaroverthelastthreeyearsandtheirfindingshaveprovidedaroadmapforfurtherimprovingtheAccountabilityFrameworkofRuralDevelopmentprogrammes.

(c)Auditmechanisms

• InternalAudit:TheDepartmentofRuralDevelopmenthasalsosetupasmallInternalAuditWingwhich undertakes timely field verification of the financial system from time to time and providesinsightsintothequalityoffinancialmanagementsothatcorrectiveactioncanbetakenontime.OneportalnamelyGRIP hasbeendeveloped foronlineprocessingandanalysisof internal audit.ThisportalisbeingusedininternalauditofMGNREGSandPMAY-G.

• SocialAudits:Atpresent,DoRDhasinstitutionalisedsocialauditsinallitsmajorschemes.Initially,social audit guidelines were released for MGNREGS, followed by NSAP and PMAY-G. With theguidanceoftheComptrollerandAuditorGeneralofIndia,theauditingstandardofsocialauditwasnotified, andappropriate certificateprogrammesweredeveloped byNIRD&PR inpartnershipwithTataInstituteofSocialSciences,Mumbai,forDistrict,BlockandVillageLevelResourcePersons.

Earlier, documents and records suchasbills, vouchersof expenditure, utilisationand completioncertificates,mustersof labourattendance,estimatesanddesignofworkswereoutofreachofthebeneficiaries. However, through the social audit mechanism, public access to such documents isstrengthened.Theprocessallowsthepublicatlargetodiscuss,observe,andquestionpublicservantsinapublicforum.Inessence,thetoolofsocialauditempowersthepublictoholdinformationanduseittodemandgreaterdownwardaccountability.

NIRD&PR,in2019,alsopublishedthe‘StatusOfSocialAuditsInIndiaReport’,whichincludeddetailsofMGNREGSsocialauditsandauditsofotherschemes;ananalysisofthestructureandfunctioningofthesocialauditunits(SAUs)thathavebeencreatedintheStates;andsomekeyrecommendationsfor different stakeholders, including the Central Government, DoRD, State Government and theSAUs135.Thesuccessofsocialauditinensuringaccountabilityispresentedinthecasestudybelow:

135 Press Information Bureau, Government of India. (2019).Minister of State for Rural Development Sadhvi Niranjan Jyotiinaugurates‘NationalSeminaronSocialAuditofRDProgrammes.

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Box4:CaseStudyonSuccessofSocialAuditinRanchi

SuccessofSocialAuditinNamkumblockinRanchidistrict136

Background

SocialAuditisaself-operatedauditprocessbythecommonpeopletoassessthedevelopmentalworksentitled

forthepublic.ThroughSocialAudits,thedevelopmentworksissuedinpublicinterestandcarriedoutbyvarious

governmentdepartmentsatdifferent levels(state,district,block,Panchayatetc.)areobserved,analysedand

concludediftheproposedworkintheselectedareaisgoingintheappropriateway.

InSodagPanchayat,NamkumblockinRanchidistrict,SocialAuditwasdonebytheGramSabhaandPanchayat

representativesalongwithaSocialAuditUnit(SAU)appointedbytheStateGovernmentforassessingvarious

developmental works done underMukhiya Fund in the year 2016-17. Villagers, Panchayat representatives,

membersofGramSabha,Blocklevelpersonnelparticipatedintheprocess.

Intervention

TheutilizationofallottedMukhiyafundhadbeenseentobeusedinabiasednature.Theactualrequirementwas

mostly got unnoticed, instead an unknown mechanism which was preferential in nature, was deployed to

embezzle the fundwithout any prior planning. The resultwas particular area-based accumulation of assets

with/withoutproperneed-assessmentoftheareaand/orbeneficiaries.Asapartofcommunityengagementfor

socialaudits,thefollowingwasdone:

• Physicalverificationofeachconstruction(constructionofshallowwaterbodies,well, roadanddrainage

system,repairingofPanchayatbuildingandcommunitycentreetc.)bytheSAUwasdemandedbyERsto

assessthestatusofthesamebothqualitativelyandquantitatively.Theyalsointeractedwiththebeneficiaries

forfurtherconfirmation

• SocialAuditwasdoneincollaborationwiththeGramSabhaandPanchayatrepresentativesforassessing

variousdevelopmentalworksintheyear2016-17.

• AuditingwasdoneseriallyoneachschemeimplementedinthePanchayat,feedbackfromthebeneficiaries

wasnotedandtheirviews,adviceswasalsodocumented.

• Allrecordswerefoundandwereverballyapprovedbythevillagers.AfterapprovalfromtheGramSabha

thiswasforwardedforpublichearing.

Result

Implementationofthisinitiativeworkedasanimportanttoolforinformationdisseminationamongthevillagers.

Theystartedtakingtheresponsibilityofinvigilatortoobservetheworkcarryingonintheirvillages/hamlets.

They promptly come in touch with the Elected Representative (ER) if any malpractices are found and the

concernedERtakesnotimetotakemeasureswinningthetrustofthevillagers.

The close interaction ofMukhiyawith other villagers not only resulted in better implementation of various

governmentschemesforpublicwelfare,butalsobroughtasenseofresponsibilityamongthemtolookafterthe

infrastructuraldevelopmentcarriedoutundergovernmentschemes.Thenewlyelectedmembersdecided to

prioritizeproperutilisationofMukhiyaFundafterplanning,discussionandneed-assessmentofthearea.The

problemofmisplacementofPanchayatofficeassetswasalsoaddressed.Also,thedetailedinformationrelated

toaparticularscheme,likedescribingtotalroadlength,areacovered,amountofrawmaterialsrequired,daily

labourwages,startingandfinishingdateforPMGSYwouldbemadepublicbywritinganddisplayingsignboard

attheworkingplace.FutureplansforSocialAuditsincludethefollowing:

• PanchayatSamitiandGramSabhashouldcarryoutSocialAuditsregularly.

• IrregularitiesfoundduringSocialAuditsshouldbeaddressedinthenextmeetingorpublichearing.

• Duringeachpublichearing,decisionstakeninearliermeetingsshouldbepresentedas‘Actiontakenreport’.

136NIRDPR,ImpactofSocialAuditonVillageDevelopment–acasestudyinRanchidistrict,Jharkhand

47


• Ifthefaultsremainunresolved,thenactionmustbetakenagainsttheaccusedpersonnel/agency.

• Beforeimplementinganynewproject(s),athoroughdiscussionshouldbetakenplaceandnetwork/linkages

withrelateddepartmentsshouldbeestablished.

• Allactivitiesshouldproperlybedocumented.

• Broadcastingmedia should bemade available during documentation of all types of activities,wherever

applicable.

Qualitative interviewswithgovernmentofficialssuggestedthatSocialAuditshavebeen implementedwithin DoRD schemes. The impact on accountability and transparency of the RD sector ismanifold.OfficialsfromHaryana,AndhraPradeshandHimachalPradeshhaveagreedonthisregard.

Apartfromthis,DoRD’sschemespecificdesignfeaturessuchastheuseofAadhaarbasedDBTforfundtransfer, citizen centric apps and mechanisms for community monitoring also contribute toaccountabilityandtransparency.

• DirectBenefitTransfer:AadhaarbasedDBThasbeenadoptedasasectoralpolicyforprogrammesthataimatdeliveryofbenefitstotargetedbeneficiaries.DoRDhasimplementedthedistributionofcashtransfersunderNSAP,PMAY-G,MGNREGSandDAY-NRLM.Thedataandtransferofthesectorhas been linked to DBT Bharat Portal, which has been effective in weeding out fake and ghostbeneficiaries, while also avoiding the duplication of benefits to a single beneficiary. Moreover,throughDBT,financialinclusionhasbeengreatlyenhancedwhilerelianceonmiddlemenhasbeenreduced- therebyallowing the assertionof citizen rights andgrassroots accountability. Increasedtransparency as a consequence of digitisation have been highlighted in qualitative interviews bygovernmentofficialsfromDistrictandBlocklevelsofadministration.

“AllpaymentsaremadebytheidentificationprocessofAadhaarbased.AllthemoneyisbeingdepositedonAadhaarbasedway”–Block,Uttarakand

“Themost importantroleofdigitization is thatwegot thetransparencythatwewanted inourconnectedgovernance;itisaverybigpriority.Sincedigitizationhasoccurred,sincewehavelinkedAadhar,(thereis)AadharlinkinginbanksorthereisDBT.ThepeoplehavebenefitedfromAadharlinkingandDBTandourgoodimagethathasbeenformed.Sotransparencyhasbeenproduced”-BDO,Block,Jharkhand

“Manyoftheschemes,likeMGNREGSintheRuralDevelopmentDepartment,arefullydigitalizednow,whichmadethemonitoringandreportingoftheschemesaccuratelyandtimely.WiththehelpofseedingofAadhaarinMIS,ithasstoppedthefakeentriesandmadethedataverymuchreliable.Itisalsoveryhelpfulinfulfillingof entitlement for thebeneficiaries toget theirbenefitamount ina timeboundmanner”-DRDA,District,Haryana

• Citizen–CentricApps:Citizen-centricappssuchasJANMANREGA,MeriSadak,GramSamvaad,AwaasApphavebeendevelopedtofacilitatethetwo-wayflowofinformation.Ononehand,theseappshavebeenmadeavailabletotheruralpopulationwherebytheycandirectlyaccessinformationrelatedtointerventions made and planned in the sector. On the other hand, the apps also allow the ruralpopulationstoregistertheircomplaints,recordtheassetsproducedandputforththeirqueries,therebyallowing implementingofficials toaccessreal-time informationbeneficiariesaswellasassets thathavebeencreated/developedinthesector.

Forinstance,theGramSamvaadAppfacilitatesasinglewindowaccessbycitizenstoinformationatGram Panchayat level on various Rural Development programs, covering inter-alia programmeobjectives, scope and performance. The application presently covers 7 DoRD schemes and alsoprovidesinformationontheGrantstoLocalBodiesrecommendedbythe14thFinanceCommission.Itisenvisaged that this application will help in information dissemination, introduce greater

48


transparencyandpromoteaccountabilityatvariouslevels.Further,DoRDistakingtransparencytohigher levels through theAwaasPlus App which caters to the beneficiaries left out of PermanentWaitingListunderPMAY-Gbutareeligibletoreceivebenefitsotherwise.

• Mechanisms for transparency at the community level: India’sRight to Information (RTI) Act,whichbecamelawin2005,entitlescitizenstorequestStateinformationonanytopicnotrelatedtonationalsecurity,ongoingcourtcasesorcabinetdeliberations(Governmentof India[GOI],2005).The Act applies to all levels of government, requiring every public authority to appoint PublicInformation Officers (PIOs) who must respond to RTI queries within 30 days, and providing amultilevelappealsprocesswheneverrequestsarerefused.AlltheDoRDschemesareRTIcomplianttherebyallowingcitizenstoraisequeriesregardingtheschemes,theirbenefitsandimplementationatanylevelwhichpublicauthoritiesaremandatedtorespondto.Thislegislativeprovisionisanotherpathwayforgreaterpublicaccountabilityandtransparencybasedoncitizendemands.Further,otherimprovementslikemandatoryCitizenInformationBoards,adoptionofsimplersevenregistersystemandimprovedrecordkeepingwithphotographs,etc.,physicaldisplayofprogressatGramPanchayatlevelareformsofpublicaccountabilityandcommunityparticipationthatarebeingemphasized137.

J-PALevidenceonruraldevelopmentfromthefinanceandgovernancesectorsshowsrelevantfindingsandresultsofcommunityparticipationinimprovementsofpublicservicesprovided.

Box5:CaseStudyonCommunityDrivenDevelopmentinPublicServiceProvision

CommunityDrivenDevelopment

Communityparticipationandoversightcanbeawaytoimprovepublicserviceprovision,theassumptionbeing

thatcommunitieshavebetterknowledgeoftheirneedsandchooseprojectsthatreflectthoseneeds.Aconcern,

however,isthattheprocessescouldhandovercontroltotheeliteswithinacommunity.Thoughevidencefrom

randomized evaluations of community driven development (CDD) and participation programmes provides

mixedresults,somepolicyimplicationsbegintoemerge.

1. Studies involving four community participation programmes showed that programmes where the

communityhadmoredirectcontroloverserviceprovidersandspecificinstructionshavetendedtobe

moreeffective.Similarly,communitieswhohaveactionplansandoversightofimplementationtendto

bemoreeffectiveatimprovingservicedelivery.However,communityparticipationisnotaone-size-

fits-all approach, and there is still a role for top-down auditing: the oneprogramme that compared

communitymonitoringtocentralizedmonitoringthroughauditsfoundthatauditsweremoreeffective

inreducingcorruption.

2. ACDDprogrammeinSierraLeone,whichprovidedvillageswithsmalldevelopmentgrantsallocatedby

village committees, successfully established village-level organizations and tools to manage

developmentprojects,butdidnotleadtofundamentalchangesinlocalinstitutionsordecision-making.

Alower-costalternativethatsupportsspecifichigh-competencycommunitymembersintakingbetter

advantageofdevelopmentprogrammesiscurrentlybeingevaluated.

3. AllowingcitizenstodirectlyvotetoselectlocalinfrastructureprojectsinIndonesiahadalargeimpact

oncitizensatisfactionwiththeprojectsandtheprocess. It,however,didnotsignificantlyimpactthe

typesofprojectchosensuggestingthatparticipationofwomenandthepooratproposalgeneratingand

fundingstagesisrequirediftheyaretobefullyenfranchised.

4. Communityblockgrants in Indonesia, improvedhealthandeducation inprogrammevillages.Those

villageswhichreceivedincentivizedgrantsbasedonperformancealonglong-termhealthandeducation

outcomessawfasterimprovementsinhealth.Basedontheresultsofthisevaluation,theGovernmentof

137PressInformationBureau,GovernmentofIndia.(2018).MGNREGS–Livelihoodsecuritywithfulltransparency.

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Indonesiamovedexclusivelyto incentivizedgrantsand increasedannual fundingforthecommunity

blockgrantprogramme.

Sources:

Olken,B. (2007).MonitoringCorruption:Evidence fromaFieldExperiment in Indonesia. JournalofPolitical

Economy115(2):200-48.

Casey,K.Glennerster,R.,Miguel,E.(2012).ReshapingInstitutions:EvidenceonAidImpactsUsingaPre-Analysis

Plan.QuarterlyJournalofEconomics127(4):1,755-1,812.

Olken,B. (2010).DirectDemocracyandLocalPublicGoods:Evidence fromaFieldExperiment in Indonesia.

AmericanPoliticalScienceReview104(2):243-67.

Olken,B.,Onishi, J.,Wong,S. (2014).ShouldAidRewardPerformance?Evidence fromaFieldExperimenton

HealthandEducationinIndonesia.AmericanEconomicReview:AppliedEconomics6(4):1-34.

DespiterelevantachievementsmadeinaccountabilityandtransparencyofRuralDevelopmentschemes,challenges related to its implementation remain.This isbecause to implementmonitoring, audit andoversightmechanisms,thegovernmentdependsonofficialsfromalllevelsofadministration.Asaresult,gapsintheirinstitutionalinfrastructureandcapacityaffectsdirectlytheeffectivenessofaccountabilityandtransparencyefforts.Inthisregard,aDistrictMagistratefromJharkhandsuggestedinaqualitativeinterviewthatthereisashortageofstaffinRDschemes.Theyneedtooutsourcetocoversuchplacementsandfixingtheiraccountabilityandresponsibilitiesischallenging.

Takeaways• Using technology based monitoring has ensured greater efficiency in scheme processes:

Technological interventions to disburse cash transfers, track the flow of funds, gain beneficiaryfeedbackandmeasureperformancehavehelpedtoenhancetransparencywithinascheme.Further,throughtheprovisionofschemeinformationonthepublicdomain,schemedatahasbeenmadeprivytoexternalstakeholdersaswell,therebycreatingpathwaysfornon-implementerstogaugeschemeperformance,fundutilisationandassetcreation.

By the technology of MIS, transparency is increased. Earlier most of the problems were related to the timelypaymentsoflabourorsomeoneelsehasworkedinhisplace,orinthemanualrolls,namesarechanged.Allthoseproblemsaresolvedbecausepaymentisdirectlycreditedtolabourer’saccount,namescan’tbechangednowwhenisregisteredintheroll.Heonlyhastoworkfor15days,onlyhisaccountwillbecredited.So,thisiseasedastheproblemsaresolvedattherootlevelitself(BDO,Rajasthan)

• Monitoringmechanismsareinplacebutweakcapacityundercutsmonitoringefforts:ProjectManagementUnitswithinDoRDarefunctionalatState,District&Blocklevels.MechanismssuchasPublicInformationBoards(PIBs),geo-taggingetc.arebeingcompliedwith.However,monitoringattheGramPanchayatlevel isnotedtobeweakwithvariousmonitoringregistersnotbeingupdatedregularly.Furthermore,forFFCgrants-themonitoringandgeo-taggingofassetsisseentohavegaps.

Lackofadequatemonitoringatdecentralisedlevelsofgovernancehasbeenassociatedwithlackofcapacity of staff at the Block and Gram Panchayat levels. Implementers reinforced the need tostrengthentrainingsinthemaintenanceofmonitoringrecords,andintheuseoftechnologydrivenmonitoringsoftwareforthestaffparticularlyatdecentralisedlevelsofimplementation.

Ourstaff isveryold.Peoplehere likeVillageDevelopmentOfficersarenot technology friendly.The facea lotofproblemingeo-taggingandalotofthemdon’tknowaboutmobileoperators(BDO,Rajasthan)

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• Monitoring of PRIs and monitoring at the PRI level are both crucial: The strength ofdecentralization through PRIs lies in the fact that they are the legally grounded representativeinstitution at the grassroots. The user group approach is advantageous because it encourages aninclusivedecision-makingprocess at the local level bydirectly targeting thepoor.However, in theabsenceofeffectivechecksandbalances,theseinstitutionsaresusceptibletoelitecapture,politicalexclusion,andcorruption,thushighlightingtheneedtoensuremonitoringofPRIs

GiventhatPRIsaregroundedintheruraleco-system,monitoringbyPRIrepresentativesiskeyandenhances project effectiveness. However, the problem of weak capacity amongst local PRIrepresentativesiswellrecognized.MostPRIrepresentatives(particularlywomenandSC/STsthatareelectedthroughthereservationpolicy)havelittlepriorexperienceorunderstandingofthegovernancesystemincludingtheaccountabilityandtransparencyprotocols.

• Socialauditmechanismsneedgreaterimpetusforfull-scaleimplementation:WhileDoRDhasbeenkeentorolloutsocialauditacrossalltheruraldevelopmentschemesforsometimenow,thishasnothappenedinpracticefordifferentreasons.ForMGNREGS,eventhoughtheActenactedin2005andRulesenactedin2011clearlysaythatsocialaudithastobeundertaken,itisonlyinthelastfewyearsthatsocialauditunitshavebeenestablishedinmostStates.138Moreover,variationsinthefunctioningandeffectivenessofSocialAuditUnitshavebeenobserved.TheresourcepersonsforSocialAuditneedmoretrainingandtheirmemberswillhavetobeaugmented,ifSocialAuditisextendedtootherSchemes,aswell.

• Standard grievance redress mechanisms vary in effectiveness across States: While theprescribedgrievanceredressmechanismshavebeenobservedacrossvariousStates,therehavebeenvariationsintermsoftheireffectiveness,responsetimeandresolutionrates.ThegrievanceredressmechanismshavebeenobservedtobeparticularlypoorattheGramPanchayatlevels.Withrespecttobestpractices,acallbasedgrievanceredresssystemwasfoundtobeworkingwellinTelangana.

• Communitylevelinformationdisseminationneedsgreaterimpetus:Budgetaryconstraintsarenoted toplace limitson the installationofproper flexboards for informationdisplay inallGramPanchayats. Further, other key pathways of decentralised information flow such as CitizenInformationBoardshavenotbeenimplementeduniformly.

WayForward

• Develop trainings in monitoring protocols for functionaries at decentralised governancelevels:Alongsidethedevelopmentofaccountabilitymechanisms,itiscrucialtoensurethecapacitybuildingoffunctionaries,particularlyatsub-Nationallevels,sothatthesemechanismsareeffectivelyimplemented.Inparticular,DoRDshouldlooktoprovidehand-holdingsupporttofunctionariesatthegrassrootsleveltoundertaketechnologydrivenmonitoringthroughcapacitybuildingandrefreshertrainings.Inorderforcapacitybuildinginitiativestobesuccessfultheyneedtobepartofacarefullysequenceddevolutionprocess thatstrengthenspowerandresourcesavailabletolocalbodiesalongwithstrengtheningtheircapabilitytomanagetheseresources.

• ConsideroperationalizingaunifiedSocialauditforallRD&PRschemes:DoRDshouldlooktoensuretechnical,legislativeandfinancialsupportfortheconductofsocialaudit.DoRDshouldcreatea social audit division/cell and staff it with sufficient personnelwho will work across different

138NIRDPR.(2018).SocialAuditUnitsinIndia

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programmedivisionsandsupporttheSAUsintheStates.TheSAUsshouldfunctionasanindependentbodieswith no participation from scheme implementation officials. Further,DoRD should considertransferringfundsrequiredforfacilitatingsocialauditdirectlytotheSAUsinsteadofaskingtheStatestotransferafractionoftheadministrativefundstotheSAU.ThispracticewasstartedinMGNREGStwoyearsagoandhasbeencriticaltoestablishtheSAUsandmakethemfunctional.Inaddition,amechanismtoreviewthesocialauditfindingsandensureappropriatefollow-upshouldbeseriouslyconsidered.

Tooperationalisesocialauditacrossvariousschemes,DoRDcanalsolooktointroduceparticipatorybudgeting:theprocessofdemocraticdeliberationanddecision-making,inwhichordinaryresidentsdecidedirectlyor indirectly throughspeciallyselectedrepresentativesdiscussonhowtoallocatepartofamunicipalorpublicbudget.

• Developacommongrievanceredressalmechanismforthesector:Goingforward,DoRDshouldlook to develop a single platform for the purpose, with use of IVRS/helpline technologies tostrengthengrievanceredress.Thisisalsoinlinewiththefindingsofresearchstudiesthatshowthat24/7phone-insystemswouldbebeneficialtoholdpoliticalleadersandpublicserviceaccountable.139Further,formorereal-timefeedback,crowdsourcingmethodologiescanbeadopted.

• Strengthen the flow of information at the community level: To ensure greater citizenparticipation and ownership, Initiatives such as Gram Panchayat level programmes, updation ofCommunityInformationBoardsinGramPanchayatoffices,reformstosimplifyRecordRegisters,anduseofICTinfrastructuretoenablecitizen-ledmonitoringshouldbetakenintoconsideration.DoRDcanlooktoborrowlessonsfromUkraine’sexperienceofenhancingaccountabilitythroughalisteningapproachinthisregard(detailsintheboxbelow).

Box6:CaseStudyonIncreasedaccountabilitythroughalisteningapproachinUkraine

IncreasedaccountabilitythroughalisteningapproachinUkraine140

Background

GOAL,aninternationalhumanitarianresponseagencyestablishedinIrelandover40yearsago,provided

multi-purposecashassistancetoover7,500peopleinUkrainefromMay2015toJanuary2017.Thecash

transferwasgivenintheintheDonbassregionofEasternUkrainewhereconflicthadleft3.8millionpeople

inneedofhumanitarianassistance.Thetolloftheconflictwasexacerbatedbyseverehumanitarianaccess

restrictionsinNGCAorNon-GovernmentControlledAreas.GOALalsosupportedover3,000isolatedand/or

homeboundelderlypeoplewithpsychosocialsupport,hotmeals,dryfoodrationsandhygienekits.

Intervention

Accountableandadaptiveprogrammingweretwocoreprogrammingprinciplesintheproject.Thiswasto

ensurerealtimerecognitionofneededadaptionsinordertotargetandrespondtothefluidneedsofthe

mostvulnerablepeople inUkraine’scomplexoperatingenvironments.Asetof integratedaccountability

outcomestheysoughttoachieve,trackandreportweredeveloped.Theseincluded:

• AppropriateandRapidInterventions:Appropriatelytargetingofbeneficiariesforvulnerabilityandrapidresponsetorequestsforassistancethroughfieldandhotlineassistants,trained(andre-trained)

oftenusingappliedpsychosocialmethodologyandlisteningtechniques.

139Blair,H.(2018).CitizenParticipationandPoliticalAccountabilityforPublicServiceDeliveryinIndia:RemappingtheWorldBank’sRoutes.JournalofSouthAsianDevelopment,13(1),54-81.140Source:GOAL,Accountabilityinconflict,CRMandlisteningapproach,2017.

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• Accountabilityintheadaptationofplanning,activitiesandtools:Developingadecisionlogsuchthatallchanges/adaptationsmadetoprogrammetools,activitiesandplanningweredocumentedto

notechange,rationaleforadaptation,decisionmakersandimpactofdecision.• Avoidduplicationand/orcomplementprogramming:Holisticallyaddressvulnerabilitybyreferring

individuals to suitable intervention program or support mechanisms through regular inter-agency

informationsharingandcoordination.Afunctionalandoperatingreferralsystemwasestablishedand

maintained.• Ability to identify, discuss and respond to unintended (negative) consequences of the

intervention:Through a Do No Harm & Feedback Loop Training includingmodules such as CoreHumanitarianStandards,Listeningskills/FundamentalBehaviouralObservation,ComplaintsHotline

protocol, Referral Systems, Psycho-SocialMethodologies, Protection, Gender based violence, Do No

HarmTraining,etc.

Learning

• Capacitybuildingof staff on accountability related topicsmeant itwas embedded inhow the team

worked.• Theregulardebriefingsoffieldandhotlineassistantstogetherandregularriskassessmentssupported

staffwellbeingandeffectiveperformanceoftheirroles.• Participatorymethodologywasusedeffectivelytodevelopand/oradaptsystemizedtoolsincludingthe

hotlineguidelinesandbeneficiaryselectionforms• Coordinationandcasereferralsystemsworkwellbetweenandhandlingcaseswhichwerereferred

fromotherswereefficientlyhandled.

• Accountabilityoutcomesweretrackedsystematicallythroughstructuredtoolsandreporting.

• Maintain risk matrix and risk registers for all RD schemes: Governance and administrativemechanismsinruraldevelopmentspacehavemultiplelayersthatextendfromcentretoStateflowingdowntodistrictandeventuallytothevillageandbeneficiary.Operationsofsuchcomplexmechanismsdemandefficacyoffinancialmanagementsystembackedupwithrobustinternalauditmechanismthathas in-built risk identification andmitigation in programmes. DoRD should look to prepare andmaintain the riskmatrix and risk register for each scheme. Risk assessment and riskmitigationshouldbeinstitutionalisedaskeyprocessesinschememonitoringandinternalaudit.

(ii) GenderMainstreaming

Introduction

In India, rural women are key agents for development. They hold the potential to facilitatetransformational economic, environmental and social changes required for sustainable development.However, gendered barriers to socio-economic development pose significant disadvantages to ruralwomen.Limitedaccess to credit, health careandeducation areamong themanychallenges they face.Women’s economic dependence on their families, and non-recognition of their unpaid work, areinstrumentalinreinforcingstructuresofdiscrimination.

Furthermore, the gender bias in institutions is a key source of vulnerability for rural women.Womenexperienceparticulardiscriminationinownershipofandaccesstoproductiveresources.Further,ruralwomenarefacedwitha‘doubleburden’astheyarenotonlyresponsibleforcareworkandhouseholdwork,butalsoexperienceincreaseddrudgeryduetohighmalemigrationandfeminisationofagriculture.Moreover,mechanisationoffarminghasledtoareductioninruralwomen’swagesandcontinuinggenderinequalityinthelabourmarketensuresthatwomenarepaidlessthanmenforthesametasks.Further,amajorchallengewhichsmallandmarginalfarmersfaceisthelackofaccesstomajoragriculturalservices(suchascredit,inputs,extension,insurance,andmarkets)andthisisevenmoreproblematicforwomen

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farmers because of a pervasivemale bias in provision of such services. In addition, women remainseverelydisadvantagedduringglobalfoodandeconomiccrisesandclimatechangewhereintheyreceivedisproportionatelylowamountsoffoodandresources.

In view of this, it is essential to empower women – in order to create ever widening circles ofempowerment, within the family and the community. Empowering women has been known to havepositiveeffectsonnotonlythewell-beingofindividuals,familiesandruralcommunities,butalsoontheoveralleconomicproductivity,givenwomen’slargepresenceintheagriculturalworkforceworldwide.Furthermore,empowermentcanenablewomentoparticipate,asequalcitizens,intheeconomic,politicalandsocialsustainabledevelopmentoftheruralcommunities,therebyenablingasignificantproportionofthepopulationtocontributetoruraldevelopment.

Background

Since the 1990s, women have been identified as key agents of sustainable community development.Women'sequalityandempowermentareseenascentraltoamoreholisticapproachtowardsestablishingnewpatternsandprocessesofdevelopmentthataresustainable.141ThishasbeenrecognisedbyDoRDaswell,manifestintheintroductionofawomen'scomponentintheprogrammesforpovertyalleviationtoensureflowofadequatefundstothissection.

Attheoutset,thefederalstructureoftheIndianConstitutionprovidespathwaysforwomentoengagewithgovernanceanddecisionmaking.The73rdand74thAmendmentsoftheConstitutionhaverevivedaclearlymandatedandfocussedthirdtierofgovernanceandfollowingthismorethanamillionwomenwere elected to office at grassroots levels of governance. This period has also seen the evolution andrecognitionofwomen’sgroupsasimportantentitiesforwomen’sparticipationandempowerment.142

Further,theruraldevelopmentsectorhasrecognisedthattheintegrationofagendercomponentinallgovernmentprogrammesonlivelihoodsiskeytocreatingaruralworkforceofself-awareandconfidentwomenwho by virtue of their enhanced knowledge about their rights and identitywould be betterpositioned to take leadership roles as farmers andworkers. This is evident from the design of ruraldevelopmentprogrammeswhichcentre-stagewomen’srights,enhancetheiraccesstoandcontroloverresourcesandbuildtheirleadershipskills,therebymainstreamingwomen’sempowermentprinciplesingovernance,

Theruraldevelopmentsectorplaysacriticalroleinmainstreaminggenderandgenderconcernsforruralwomen. At a sectoral level, the interventions to ensure gendermainstreaming aim to strengthen (i)women’sresourcerightsbyenhancingcontrolandownershipofresourcesandassetsbywomen,aswellascreationofwomen-friendlyassets;(ii)capabilitiesandskillsofwomenfarmersbyensuringprovisionsforwomen’saccesstosafewater,healthcare,education,etc.;(iii)freedomfromallformsofdiscriminationandviolenceagainstwomenthroughdevelopmentofsocial,environmentalandphysicalinfrastructurewhich guarantees safety; (iv) women’s voice, choice, agency and leadership through creation andstrengtheningofwomen’s institutions.Theprogrammatic interventionsof thesector thatarealignedwithnationalprioritiesarearticulatedintheensuingparagraphs:

WorkParticipation:Nationalprioritydefinesachievementoffemalelabourforceparticipationrateof30percentby2022-23fromthecurrentlevelof23.7percent.Theindicatorassumessignificancesince

141Handy,F.,&Kassam,M.(2004).Women’sEmpowermentinRuralIndia.PaperpresentedattheISTRConference,TorontoCanada142MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment,GovernmentofIndia.(2012).ReportoftheWorkingGrouponWomen’sAgencyandEmpowerment.

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thisworkparticipationratehasbeenfoundtobedeclining,withtherateofdeclinebeinghigherinruralareas(from49.7percentin2004-05to26.7percentin2015-16)143.Inresponsetofallingfemalelabourparticipationrates, theruraldevelopmentsectortargetswomenthroughtheverydesignof itsvariousschemeswhichfocusonfemalebeneficiaries.Inparticular,MGNREGSmandatesthatatleast33percentofthebeneficiariesthathaveregisteredanddemandedworkshouldbewomen.DuringtheFY2019-20,out of the total 187.44 crore person days generated, 104.11 crore were women person-days whichaccountfor55.54percentofthetotalperson-daysgeneratedunderthescheme.144

Further, DAY-NRLM targets women for the formation of SHGs which among other activities has themandate to generate self-employment ventures for the members of the group. Universal socialmobilisationisakeyfeatureofDAY-NRLMwhereinatleastonefemaleadultmemberfromeachidentifiedrural poor household (using SECC and PIP process) is brought under the SHGs and its federatedinstitutions ina timeboundmanner.145TheSHGsenableswomen togainaccess to commonpropertyresourceslikeland,waterandforest,therebycreatingopportunitiesfortheireconomicsecurity.Thishasbeencorroboratedbyimplementingofficialsatvariouslevelsofschemeimplementation.

IntermsofinclusionifawomanhasonedeprivationoutoftheeightSECCbaseddeprivations,thenshehasarighttobeincorporatedinanSHG.Ifyouwantwomentogetintolivelihoodactivity,thethriftandcreditwasafirststepinenablingthemtogetempoweredtotakedecisionwithinthefamilyalso,toberecognizedandequalinthefamily(SeniorDoRDofficial)

Further, ruraldevelopmentasa sector recognizeswomen in specialandvulnerable situations:widow,deserted, poor, pregnant and lactating mothers and have created provisions where they are givenpreferenceinnotonlyselectionbutalsoinensuringthattheycomplete100daysunderMGNREGS.Theworkallottedtopregnantandlactatingmothersissuchthatitisamenabletotheirspecialsituation.Inaddition,gendersensitiveinterventionssuchastheprovisionofcrèchefacilitiesatMGNREGSworksitesrecognise and address the gendered barriers women face in leaving their homes and seeking wageemployment,withcompetingchildrearingcommitments.

Enhancingskillsandleveragingcapacity:Whiletheruraldevelopmentsectorcreatesopportunitiesforwomentoenterworkspacesandbenefitfromwageemployment,italsocreatespathwaysforwomenworkerstoupgradetheirskillsandbuildtheircapacities.TheDDU-GKYprogrammemandatescoverageofat least33percentcandidates forwomenunder theskillandplacementprogramme inruralareas. Inaddition,thesectorcreatesmechanismsforleveragingexistingcapacitiesandsocial infrastructure.Inthe FY 2019-20, 1,47,246 candidates have been trained out of which 74,385 (50.5 percent) werewomen.146UnderRSETIs,duringFY2019-20,2,36,470candidatesweretrainedoutofwhich1,66,456(70.3percent)werewomen.147

UnderDAY-NRLM,theSHGshaveemergedasthevehicleforaccessingcreditbyandforwomen.Thishasbeenamajorstrategicandtacticalinterventionthathashadimpactsatmultiplelevels:increasedaccessto financial institutions, ownership over capital, credit and savings, initiator of employment andenterprise,creatorofwealthetc.

143SameasFootnote22.144MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2020).AnnualReport2019-20.145SameasFootnote161.146SameasFootnote161.147SameasFootnote161.

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In addition to providing economic security, the SHGs have been empowering for women and haveincreasedtheircapacitytonegotiateinsocio-economicaswellasinpoliticaldecision-makingspaces.TheinstitutionofSHGanditsprimaryandsecondaryfederatedstructureshasbeendesigned,trainedandorientedtocreateaplatformthatcanbeusedbywomenforraisingtheirvoicesandcommunicatingtheirconcernstogovernment,Panchayats,financialinstitutionsandinstitutionsoperatinginthemarket.148

Mobility,safetyandsecurityforwomen:Inruralareas,mostwomentravelonfoot.Inaccessibleroadsmaketravelonfootdifficult,time-consuming,unsafe,anduncomfortable.DeficienciesinruralconnectivityadverselyimpactaccesstodevelopmentschemessuchasthePublicDistributionSystemandAnganwadiCentres.Girlstudentscannotoptimallybenefitfromincentive-driveninitiativessuchasfreebicyclesforgirl students enrolling in higher education considering that they cannot ride these to school if roadinfrastructureisinadequate.149

The rural development sector has instituted several mechanisms to ensure the security of women.CreatinganetworkofruralroadsthroughPMGSYhashelpedensurethatwomenareabletotravelsafely,in addition to increasing their access to employment opportunities and market spaces. Further,improvementinruralconnectivitythroughroadsspecificallyincreasessafeinstitutionaldeliveries,reducesmaternalandprenataldeathsandthemortalityofchildren,andincreasesenrolmentofgirlsinschoolsanduniversities.150 A progressive step taken under PMGSY has been engagingwomen from the PRIs andrepresentatives from SHGs along with the Junior Engineer, Panchayat Pradhan, local patwari in thetransectwalkthatdeterminestheconstructionandalignmentofthePMGSYroadstobebuilt,takingintoconsiderationissuesoflandavailability,andadversesocialandenvironmentalimpact.Thus,womennotonlybenefitfromtheruralconnectivityfacilitatedbyPMGSYroadsbutalsoplaykeyrolesinplanningtheruralroadsnetwork.151

Further,thesectorhasinstitutedinterventionstocreateasafeanddecentworkenvironmentforwomeninruralareas.Interventionstothiseffectincludeprovisionofcrèchefacilities(ifmorethan5childrenbelowtheageof6arepresentatworksite),provisionfortravellingallowanceiftheworksiteismorethan5kilometresfromthevillageandequalwagesforequalworkunderMGNREGS.Inlinewiththis,aDistrictlevelfunctionaryinRajasthanconfirmedthewayinwhichgender-basedassessmentsareundertakentoensurethatworksitesaregender-sensitive:

Wehave to do a gender-basedassessment to understand towhat extentwomen canbenefit froma particularscheme.Weunderstandtheworkingconditionstomakesuretheydon’tfaceanydifficultiesinworkingthere.So,foranywork,wecheckiftheworkingconditionsareproperforwomen.Also,agender-basedassessmentofbenefitsisdonetomakesureitisactuallyhelpingwomen(DistrictLevelKII,Rajasthan)

SectoralinterventionsaimedateconomicsecurityofwomenincludetheallocationofhousesunderPMAY-Ginthejointnameofhusbandandwife(Statescanalsoopttoallocatethehousesolelytowife).AsofOctober 2020, a total of 45, 01,060 sanctions (27 percent) have been made in the name of femalebeneficiaries,outofwhichatotalof24,43,108houses(67.5percent)havebeenrecordedtohavebeencompleted.40percentsanctionsweremadejointly inthenameofhusbandandwife152.Furthermore,duringthepreparationofthePermanentWaitingList(PWL),householdsareprioritisedbasedonsocio-

148MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment,GovernmentofIndia.(2012).ReportoftheWorkingGrouponWomen’sAgencyandEmpowerment.149AsianDevelopmentBank(2019)IndiaGenderEqualityResultsCaseStudy,RuralConnectivityInvestmentProgram150ImpactAssessmentStudiesofPMGSY.(2018).WorldBank.151SameasFootnote161.152SameasFootnote161.

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economicdeprivationparameters.Thecriterionincludesfemaleheadedhouseholdswithnoadultmalememberbetweentheagegroupof16-59years.

Furthermore,socialsafetynetsunderNSAPcoverselderlywomen,womenwithdisabilities,andwidowwomen toprovide themwithdirectcashbenefits (withothervaluesaddedbyrespectiveStates)asadirectmeasuretoprovidethemwithsecurityandaccordthemopportunityforadignifiedlife.

Enabling conditions forwomen in agriculture:Whilewomen form a significant proportion of theagricultural workforce, conditions within the agricultural sector are seldom conducive for womenfarmerstoaccessagriculturalinputs,creditandlabour.Inresponsetothis,theruraldevelopmentsectorhas introducedaparadigmshiftbyrecognisinganddirectly targetingwomenengaged inagriculture.MKSP,asubschemeofDAY-NRLM,recognizesthecentralityofwomeninagricultureandprovidesthemsupporttofurtherdeepentheirroleinpromotingsustainableagricultureproductivepractices.

ConvergencewithMWCD:ConvergencelinkageswiththeMWCDhavebeenestablishedacrossvariousschemes,toensurethedevelopmentaloutcomesofwomenandgirls inruralareas inaholisticmanner.MGNREGSconvergeswiththeAnganwadiServicesschemeofMWCD,bywayofAnganwadiCentresbeingconstructedbyMGNREGSworkers.Asper the revisedguidelinesdated17February2016,2 lakhnewAnganwadibuildingsaretobeconstructedunderconvergencewithMGNREGSattherateofonelakhAnganwadibuildingsperyear.153Further,DAY-NRLMhaspartneredwithwomen’scollectivestopromotenutrition, thereby contributing to the objectives of the POSHAN Abhiyaan which seeks to achieveimprovement in nutritional status of Children from 0-6 years, Adolescent Girls, PregnantWomen &LactatingMothers(PW&LM)inatimeboundmannerduringthethreeyears.

GenderBudgeting:GenderBudgetCells(GBC)havebeenconstitutedineachMinistrytoensurethatpublic resources are allocated in an equitableway to tackle gender imbalances and promote genderequality by identifying the pressing gender needs and concerns. DoRD constituted its GBC inMarch2013.154

Takeaways

• TheRDsectorisenhancingwomen’saccesstoandcontroloverresources:TheRDschemeshaveprovidedpathwaysforwomentoaccessresourcessuchasland,naturalresources,credit,technologyetc.therebydeepeningtheirroleinagricultureandproductionprocesses.Throughtheguaranteeofwage employment at equal wages, the sector ensures access to income generation activities andeconomic independence. Further, through the provision of skill building and training, the sectorendowswomenwithnewcapacitiesandempowersthemtoventureintoentrepreneurialactivities.Inaddition,thesector’ssocialsafetynetsfacilitateaccesstobasicentitlements,therebymakingsomelevelofincomeorresourcesthepreserveoffemalebeneficiariesonly.

However,moreeffort isneeded inmakingavailablesex-disaggregateddatatorecognizewomen’srights to resources and their rights as workers. Such data is also needed to promote women’semploymentinskilled,non-traditionalandnon-genderstereotypicaltrades.Further,specificeffortsforensuring thesocio-economic inclusionanddevelopmentoutcomesofsinglewomenshouldbeundertaken.

153MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment.(2020).AnnualReport2019-20154SameasFootnote161.

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• Female labour force participation is encouraged through the sector’s gender sensitiveinterventions: Under MGNREGS, the practice of setting quotas for minimum female workerparticipationhasproventohavepositiveimpactalthoughtheactualwomen’sparticipationratevariesbyState.InSouthIndianStateswomenparticipationratesreachashighas89percentinKerala,whileinNorthIndianStatesthenumberislowerthanthenationalaverage:notably,35percentinUttarPradesh,and30percentinJammuandKashmir.Anotherimportantgender-sensitivecomponentistheprovision forwages’ equality,which is of particular importance in the agricultural sector. ThismakestheMGNREGSmoreappealingtowomenbecausetheiraveragemarketwageislowerthanthedailyminimumwageforagriculturallabourersinmoststates.Further,componentslikeaccessibleworksite(within5kilometresofworkers’residence)andcrèchesforwomenwithchildrenbelowsixyearsaddressthesocio-culturalchallengestowomen’sengagementinthelabourmarket.155

• Themajorityofruralwomen’sworkremains invisible innationalsamplesurveys:Nationallevelsurveysoftendonotadequatelyreflectwomen’sfarmandnon-farmwork.Thisresultsinunder-reportingoftheirlabourforceparticipationaswellasadenialoftheirrightsandentitlements.156Forexample,womenworking inagricultureandalliedactivitiesarerarelyrecognisedas farmersandpositioned as household workers instead. This results in women not availing any benefits andentitlementsdesignedforfarmers.Thiscallsforregularsex-disaggregateddatacollectiontopreventthe masking of gendered disadvantages faced by women, and their contribution to the ruraldevelopmentsector.

• The sector’s women collectives have helped women scale new socio-political frontiers:Women’scollectivesholdaspecialplaceinwomen'sempowermentprocesses.Overtheyears,thenumberofSHGsunderDAY-NRLMhavegrownandover60percentofthesearewomen’sSHGs.Theseunitsarekeycomponentsofinclusive,grassrootsdemocracy.Further,theypresentopportunitiesforfinancial inclusion and undertaking prudent financial practices such as thrift and credit. Economicdecision making is seen to be closely connected to improving the status of women within thehousehold,aswasputforwardbyaseniorDoRDofficialduringoneinterview:

“DAY-NRLMisrelevanttothepoorandwomenparticularly,ithelpswomengetavoice,ithelpstogettreatedasan equal. If not equal, at least ashavinga voicewithin the familyand indecisionmakingon livelihoodactivities.Soherdecisionmakingcomesonlywhenshegetsmoneyinherhandsandthathappensbecauseofthriftandcreditonly.”–DoRDOfficial

Atthesametime,someaspectsatthesectorallevelneedtobeimprovedtoensurefurthergendermainstreaming.Theseincludeenhancingwomen’saccesstotechnologyandinfrastructure,establishingprocessingunitstoensurevalue-additionandstoragespacesforproduce(e.g.chilligrindingunit,oil-extraction unit), and ensuring women’s participation at all stages of the livelihoods value chain(particularly, post-production and marketing activities and transactions). Introducing gender-responsivelivelihoodindicatorsintheDAY-NRLMMISisalsorequired.

• There are barriers to the political participation of ruralwomen in PRIs: The 73rd and 74thAmendmentsoftheConstitutionmandateaminimum33percentrepresentationofwomenleadersinPRIs.Further,someStateshaveproactivelyincreasedtheone-thirdreservationinPanchayatsto

155Dasgupta,S.andSudarshan,R.M.(2011).Issuesinlabourmarketinequalityandwomen'sparticipationinIndia'sNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeProgramme.156FAO.(2018).Alternativedatasourcesforwomen'sworkinagriculture.

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50 percent further bolstering the presence ofwomen in decisionmaking roles. In spite of theseinterventions, the participation ofwomen in these institutions remains low.157Women’s politicalpower has not been fully harnessed as their presence has not always translated intomeaningfulpoliticalparticipationandinvolvement.

Ruralwomencontinuetofacesocial,economicandotherformsof institutionalbarriers toenteringPRIs and similar limitationswhileperformingas elected representatives. Institutionalbarriers topoliticalparticipationofwomenincludetheinadequatedevolutionoffunctions,lackoffinancialandplanningautonomy,bureaucratic influence, thepolicyof rotationof seats etc.Amongst the socialbarrierstotheirfullandeffectiveparticipationarelackofeducation,oppressivepatriarchalandcastestructures;lackofrespectofwomeninPRIs;physicalviolenceinpublicanddomesticspheres;localpoliticsspawnedbycaste/class/religiousdynamicsetc.158

Further, at the community level, there is provision for women’s participation in monitoringcommitteesandthesocialauditprocess.However,insufficientattentionhasbeengiventotheneedtoovercomeprevailingnormswhichpreventwomen’sparticipationandvoiceincommunityforums,intheirabilitytoaccessandutilisegrievanceprocedures,andinmechanismswhichaimtopromotecommunitydiscussionontheselectionandprioritisationofassetscreated.

Apartfromthebarrierstomeaningfulpoliticalparticipation,womenleadersatthelocallevelarealsonotadequatelytrainedfortherolestheyaremeanttoperform.WomenMembersandChairpersonsofPanchayats,whoareoftennewentrantsinPanchayats,needtoacquiretherequiredskillsandbegiven appropriate orientation to assume their rightful roles as leaders and decision makers.Imparting training toelected representativesofPRIs forprogrammesunder theDoRD (includingextending financial assistance to the States/UTs with a view to improve the quality of trainingprogrammesandtocatalysecapacitybuildinginitiativesfortheelectedmembersandfunctionariesofPRIs)shouldbefurtherimproved.

• Capacitybuildingforprogrammespecificandlocallevelgendermainstreamingneedsmoreattention: Ithasbeenfoundthatgender-responsivenessofaprogramme’sdeliverymechanismiscrucialtoensuringgenderoutcomes.Inthisregard,gendertrainingsattheBlock,DistrictandStatelevel for coreprogramme functionaries andProject ImplementationAgency (PIA) staff shouldbeorganized. Dedicated budgets for gender trainings could be earmarked from Capacity Buildingbudgets,andamoduleongendershouldbeaccommodated.

Inordertoenablewomentoleavetheirhomesandventureintowageemployment,entrepreneurshipand skills training, behaviour change at the local level is crucial. However, gender-sensitisationcomponentsatthevillageleveltoencouragesuchbehaviourchangearecurrentlymissing.Specialattention need to be paid to the need to overcome prevailing norms which prevent women’sparticipationandvoiceincommunityforums.

• ICT shouldbe leveraged further toensure information flow towomen: The advancementofInformation and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has brought new opportunities for bothknowledgesharingandknowledgegatheringforbothwomenandmen.ICTcanprovideunlimitedopportunities foreconomicdevelopmentandsocialengagement throughnew innovative thinking

157PrillamanS.(2019).ThepersistentgendergapinpoliticalparticipationinIndia,IdeasforIndia.158MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment.(2011).XIIFiveYearPlan.ReportoftheWorkingGrouponWomen’sAgencyandEmpowerment.GovernmentofIndia.

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and tools. With the growth of media and ICT, it is important that women are brought into themainstreamagendaforensuringthatthebenefitsoftechnologyalsoflowtothem.TheGovernmentisalreadytakingvariousstepstopromoteICTthroughtheITforMassesschemewhichhaswomenasaspecifictargetgroup;SancharShaktiSchemeofUniversalServiceObligationFundetc.However,furtherinitiativesneedtobeundertakeninthisdirection.

UnderMGNREGSinparticular,whiletherehasbeenafocusonraisingawarenessabouttherightto100daysof employment, thishasbeenunevenacross the country.159 Importantly, therehasbeenlimitedattention to the implicationsofwomen’s lower literacyrates, especiallywithregards to thedemand driven nature ofMGNREGSwhich relies on amulti-layeredwritten application process.Againstthisbackdrop,ICTsshouldbeleveragedtoenhancewomen’saccesstoschemeinformation,andtoencouragetheassertionoftheirrightstowork.

WayForward

• Thesectorshouldenhanceitsfocusongendermainstreamingfromapolicyperspective:Itisimperative to mainstream gender through a top-down approach wherein gender equality andwomen’s rights are included as explicit goals in the vision statement and objectives of all ruraldevelopmentprogrammes.

• Itisimportanttoreviewthegender-sensitivenessofemploymentopportunitiesforwomenworkers:An analysis of the work provided should be undertaken to assess whether it suits thecapacities of women who participate in MGNREGS. The list of permissible work should then beexpandedtoallowforgreaterdiversityofgender-sensitiveactivities.SuchactivitiescanincludetheuseofMGNREGSwagescomponent toprovidehumanresources toruncrèchesunderMGNREGS,providingopportunitiestosetupvermi-culturecompostingunitsthatregeneratethelandetc.Otherworkssuchascommonfacilitycentres,SHGmeetingandchildcarecentreswhichwomencanthenmaintainshouldalsobeconsidered.

Atpresent,thewagesunderMGNREGSiscalculatedonapiece-ratebasis.However,suchasystemfetcheswomenverylittlemoneygiventhatwomenworkersareengagedintaskssuchasliftingandcarryingloadsontheirheads,whereasmenperformtaskslikediggingwhichisbetterremunerated.Thescheduleofratesshould,therefore,beimprovedashasbeendoneinsomestateslikeAndhraPradesh,TamilNadu,Rajasthan,etc.

• Mechanismstomeasureandrecognizewomen’sworkneedtobeinstituted:Itisimportanttoreviewthelanguageandterminologiesusedforwomenandwomen’swork.Forinstance,whensomewomenarecalled‘home-basedworkers’theyarecategorizedaswageearnersintheinformalsector.However, if they are thought of and addressed as ‘producers’ or ‘entrepreneurs’, the wholeperspectivewouldchange.Insteadofdemandingbetterwagesforsuchwomenthefocuswouldshifttotheirrightsandentitlementsasproducerswhichincludeslowinterestcredit,betterskilltrainingandmarketaccess.RDschemesshouldcreateopportunitiesforfemaleemploymentinnon-genderstereotypicalandskilledrolesandimplementtargetsforequalemploymentofwomenatalllevelswithinaprogramme.

Further,DoRDshouldmaketimeboundplansforensuringcollectionofsex-disaggregateddataacrossall socio-economic categories, including religiousminorities,marital status etc. Sex-disaggregated

159Carswell,G.andDeNeve,G.(2014).MGNREGAinTamilNadu:astoryofsuccessandtransformation.

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datashouldbecollectedtorecognizewomen’swork,enhancetheiraccesstorightsandentitlementsaswellashelpassesstheeffectivenessofaprogramme.Collectionofdatadisaggregatedbysocio-economic categories would also be helpful for developing specific programmatic responses forvulnerablegroupssuchassinglewomen,SCandSTwomen.

• Thesectorshouldtargetspecificvulnerablegroupsthroughfocusedinterventions:Whileruralwomen face gendered disadvantages that lower their access to resources and assets, certainvulnerable women face additional challenges due to their marital or socio-economic status.Vulnerablewomenlikesinglewomen,headsoffemaleheadedhouseholds,womenbelongingtoSCand ST populations have been observed to experience socio-economic vulnerabilities of higherdegrees. This necessitates targeted interventions for their benefit. At the outset, data collectiondisaggregated by socio-economic categories and marital status would be the first step towardsenvisioning focused interventions for thesegroups(asmentioned in thepreviouspoint).Suggestedpolicyactionsaredetailedbelow:

o Singlewomen:Toencouragemoresinglewomentoengageinwageemployment,itisimperativetodefineanuclearfamilyasahouseholdunderMGNREGS.Inordertoensuretheiraccesstoequalwages,special jobcards forsinglewomenmaybeconsidered.Further, toencourageeconomicindependence among single women, separate federations of single women at the Block andDistrictlevelshouldbepromoted.Singlewomenshouldalsobegivenpreferenceingrantofcreditwithflexiblepaymentmodalitiesandlowerinterest,soastofueltheirparticipationinleadershiproles and entrepreneurship. Alongside, constant awareness creation activities should beundertakenwithinboththematernalandmatrimonialhomes,tomakesinglewomenawareoftheirrightsandentitlements.

o SCWomen: For SCwomen, a rights-basedapproach shouldbe adopted rather than awelfare-oriented one in education; health services; ownership of land and its development throughirrigationandothermeans;employment;andinprovisionsforhousingandlivingconditions.SCwomenshouldbeprovidedgoodandadequatehouse-sites inthejointnamesofthemselvesandtheir spouses and their living conditions improved through provision of satisfactory drainage,sanitationroads,electricityandwatersources

o ST Women: Focus should be laid on awareness building among ST women about policies,programmes,schemesandlegislationsmeantforthem.ToexpandtheaccesstocreditandbankingfacilitiestoSTwomen,itshouldbeensuredthatthebankingcorrespondentmodelunderDAY-NRLM targets STwomen as correspondents and as beneficiaries.Convergence among varioussubsidyandloanschemesofCentralandStategovernmentsshouldalsobeensured,sothatbothsubsidyandlowinterestloansareavailabletoSTwomen.Furthermore,effectiveimplementationofMGNREGSinTribalBlocksshouldbeensuredtopreventdistressmigrationandtrafficking.

• Mechanisms to enhance meaningful political participation of women leaders should beimplemented: It is imperative thatDoRDaccelerate thedevolutionof responsibilities, powersandresourcestoensurewomen’sleadershipfordeliveryofservicesandsocialchange.Alongwiththis,itisrecommendedthatDoRDincreasetheresourceallocationforcapacitybuildingandintensivetrainingofallelectedPanchayatwomenrepresentatives.

Inaddition,pre-electionpreparationofwomencandidatesandvoterswillalsohelpwomenleaderstonavigatesocialandculturalbarrierstofemalepoliticalparticipation.Cost-effectiveelectionsshouldbefacilitatedsothatwomenfrompoorandmarginalisedsectionscanaspiretoenterPanchayatsandtakeleadershiproleinthecommunity.Further,DoRDshouldlooktopromotealliances,federations,

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acrossPanchayatsandacrosswomeninPRIsandSHGs,therebycreatinganempoweringeco-systemforfemaleleadershipandgendermainstreaminginterventions.

• Womenworkersshouldbegivenmoredecisiveroles intheexecutionofworks: Inorder toensuregreaterfemaleleadershipandownershipoftheRDschemes,itisimportantforwomenandwomen’sgroupstoplaykeyrolesintheschemeimplementation.TheGramSabhaisakeyplatformfordiscussion,planninganddecisionmakingonthedevelopmentalworkstobeundertakeninavillage.Mandatingaminimum33percentparticipationofwomenatGramSabhaswouldbeonewaytoensurethat the voice ofwomen is heard and actedupon in the context of the village’s development. Bymakingwomeninstrumentalintheselectionofworks,therewouldalsobechecksandbalancesontheselectionofworksthatareunsuitableforthehealthofwomenworkers.Further, includingWomen’sGroupsasimplementingagenciesofMGNREGSworkswouldalsoendowwomenwithimportantrolesintheexecutionofRDschemes.

• Focus on credit access and financial inclusion of women should bemaintained: While themicrofinancemovementhasmadegreat inroads into the financial sector, there is aneed tomovebeyond aswomennowneed largeramountsof credit forentrepreneurshipactivities,exposure totraining on running a business including pricing and budgeting, and also access to pension andinsuranceproducts.SHGsshouldalsobeclassifiedunderprioritysectorsandshouldbegivenloanatconcessionalrates.TheDoRDshouldlooktoextendfinancialsupportandseedcapitaltofederationsofwomenSHGsuptotheBlockorDistrictlevels,andProducerCompaniesofwomenfarmersandagricultureworkers.Thesegroupsshouldbedevelopedasmodelsofeconomicempowermentandalsobecomeprimemoversinlocalgovernance.

• Buildinggender-relatedcapacitiesofallRDfunctionariesshouldbeemphasized:Capacitiesofallgovernmentofficers, frontline functionariesand implementingagenciesshouldbeenhancedtoenable them todesignand implementpolicieswhich centre-stagewomen’s rights and entitlements.Officialsshouldbeequippedthroughregulartrainingsandworkshops,withcapacitiesandtoolstoadoptagenderlensintheirwork.Intensivetrainingandcapacitybuildingmechanismsshouldalsobeinstitutedtohelpofficialsundertakegenderbudgetandgenderauditinrurallocalbodies.

• Pathwaysforruralwomentobecomeawareandaccessinformationshouldbestrengthened:Itisimportanttoinstitutehumanresourcesandinfrastructuretoletwomendisseminateandaccessinformation on their rights and entitlements. DoRD should explore setting up Gender ResourceCentresinallDistrictstohelpwomengaincriticalinformationandknowledge.Further,thecreationofacadreofwomenworkersineachvillage(suchasGenderCommunityResourcePersons(CRPs)/womenleadersorganizedunderruraldevelopmentprogrammesorbyNGOs)shouldbeconsidered.These women workers would be responsible for enhancing capacities of rural women to accessinformation,entitlementsand institutions, technicalknowledge;andsupportingvictimsofviolence.TheGender CRPs thuswould not only address livelihood issues, but also focus on the social andpoliticalempowermentofruralwomen.

In addition, the existing community radio policymay be reviewed, if necessary, to enablewomen’sfederations to undertake community radio initiatives. DoRD should look to provide support towomen’s federations forundertakingcommunityradioprogrammes tospread informationonRDschemesforwomen,thebenefitsandentitlements,therebyenhancingawarenesslevelsandmitigatingknowledgegapsstemmingfromfemaleilliteracytosomeextent.

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(iii) DirectandIndirectEmploymentGeneration

Introduction

“Unemploymenthasmanyfar-reachingeffectsotherthanlossofincome,includingpsychologicalharm,lossofworkmotivation,skillsandself-confidence,increaseinailments,disruptionoffamilyrelationsandsociallife, hardening of social exclusion and accentuation of gender inequalities”160. In India, the problem ofunemploymenttakesmanyforms,particularlyinruralIndia.Theseincludeconcealedunemployment,pre-dominanceofinformalsector,urbanareasbeingfulcrumofjobcreation,lowparticipationofwomenintheworkforce.ThesearesomeaspectswhichDoRDislookingtotacklethroughitsschemes.

Background

Employment generation in any economy depends on how fully and productively society utilizes thematerial,technological,organizationalandhumanresourcesatitsdisposal.Higherproductivityresultsingreaterefficiencyandwithwhichitproducesgoodsaswellasbetterquality,whichinturnleadstogreater the demand for those goods and services in the marketplace. This augments employmentopportunitiesandpurchasingpowercreated.Despiteincreasingurbanization,alargefractionofIndia’spoor remain in rural areas. Majority of the population works in casual labour markets in both theagricultural and non-agricultural sectors in which there are few returns to skill and labour marketexperience, andwhere earning potential is limited. The return to this labour often does not generatehouseholdearningsthataresufficientforahouseholdthatincludesnonworkingdependentstoriseabovethepovertyline.Thus,thegovernmenthasakeyroletoplayinemploymentgenerationinthecountry.

Moreover, as people move out of agriculture, householdincome and access to non-farm economicopportunities—ratherthan just farm-level production diversity or farm incomes—become equallyimportantpredictorsofhouseholdfoodandnutritionsecurity.Thisisdrivenbythefactthat,asagriculturalsystemsmodernizeandmarketsdevelop,thereisanincreasingseparationbetweentheproductionandconsumptiondecisionsofhouseholds.161

AsperPeriodicLabourForceSurvey(PLFS)estimates,theshareofregularwage/salariedemployeeshasincreasedby5percentagepoints from18percent in2011-12 to23percent in2017-18asperusualstatus162.Inabsoluteterms,therewasasignificantjumpofaround2.62crorenewjobsinthiscategorywith 1.21 crore in rural areas. Theproportion ofwomenworkers in regularwage/salaried employeescategoryhasincreasedby8percentagepoints(from13percentin2011-12to21percentin2017-18).Among the self-employed category (consists of employers, own account workers and unpaid familylabour),whiletheproportionofownaccountworkersandemployershasincreased,theproportionofunpaid family labour (helper)hasdeclined, especially for femalesbetween2011-12and2017-18.Theproportion of total self-employed workers however remained unchanged at 52 percent during thisperiod.163

For direct employment in rural India, the biggest programme is theMahatmaGandhiNational RuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct(MGNREGA),whichwaspassedin2005.MGNREGSseekstoprovide100daysofguaranteedwageemploymenttoruralhouseholdswillingtoperformunskilledmanualwork.Itmakesspecialprovisionsforwomenandforthedistancewithinwhichthejobmustbeavailabletojob-seekersforconvenience.OthereffortstoprovidedirectemploymentopportunitieshavebeenthroughSHGsin

160Sen,A.,DevelopmentasFreedom,Page94.OxfordUniversityPress.161PingaliP.,andSunderN.(2017)TransitioningTowardNutrition-SensitiveFoodSystemsinDevelopingCountries162Usualstatusgivesanideaaboutaverageworkingconditionofanindividualforentirereferenceyear163SameasFootnote31.

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DAY-NRLMandproviding employment in government departments and offices at various positions andlevels.DoRDhasalsoattemptedtoprovideindirectemploymentopportunitiesthroughtheinfrastructureprogrammesconstructinghousingandroads.Theseassetsalsoaidtheabilityoftheprivatesectortoinvitemorejobapplicantsandcreatelivelihoodopportunities.

IthoweverneedstoberealisedthatpeopleinruralIndiaoftendependonmorethanoneresourceandmorethanoneactivityforearningtheirlivelihoods.Raisingfoodsecurityenhancingcropsonasmallpieceofland,rearinglivestock,andmigratingtocitiesasunskilledlabourarealltheactivitiesafamilymayundertaketoearnenoughmoneyforsustenance.‘SecurityofLivelihoods’issomethingeveryoneaspiresforandisakeyaspectofDoRDprogrammes.

MGNREGS is amilestone in the history of rural development in India and is the largest governmentintervention of this kind globally. Providing employment to unskilledworkers directly and ensuringlivelihood security for the poor is one of the most important goals of MGNREGS. However,implementationhasthrownnewchallenges,especiallythechallengeofmakingthebestuseoflargesumsofmoneyfrompublicexchequerwhilealsopluggingtheleakagesinthesupplypipelinebeforeitreachesthewagelabourerinthevillage.GovernmentofIndiaandStateGovernmentshavemadehugeeffortstowardmeetingthischallenge.

Apart from the aspect of direct employment to households for 100 days, creation of durable andproductiveassets includingimprovedwatersecurity,soilconservationandhigherlandproductivitytoimprovelivelihoodopportunitiesarebeingundertaken.TherevisedOperationalGuidelinesofMGNREGSincluded30newpermissibleworksunderSchedule11includingWatershedRelatedWorks,WatershedRelatedWorks in Mountain Regions, Agriculture RelatedWorks, Livestock RelatedWorks, FisheriesRelatedWorksandIrrigationCommandRelatedWorks.ThishashelpedstrengthenthepositivesynergybetweenMGNREGSandagricultureandalliedrurallivelihoods,torespondtothedemandsoftheStatesforgreaterlocationspecificflexibilityinpermissibleworksandtohelpimprovetheecologicalbalanceinruralIndiaandtoprovideacleaner,healthierenvironmentfortheruralpopulation.164

DAY-NRLMseekstoreachoutto8-9croreruralpoorhouseholdsandorganizeone-womanmemberfromeachhouseholdintospecificwomenSHGsbasedoninterestsandfederationsatvillageandathigherlevels.Support isprovidedtothewomenforemploymentandself-employmentventuresundertheschemetoenhancetheirfarmlivelihoodsandnon-farmlivelihoodthroughvariouscomponentsofschemessuchasorganic farming,Krishi Sakhi, PashuSakhi, dairy value chain interventions,AajeevikaGrameenExpressYojana,Start-upVillageEntrepreneurshipProgrammeetc.DAY-NRLMprovidesRevolvingFunds(RF)attherateofRs.10,000-15,000perSHGandCommunityInvestmentSupportFund(CISF)totheextentofRs.2.5lakhperSHGtosupporttheirincomegeneratingandlivelihoodactivities.

Further, the government’s effort to formalise the economy with measures like introduction of GST,digitisation of payment, DBT and opening of Jan Dhan accounts have led to an increase in formalemploymentinruralIndia.165

Thenon-farmsectorplaysaveryimportantroleforjobcreationinruralareas,especiallyalongtherural-urban continuum for structural transformation to take place. There is a blurring of rural-urbandistinction,whichprovidesanopportunitytodiversifytheportfolioofeconomicopportunitiesavailabletorural households, thereby enabling greater rural income and improved access to food and nutrition

164Circular,GuidelinesfortheNew/AdditionalWorksPermittedUnderMGNREGA.165SameasFootnote31.

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providedthatthisisadequatelyleveraged.166SPMRMiscertainlyplayinganimportantroleinthisregard.Asvillagesfaceashortageofemploymentopportunitiesduetodiminishingreturnstoagricultureandmore attractive avenues becoming in urban areas, the quantum of relocation to urban areas can betremendous.SPMRMpreventsthisisbyinducingan‘inversemovement’asbasicinfrastructureandutilitiesare provided, and industrialization is promoted. This leads to a steady increase in the employmentopportunitiesinRurbanareas.

FurthereffortstoprovideaccesstoemploymentthroughRuralDevelopmentschemeswashighlightedbygovernmentofficialsduringthecourseofthisstudy.ThepositiveimpactsoftheseprogrammesonthemostvulnerablesocialsgroupsinIndiawerealsoraisedinqualitativeinterviews:

Renovationoflakes,damn,canalshasbroughtanimprovementinirrigationfacilities,thuspromotingemploymentinagriculture.(…)Alongwiththis,weareworkingonskilldevelopmentofwomenunderskilldevelopmentmission.We have provided opportunities to 3,000 women in our District directly through stitching work. Creation ofemployment opportunities in small scale industries has also been done” - Aspirational District Fellowship,Jharkhand

“Notjustthebackwardclasspeople,allthosewhoneedworkarecomingtous.Eventheforwardclasspeople,OBC,SC,ST,womenallarecoming.Onebenefitof this is that theyarecomingtoworkearly in themorningandarecompletingtheworktheyhavebeenassignedandearning”-BDO,AndhraPradesh

Takeaways

• Improvingnon-farmemploymentneedsafocusonagriculture:Avibrantagriculturalsectorisessentialforthegrowthofnon-farmsectorbecauseofthelargedependenceonitforfoodsecurityandemployment.Mostoftheruralhouseholdsdoearnacertainpartoftheirincomefromagriculturewhile diversifying their income portfolio in India.167 Throughproduction linkages, agricultureconnects to non-farm suppliers of raw materials and farm inputs. There areconsumptionlinkageswhen the gains from agricultural income are spent on locally produced non-farm goods.Throughthesupplyoflabourtonon-agriculturalactivitiesduringtheleanseason,andinvestmentinnon-agriculturalactivities, agriculture is connected to theeconomy throughfactormarkets.Thereareproductivitylinkages through reduced food prices. The reverse takes place too when newerindustriescouldignitethedemandforagriculturalproducts.Thechallengeforamorevibrantfoodsystemistoensurethatmovementtowardsnon-farmemploymentisnotastep-down.

• Increasing rural productivity has amultiplier effect: It needs to be realized that rising ruralincomesconsequenttohigherproductivitywillunleashamultipliereffect, increasingdemandforfarm and non-farm products and services, thereby stimulating rapid growth of employmentopportunities inothersectors.Theessentialrequirementof livelihoodsecurity iseveryonehavingadequateaccesstoresourcesandincomeearningactivitiesonasustainedbasis,i.e.,thisaccessshouldbelongterm,anditshouldgivebenefitinthelongrun.

• Qualityof employmentaffectsproductivity: Thequality of jobs being created in thenon-farmsector can be dubbed as ordinary—informal and casual—regarding their potential for ruraltransformation and lowering structural poverty. The poor quality of rural non-farm sector jobsespeciallyforwomenleadstogreaterwithdrawalfromthelabourmarket168.Poverty,vulnerabilityto

166SameasFootnote36.167SameasFootnote42.168 Chatterjee U., Murgai R., RamaM. (2015) Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor ForceParticipationinIndia,WorldBank

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poverty,andinformalemploymentstatusarehighlyassociated.Around79percentofworkerswhowork in the informal sector canbe classified aspoorwithout any jobor social security169. Theseworkersnotonlyworkatlowwages,buttheirworkingconditionsarealsomiserable.

• MGNREGS has helped promote livelihoods yet is a last resort: Introduction of the publicemploymentprograms,suchasMGNREGS,havealsofacilitatedafastermovetowardstheruralnon-farm sector. There are three distinct features of MGNREGS, which have been utilized very well,namely: (a)guaranteedemployment foreveryadultpersonwho iswillingtodomanualwork, (b)empowermentoftheGramPanchayatandGramSabha(GS)todecideonworksthatcanbetakenupforprovidingemploymentondemand,and(c)prioritizationofworksthatresultincreationofassetsforstrengtheningoflivelihoodsofpoor.Yettheselivelihoodavenuesarealastresortmeansforthoseinthelowerincomequintiles,castingdoubtsonthelong-runwelfareofthistransition170.Further,implementationoftheschemeisbeingadverselyaffectedduetolackofawarenessabouttheschemeatdifferentlevels.AlongwithawarenessaboutMGNREGS,athoroughknowledgeandunderstandingoflivelihoodspromotionisalsoneeded.171

• Gram Panchayats play a significant role: When GPs and villagers together decide that theythemselveswanttobringaboutintermsofapositivechangeintheirsituation–thebestsolutionsarefound.Ithelpsinundertakingresponsibilityfortheirowndevelopmentandrealisingthattheyareinthebestpositiontounderstandwhattheyneedandwhattheyhave.Theyalsorealizethattheyhavetherighttoutilizethecommonpropertyresourcesaswellastheresponsibilitytonurturethemandutilizetheminasustainablemanner.Inclusiveprocessandassuranceofbenefitstoeveryfamilyisalsoimportant.172

• SecurityofLivelihoodsrequiresfocus:Intheabsenceofvisionandparticipationinthecommunity,worksareplannedinanadhocmanner.Invariably,planslackreflectionofthepeople’saspirationsandneedsinit.Itissignificantthatpeopledonotjustdemandemployment,butproactivelysuggestmeansofcreatingemployment.173Analysisoflivelihoodsituationsenablesidentificationofspecificgapsandconsequentsolutionstoensuresustainedsecurelivelihoods.

• Diversification of livelihoods through SHGs can significantly contribute to employmentopportunities:DAY-NRLMsupportstheruralpoorinbuildingtheirskillsandcapabilitiesforself-employment,enablingthemtograduatefromdependenceonsafetynetstobuildingproductiveassetsof theirown. Producergroups inagriculture,dairying, and thenon-farmsectorarebetterable toupgrade technologies to improve the productivity and quality of their products, access marketinformation,developvaluechains,attracttheprivateandcooperativesectortodobusinesswiththem,andnegotiatefairertermsoftradefortheirproductsandservices.Additionally,DAY-NRLMcoversruralyouthwhowillbeempoweredwiththeskillsneededinIndia’srapidlychanginglabourmarket.Thiswillenablethemtoaccessnewjobopportunitiesintheservicessector,connectingthehithertolaggingruralregionstothemainstreameconomy,andhelpingIndiatocapitalizeonitsdemographicdividend.

169NationalCommissionforEnterprisesintheUnorganizedSector.(2008).ReportonDefinitionalandStatisticalIssuesRelatingtoinformalEconomy.170NationalSampleSurvey.171PingaliP.,AiyarA.,AbrahamM.,RahmanA(2019),RuralLivelihoodChallenges:MovingoutofAgriculture..172AbdulAzeez,N.(2020).ModelforPerformanceofMGNREGSinRuralAssetCreation.173MinistryofRuralDevelopment,BuildingSustainableLivelihoodofthePoorthroughMGNREGA.

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• Greaterinteractionalongrural-urbanspacescanbeexpected:Indiaisexpectedtobe60percenturbanby2050.174Further,withbetterinfrastructureandcommunicationnetworks,reducedphysicaldistanceandculturalbarriersbetweenruralandurbanresidentsare likely.Agriculture, therefore,maynolongercontinuetobethedefiningfeatureoftheeconomicandculturallifeinruralareas.Thisrural transformation—an essential part of structural transformation—entails greater interactionalong the rural-urban spaces, therebypromotingagricultural productivity andgreatermarketablesurpluses.Thiscouldthenfacilitateoverallproductiondiversification,newformsoflivelihoodandbetterinfrastructureprovisioninruralareas.Spatialboundariesacrosstherural-urbandichotomiesareincreasinglygettingblurredaswithlargerruralareasbecomingindistinguishablefromthesmallurbanareas,especiallyregardingtheoccupationalpatternsandbuilt-upareacharacterizations175.Therightsetofpublicpolicies,however,areessentialtoensurethatsmooth,inclusiveandsustainableurbanizationforstructuraltransformationtakesplace.

• Infrastructurecreationhasbothdirectandindirectimpactonlivelihoods:Roadinfrastructurecontributessignificantly—throughgreaterdietarydiversityandhigheragriculturalinputusage—tothefoodsystem.Further,accessbypavedorunpavedroadsandfrequentbusservicesincreasetheoddsofnon-agriculturalemploymentamongmenandwomen.Theeffectofroadaccessonnon-farmemploymentisstrongeramongwomenthanamongmen.Improvedtransportationinfrastructurehasastrongerpositiveeffectonwomen'snon-farmemploymentincommunitieswithmoreegalitariangendernorms.176

WayForward

• InvestmentinruralInfrastructureshouldbeincreased:Itisoftenthepoorestwhoarelockedoutof this market because of marginalized social groups or small land holding. Investment in ruralinfrastructure goes a longway in reducing the economic distance between rural and urban areas.Reduction in this distance abets rural transformation, integrates markets and thereby facilitatesgreateraccesstonon-farmemploymentopportunities,especiallyforwomen.NewpavedroadsunderthePMGSY improveavailable transportation services facilitating the reallocationof labourout ofagriculture.

• Renewedfocusonfoodsystemsisrequired:Foodsystemsextendfarbeyondagriculturallandandproductionandprovidefood,energyandnutritiontothepopulation.Atthesametime,theyalsoservean economic and social role through enhancing householdaccess to food. Access comes throughincomeandbetterjobs.Asthefoodsystemscutacrossagriculture,healthandnutrition,povertyandtheenvironment,itcanalsobeleveragedtocreatejobs.Mostnewjobsintheruralareaswouldbecreated in the non-farm sector. As the agricultural value chains develop, therewould begreaterdemandforthosewhocanworkinrelatedlogistics,fromaggregationtostorageandprocessing.Withtherightsetofskillstoyouth,thesesectorscouldbecomeamajorsourceofjobcreation.

• SHGsshouldbefurtherleveragedtoprovideskillsandincreasetheworkforceparticipationofruralwomenandyouth:Mostruralwomen in Indiaworkontheirhousehold farmasunpaidlabour.AccordingtothelatestCensusfigures,workforceparticipationrateofruralwomenisonly30percentcomparedto53percentforruralmales.AnotherfundamentalfeatureofwomeninruralIndiaistheirlowhumancapital.On58percentoftheruralwomenareliteratecomparedto77percentof

174MinisterofstateforurbandevelopmentRaoInderjitSinghinLokSabha,July2016175SameasFootnote185.176LeiL,DesaiS.,&VannemanR(2019)TheImpactofTransportationInfrastructureonWomen'sEmploymentinIndia

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ruralmen.Thisimpliesthatalmostone-fourthofruralnon-farmworkersinIndiaareilliterate.Lackof education and the required skills inhibit a smooth and timely transition into the non-farmsector.Sinceconstructionsectordoesnotrequiremuchskills,thissectorprovidesthegreatestshareof non-farmwork. The formal service sectorwhichprovides a better quality of employment andwrittencontracts,however,requiresmoreskilledandeducatedworkers.

• Community awareness regarding entitlements needs to be improved: There is anunprecedentedemphasisonarights-basedapproachtodevelopmentthroughaseriesoflandmarklegislationslikeRighttoInformationAct,MGNREGA,ForestRightsAct,andRighttoEducationActetc.WhiletheseActs,backedbyhugefinancialoutlays,aretransferringmuchgreaterresourcestotherural areas, full benefits of these legislations and schemes can only be harnessed when thecommunitiesareorganized,whentheycandemandtheirrightsandentitlements,andwhenthereisabackupsupporttothecommunitiestomeaningfullyutilizetheentitlementsforlong-termgains.

• RuralDevelopmentmustalso focusonan increase in theservicesector: ServicessectorhasplayedamajorroleinstructuraltransformationofIndianeconomybutitsachievementsduringtherecent yearsweremainly concentrated towardsurbanareas. This sector in rural areaswitnesseddecelerationinoutputaswellasemploymentafter2004-05.Animportantreasonforthisisincreasedrelianceofruralconsumersonserviceproviderslocatedinurbanareas.Ruralareashavecomparativeadvantageinserviceslikepost-harvestvalueaddition,onfarmstorage,primaryprocessing,gradingetc.177

(iv) Climatechange&sustainabilityincludingadoptionofclimate-changeresilientpractices&diversifications

Introduction

India is a large emerging economy with a variety of geographical regions, biodiversity and naturalresources. Itis also a country severely affectedbyclimate change, especially in areaswherepeople'slivelihoodsdependonnaturalresources.MorethanhalfofIndia’spopulationofover1billionpeoplelivesinruralareasanddependsonclimate-sensitivesectorslikeagriculture,fisheriesandforestryfortheirlivelihoods. Undertaking climateadaptation measures have a renewed significance forsafeguardingrurallivelihoodsandensuringsustainabledevelopment.Climatechange inruralareas ismakinganimpactonbothrurallivelihoodsandruralinfrastructure.Theseimpactsvaryindegreeandcontent across different agricultural climatic regions in the country. The sectoral approach to ruraldevelopment so far has adopted conservation and development of natural resource base as part ofimprovingthefastdepletingnaturalresourcesinthecountryside.

Natural resourcesand theenvironmentarealreadyunderpressureasa resultof rapidurbanisation,industrializationandeconomicdevelopment.Climatechangeisprojectedtoexacerbatethesepressures.Aconsiderablethreatisposedtopoorfarmersandruralcommunitiesasevenasmallincreaseinlocaltemperaturescouldleadtoreducedcropyieldsforthoselivingatlowerlatitudes,especiallyinseasonallydryandtropicalregions.Morefrequentandextremeweatherevents,suchasdroughtsandfloods,areexpectedtomakelocalcropproductionevenmoredifficult

Background

177SameasFootnote41.

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Rural Development through its schemes can contribute to improved natural resource conservation,increased efficiency of resource use, reduced negative environmental impacts, strengthened climateresilienceofcommunitiesandcontributiontoclimatechangemitigationthrough178:

• Investinginregeneratingnaturalresources;• Mobilizinganddevelopingthecapacitiesofcommunityinstitutionstoutilizenaturalresourcesin

asustainablemanner;and• Aggregating‘smallinitiatives’inseverallocationstoimprovenaturalcapitalonamacroscale.

Amajorrolethatpublicinvestmentplaysintheruraleconomyistostimulategrowthbyencouragingand“crowdingin”moreprivateinvestment.RuraldevelopmentschemeshavethepotentialtoplaythisroleinIndia.Greeningruraldevelopmentcanstimulatelocalgrowthbyprovidingopportunitiesforprivateinvestmentingreenbusinessessuchasrenewableenergygeneration,organicinputchainsandadvisoryservices,greenproduct supplychainsandproductionofenvironment-friendlyconstructionmaterials(fly-ash and rice husk ash cement, fly-ash and limestone bricks, filler slabs for roofs etc.). Ruraldevelopment schemes can help widely disseminate information on green technologies and give animpetustoenvironmentfriendlyinnovationsinagriculture,processing,housingandconstructionofruralroads.RuraldevelopmentschemessuchastheNRLMcouldinclude‘newstyle’interventionstoimprovetheproductivityandcompetitivenessofselected‘green’enterprises.179

There is currently a lack of climate vulnerability assessment of the rural sector in terms of how theincreased frequency of extreme weather events (floods, cyclones, hailstorms, extended periods ofdroughts)are likely toaffect rural infrastructureand livelihoods.These factorsarenotbuilt into thedesignandassessmentofDoRD’sprogrammaticinterventionseventhoughprogrammeslikeMGNREGShavein-builtdesignthatcanbeusedtodevelopclimateresilientplansforspecificgeographies(waterandsoilconservationworks, reforestation,waterharvestingetc.).Theseworkshavenotbeenwoventogether as climate adaptive plans or strategies based on local climate vulnerabilities. The need forincludingclimatechangeadaptationsinprogrammedesignstemfromtheneedforsustainableusageofnaturalresourcessuchaswater,soilandland;climateresilienceofproductionsystems,livelihoodsandhabitats;andstrengtheninglivelihoodssecurityandmakingpublicexpendituremoreeffective.

TheGovernmentofIndiaissuedtheNationalActionPlanonClimateChange(NAPCC)onJune30,2008.TheNAPCC is the framework for Union and State governments to address the challenges of climatechange.OneimportantunderlyingprincipleofNAPCCistoharnessdevelopmentagainstclimatechangethus protecting the poor and vulnerable sections of society through an inclusive and sustainabledevelopmentstrategy.TheNAPCCdefineseightcriticalareascalled“NationalMissions”:Solar,EnhancedEnergy Efficiency, Sustainable Habitat, Water, Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, 'Green India'(reforestation),SustainableAgriculture,andStrategicKnowledgeforClimateChange.In2009,thePrimeMinister's Council on Climate Change called upon the Indian states to prepare StateAction Plans onClimateChange(SAPCCs)consistentwiththestrategyoutlinedintheNationalActionPlanonClimateChange.

Somekeyfocusareasinclimatechangeadaptation,whichDoRDcanfocusonincludes:

• Vulnerabilityandriskassessments:Astructuredapproachtoclimatechangevulnerabilityandriskassessmentsprovidesascientificbasisfordecision-makingtoreducetheadverseimpactsofclimatechange.Theseassessmentsuseexpertcontributionsfromallrelevantstakeholdersandthusprovideasolidbasisfordecision-makingatpolicylevel.Furthermore,theyhelptobridge

178UNDP(2012),GreeningRuralDevelopmentinIndia.179RodrickD.(2004),IndustrialPolicyfortheTwentyFirstCentury.

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theexistinggapbetweenglobalclimatechangescenariosandlocalriskanalyses.Thisstructured,yetsimpleapproachtovulnerabilityandriskassessmentcanalsobeusedbyotherfederalstates.

• Adaptation measures: Carrying out adaptation measures helps increase the resilience ofcommunities to dealwith climate change. Evaluating and communicating the results of thesemeasuresenrichesoveralladaptationknowledge,whichleadstoreplicationatalargerscale.

• Climateproofingpublicprogrammes:Climateproofingpublicprogrammesensuresthattheirobjectives are achieved despite changing climate conditions. It also helps to identify newopportunities and further increase resilience at local level. Policyplannersneed to gauge thesustainabilityofpublicsectorprogrammesinthefaceofclimatechange.

• Financial instruments for adaptation: Financial instruments provide security and help tosafeguardlivelihoodsintimesofadverseconditionsexacerbatedthroughclimatechange.Ruralcommunitiesoftenhavelimitedawarenessofandaccesstofinancialproductsthatcouldhelptoreducetheimpactsclimatechangehasontheirlivelihoods.

• Informationandknowledgemanagement:Exchangeofinformationandknowledgerelatedtoadaptation increases awareness and enhances adaptive capacities at different levels. ThedisseminationofexistinginformationonandexperiencesinclimatechangeadaptationiskeyforpreparingforthefutureimpactsofclimatechangeandconvergewithotherMinistriessuchasMoEFCC.

• Humancapacitydevelopment:Buildingthecapacityoflocalmultipliersspreadsawarenessandknowledgeonadaptation.Thetrainingofgovernmentofficialsatmultiplelevelsenhancestheircapacities to integrate climate change adaptation into planning processes. Decision-makers,developmentplannersandpractitionersinIndiaareconfrontedwiththequestionofhowtodealproactively with the effects of climate change. Integrating climate change adaptation intoplanningandidentifyingappropriatemeasuresisnotaneasytask.

Takeaways

• Theimpactsofclimatechangearelikelytobedistributedunevenlyacrosstherural-urbangradient:Majorimpactsofclimatechangeinruralareaswillbefeltthroughchangesinthewatersupply,foodsecurityandagriculture.Thehumancostsinruralareaswillbehighbecauseofruralresidents’heavydependencefortheirlivelihoodsonnaturalresources,highruralpovertyratesandthelowconnectivityofruralareas.180

• Availabilityofcompleteinformationanddataisakeyforclimateadaptation:Adaptationshould build on the best available information about impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptationoptions. Improvingdataavailability, translating it intouser-friendly informationandchoosinginterventionsonthebasisofwhatcanbeknownarekeyactivities.Targetedinterventionsarepossible when fairly clear-cut information about impacts is available. Otherwise, theprecautionaryprinciple(e.g.avoidingbuildinginflood-proneareas,diversifyingincomesources)shouldapplyandno-regretoptions(e.g.combatingsoilerosion)shouldbethefocus.181Specifictechniqueslikeefficientirrigationorwatershedmanagementalreadycontributegreatlytotheadaptive capacity of regions. Building on an understanding of key climate change risks, suchtechniques can be improved, targeted or transferred to regions where they have not been

180ReportonTheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,2014181MinistryofEnvironmentandForests,GovernmentofIndia,andGiZ(2011),AdaptationtoClimateChangewithaFocusonRuralAreasandIndia

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previouslyemployed.Improvedknowledgeandtechnologies,suchasnewcropvarieties,maybefurtherspreadtopromoteadaptationtoclimatechange.

• Continuousstakeholderengagementandcommunicationisneeded:Adaptationmayrequirecomplexgovernanceprocesses.Newstakeholdershave tobe involved, as climate changewillrequire action by people who have not explicitly considered climate change in their pastdecisions.Communicationamongthedifferentthematiccommunitieswillhavetoimproveandstrategies in the various areas need to be efficiently coordinated and managed. Capacitydevelopmentiskeyinsuchacomplexanddynamicenvironment.

• Adaptive investments in all sectors can also reduce the climate-relatedpush factors ofmigration: Climate change and environmental factors are known to affect overall migrationpatternsinmyriadways.TheWorldBankhasprojectedthattheslow-onsetimpactsofclimatechange(throughwarminganddrought,risingsealevels,theincreasingintensityandfrequencyofnaturaldisastersandcompetitionovernaturalresources)couldactaspushfactorsofinternalmigrationforover143millionpeopleinSSA,SouthAsia,andLatinAmericaby2050.182

• MGNREGShasalotofpotentialforclimateadaptation:AvastmajorityoftheworksunderMGNREGS are linked to water, soil and land. The list of ‘permissible’ works provideenvironmental services such as conservation of water, groundwater recharge, reduced soilerosion,increasedsoilfertility,conservationofbiodiversity,reclamationofdegradedcropandgrazing lands, enhanced leafmanure, fuelwoodandnon-wood forestproducts supplyamongothers. A green focuswill enableMGNREGS to effectively deliver on its objective of creatingdurableassetsandstrengtheningthelivelihoodresourcebaseoftheruralpoor.Bythusensuringlivelihoods security, MGNREGS will increase labour absorption in natural resource-basedlivelihoodsanddecreasedemandfortheemploymentinpublicworks.LivelihoodssecurityfortheruralpoorwillbeensuredevenwhilethedemandforworkunderMGNREGSdeclines.ThiswilllimitoutlayunderMGNREGSinthefuture.

• NRLMandPMAY-Ghaveclimateadaptivecomponentswhichcanbeleveraged:UnderDAY-NRLM the guidelines for non-timber forest produce-based livelihoods under MKSP, identifyregenerationandsustainableharvestingofNTFPspeciesaskeyobjectives;similarly,promotionof organic and low-chemical agriculture and increased soil health and fertility to sustainagriculture-based livelihoods is an objective under the sustainable agriculture component ofMKSP.UnderPMAY-G,greenresultsincludeefficientuseofresources, includingwater,energyand construction material. Further, IAY can encourage greater use of renewable and locallyavailableconstructionmaterial,andreduceduseofwaterandenergy.

Wayforward

• Identify a key set of green outcomes that are feasible and have high impact; prepare GreenGuidelineswhichwill detail how to achieve these desired results. The hallmark of the GreenGuidelineswillbe(i)asetofnon-negotiableprinciplesandgoalsand(ii)flexibilitybeyondthenon-negotiablesothatpeopleandinstitutionsareencouragedtoadoptcreativeandinnovativeactivities.

• Form a network of support organizations by designating select civil society organizations,technical institutions and academic centres to facilitate the implementation of the GreenGuidelines.

182“Rigaud,Ketall(2018),Groundswell:PreparingforInternalClimateMigration,WorldBank.

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• Establish an Innovations Portal for greening rural development. This portal will encourageinnovative ideas, activities, technologies and processes adopted to promote and expand thegreeningactivities.

• SetupaGreenInnovationsFundtopromoteandincentivizethedevelopmentandextensionoftechnologiesandsocialprocessestoachievegreenoutcomes

• SetupadedicatedGreenCellwithintheMinistry forguidingthegreeningagendaand for theimplementationofGreenGuidelines inthecountry.TheGreenCellwilldevelopprocedurestoconvergeactionsandfundingforgreeningactivitiesthatcutacrossruraldevelopmentschemes.

• PrepareanannualGreenReportfortheDoRDsummarizingthemajorgreenachievementsandtheiroutcomesduringtheyear.Thisreportshoulddrawuponindependentevaluationofschemesforgreenoutcomes.

• ForMGNREGS,preparePerspectivePlan foreveryGramPanchayaton thebasisof landscape,watershedoraquiferbasedplanningandstrengthencapacitiesofGramPanchayatstodevelopgreen proposals and monitor green results: develop and utilize appropriate toolkits for thispurpose. Also, strengthen block level capacities to support implementing agencies to delivergreen results. IncentivizeGramPanchayats to achieve and surpass the threshold level on theMGNREGS green index; this incentive may be drawn from the budgetary provision foradministrativeexpenses.

• UnderNRLM, include as ‘essential’ outcome inMKSP guidelines, a result each on sustainablyharvested produce and sustainable agricultural practices (in addition to current one on soilhealth)forallinitiatives.Developprotocolsforsustainableharvestofnon-timberforestproduceand sustainable agriculture and livestockmanagement and facilitate their adoption by SHGs.Provideback-loaded‘laboursubsidy’toSHGsforadoptionofsustainablepracticestocompensateforlowerlabourproductivity.

• PMAY-Grequirespreparingregion-specificHandbooksofGreenBuildingDesignsincludinggreenconstructionmaterialsthatcoverthelifecycleofanIAYhouse.DistrictlevelBuildingResourceCentresshouldbesupportedtopromotegreentechnologiesanddesigns;linkfinancialsupporttoquantityandeffectivenessofgreenservicesprovided.Additionalsubsidytofamiliesbuildinghousingunitsthatusegreeninitiatives.

(v) RoleofTribal Sub-Plan (TSP)&ScheduledCasteSub-Plan componentof the scheme inmainstreamingofTribalandScheduledCastepopulation

Introduction

ScheduledCastes(SCs)andScheduledTribes(STs)accountforsignificantproportionsofourpopulation.As per the Census 2011, SCs account for18.5 percent of our population (having increased from17.9percentin2001).Likewise,CensusSTsaccountedfor11.3percentofourpopulationaspertheCensus2011(havingincreasedfrom10.4percentin2001).However,SCsandSTshavebeenamongthemostdisadvantagedsectionsofoursocietyduetotheirsocio-economicexploitationandisolationoveralongperiodoftime.Thesepopulationgroupshavebeenobservedtolagbehindtherestofthepopulationintermsofbothhumandevelopmentaswellaseconomicindicators.

Analysis of the prevalence of poverty in rural areas shows that poverty rates among SC and STpopulationshavefallenbetween1983-94and2011-12.However,ratesofpovertyamongthesevulnerablepopulationshaveremainedconsistentlyhigherthanthepovertyestimatesamongthegeneralpopulation,asshowninthefigurebelow.

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Figure7:PovertyamongSCs,STsandgeneralpopulationinruralareas(inpercent)183

Source:GovernmentofIndia

State-widevariationsinSCandSTpopulationbelowthepovertylinearepresentedinthefiguresbelow.

Figure8:State-wisePercentageofSCPopulationbelowPovertyLine,2004-2005

183 Panagariya, A., &More, V. (2014). Poverty by social, religious and economic groups in India and its largest states.Indian Growth andDevelopmentReview.

58.1

48.1

36.2

52.7

43.5

31.5

63.8

52.2

45.9

61.9

47.145.345.6

37.1

27.1

41.833.8

25.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1983-84 1993-94 1999-2000 2004-05(Revised

Estimates)

2009-10 2011-12

SC ST Total

5.214.615.4

19.621.621.8

26.827.728.729.5

31.231.832.7

36.842.8

44.844.8

50.254.2

57.964

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Jammu & KasmirPunjab

Andhra PradeshHimachal Pradesh

KeralaGujarat

HaryanaAssam

RajasthanWest BengalTamil NaduKarnataka

ChhattisgarhAll India

Madhya PradeshMaharashtra

Uttar PradeshOrissa

UttarakhandJharkhand

Bihar

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Source:MinistryofSocialJusticeandEmpowerment

Figure9:PercentageofSTPopulationbelowPovertyLineduring2011-12(TendulkarMethodology)

Source:MinistryofTribalAffairs

Aroundthe1970s,itwasobservedthatdespitededicatedeffortsfortheupliftofSCsandSTsovertheyears,theycontinuedtofacemultipledevelopmentaldeficits,whichcouldclearlynotbeaddressedthroughthegeneralwelfareschemesandprogrammesthathadbeeninplace.ThebenefitsfromthesegeneralschemeswerereportedtonotpercolatetotheSCsandSTs,andhardlyimprovedthesocio-economicstatusofthesevulnerablegroups.Inordertoensuredirectpolicy-drivenbenefitsforSCsandSTsthroughspecificinterventions,thePlanningCommissionduringthe1970sintroducedplanstrategies.

ThestrategyofTribalSubPlan(TSP)wasputinforcesince1974,toensureadequateflowofplanresourcesforthedevelopmentofScheduledTribes,whilethestrategyofScheduledCastesSubPlan(SCSP)(earlierknownastheSpecialComponentPlanforScheduledCastes)hasbeeninforcesince1979-80,toensureproportionateflowofplanresourcesforthedevelopmentofScheduledCastes.

Theallocationunderthesecomponentsisprovidedforthepurposeofcreatingproductiveassets,humanresourcedevelopmentof theScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes throughadequateeducationandhealth services, and to provide physical and financial security against all types of exploitation andoppression.184Inessence,theSCSPandTSPareintendedtobridgethegapbetweentheSCsandSTsandthegeneralpopulationwithrespecttoallsocio-economicdevelopmentindicatorsinatime-boundmanner.

AsapartoftheBudgetCircular2020-21-SCSPwastobedepictedasScheduledCastesComponent(SCC);TSPwas to bedepicted as ScheduledTribeComponent (STC.); The lump sumgrant under thename'ScheduledCastesSubPlan'underSocialJusticeandEmpowermentDemandwasrenamedas"Scheduled

184GovernmentofIndia.(2016).ExpenditureBudgetVol.I,2015-2016.

9.511.9

16.324.1

2730.8

33.436.536.8

4141.4

45.350.1

51.652.6

55.359.3

61.663.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Himachal PradeshUttarakhand

Jammu & KasmirAndhra Pradesh

Uttar PradeshKarnataka

AssamGujarat

Tamil NaduKerala

Rajasthan* All India

West Bengal Jharkhand

ChhattisgarhMadhya Pradesh

BiharMaharashtra

Orissa

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CastesSub-Scheme";andthelumpsumgrantunderthename'SpecialCentralassistancetoTribalSubPlan'underTribalAffairswasrenamedas"SpecialCentralassistancetoTribalSub-Scheme".

Background

InthecontextofTSPandSCSP,therearethreetypesofprogrammesthatareoperationalwithintheruraldevelopmentspace:

• First,aretheschemeswhichareself-targetingastheyarebasedondemand,liketheMGNREGS,oronspecificeligibilitycriteriathatdoesnotincludesocialgroupasoneoftheparameter,liketheNSAP,andhencedonothaveallocatedfundsunderTSPofSCSP.

• Second,aretheschemesthatarenotbeneficiaryoriented(suchasPMGSY)andthereforedonothaveseparateallocationfromeitherofthetwosourcesoffunds.

• Third, are the schemes that are beneficiary oriented and have specific provisions for coverage ofbeneficiariesbelongingtotheSCsandSTs.ItisthiscategoryofschemesthatensuremainstreamingofSTandSCpopulationwithintheruraldevelopmentsector.Broadly,undertheseschemesfundscanbe utilized by the State Government/UTs Administration for the following activities: incomegeneration,skilldevelopment,infrastructuredevelopmentandmonitoringandevaluation.

• TheseschemesincludePMAY-G(60percentbeneficiariesaremandatedtobeSC/ST)andDAY-NRLM(50 percent of women beneficiary are mandated to be SC/ST). These programmes have fundsallocatedundertheTSPandSCSP.States/UTsarerequiredtoformulateandimplementtheseplansaspartoftheirAnnualPlansbyearmarkingresources.

TheprogressmadewithrespecttoSCSPandTSPunderDoRDisdetailedintheensuingparagraphs:

• TrendsinSCSPallocations:SCSPallocationsrosebetweenFY2015-16toFY2017-18buthavefallenthereafter.AnalysisofDoRD’sallocations for theSCSP reveals thehighestallocationofRs.8518.7crore(RE)wasmadeinFY2017-18.Sincethen,whiletheallocationshavedeclined,theystillremainhigherthantheamountsearmarkedinFY2015-16andFY2016-17asshowninthetablebelow.185

• TrendsinTSPallocations:TSPallocationshaverisensteadilyfromFY2015-16andFY2019-20.ItisobservedthatTSPallocationshaverisensharplybetweenFY2015-16andFY2016-17.Further,theTSPallocationsinFY2017-18,2018-19andFY2019-20aremorethandoubletheallocationsinFY2015-16.186

Table7:DoRD'sallocationsunderSCSPandTSP187

ScheduledCasteSub-Plan(SCSP)inRs.croresYear BE RE

2015-16 3865.36 6719.06

2016-17 5431.68 5431.68

2017-18 8501.01 8518.7

2018-19 7637.8 7241.8

2019-20 6525.01 5921.49

TribalSub-Plan(TSP)inRs.crores

185MinistryofFinance,GovernmentofIndia.ExpenditureBudgets.Retrievedfromwww.indiabudget.gov.in.Accessedon23May2020.186SameasFootnote202.187SameasFootnote202.

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ScheduledCasteSub-Plan(SCSP)inRs.croresYear BE RE

2015-16 2714.37 2786.18

2016-17 4269.49 4269.49

2017-18 5931.69 5937.83

2018-19 5741.93 5443.79

2019-20 5984.12 5882.27

• ProvisionsunderDAY-NRLM:DoRDhasbeenear-markingfundsunderSCSPandTSPunderDAY-NRLMfromFY2011-12onwards.Underthescheme,theStateMissionshavebeenadvisedtoprioritizeIntegratedActionPlans(IAP)Districts(whichalsohaveahighSTpopulation)forDAY-NRLMintensiveactivities.TheSocialManagementFramework(SMF)forDAY-NRLMhasbeenpreparedanddisclosed.Every State has beendirected to prepare a social inclusionplan to guide their efforts tomobilisevulnerable groups including theSCs andSTs into SHGsandpromote their financial andeconomicinclusiontoensurebetterlivelihoods.188

Under DDU-GKY, the guidelinesmandate ear-marking of 50 percent fund allocation for SC and STpopulationsatthenationallevels.IntheFY2019-20,atotalof42,590SCcandidatesand28,354STcandidateshavebeentrainedunderDDU-GKYprojects.

• ProvisionsunderPMAY-G:UnderPMAY-G,60percent of the target allocated to each State/UT isearmarkedforSC/STssubjecttoavailabilityofeligiblePMAY-GbeneficiariesinthePWL.Withintheearmarked funds, the proportion of SC/ST is to be decided from time to time by the respectiveStates/UTs.AsofNovember2020,outofthetotal1,73,96,310housessanctioned,37,79,090houses(22percent)weresanctionedforSCsand40,24,294houses(23percent)weresanctionedforSTs189.

Thereareparticularaspectsof implementationof schemesunderDoRDregardingSCandSTgroups.Officials across the country have largelymentioned some of theways inwhich they prioritise thesegroupsinawarenessgenerationeffortsandidentificationofbeneficiaries:

“Wetargetthembecausetheyaretheweakersectionandthevulnerablegroups,andtheyarenotthataware.Soourmainobjectiveisthattheadministrationgoestothesepeopledirectlyandmakethemawareandgivethemthebenefits,sowearedoingagoodjobinthisfieldalso”–DistrictMagistrate,Jharkhand

“The schemes inwhichwe includedonothave individualbenefits.Oursareall communityassets. So inharijangroups,SCandSTcolonies,inOBCcoloniesallofusareworking”-DistrictMagistrate,AndhraPradesh

“Therewasapushtowardsbuildinginfrastructureforthemarginalisedsectionsofthesociety.WehavesomethingcalledSC/STHabitationDevelopmentScheme.AndevenwithinMGNREGS,wegiveapushtowardspredominantlySChabitationswhereinfrastructureisimproved.SCCroadsusedtobelaidorapaverblockroadusedtobelaid.Wegivepreferencetothebackwardareas"-DRDA,TamilNadu

Takeaways

• TrendsinbudgetallocationrevealagrowingprioritizationofSCandSTpopulations:BudgetaryallocationsforTSPhaveshownasteadyupwardtrendfromFY2015-16toFY2019-20.Likewise,SCSPallocationshavealsoshownanincreasingtrendtillFY2017-18whichrecordedthehighestallocation.Intheyearsafterthat,whiletheallocationshavefallen,theamountsarestillatahigherlevelthan

188SameasFootnote161.189PMAY-GDashboard,https://rhreporting.nic.in/netiay/SocialProgressReport/Categorywisehousescompletedreport.aspx

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betweenFY2015-16andFY2016-17190.Further,therehavenotbeenverysubstantialreductionsfromtheRE toBE stage. This implies agrowing and focused prioritization of the interests of SC and STpopulations.Thegrowingproportionof ear-marked fundsat the sectoral level revealsacontinuedrecognition of the specific vulnerabilities of SC and ST populations, and a concerted policy focus toaddressthesame.

• Funds underDoRD’s SCSP and TSP have recorded fairly high rates of utilization:While theutilizationofSCSP fundsunderDoRDstoodat54percent inFY2015-16,utilization in subsequentfinancialyearswasnearcomplete.Infact,utilizationinFY2016-17stoodat104percent,asshowninthefigurebelow.Likewise,utilizationofDoRD’sTSPfundsstoodat100,100,101,99percentinFY2015-16,2016-17,2017-18and2018-19respectively.191

Figure10:UtilisationofDoRD'sSCSPfunds192

• ThesectoralinterventionstargetingSCandSTcommunitiesensurespecificdesignfeaturestoensuretheirinclusion:UnderDAY-NRLM,theSMFfocussesonsocialinclusion,socialaccountabilityandsocialsafeguardsparticularlyfocusingonmarginalandvulnerablegroupsincludingtheSCs,STsandParticularlyVulnerableTribalgroups(PVTGs).193Further,asperthesocialinclusionprotocol,theStateMissionsneedtoinitiatesocialmobilizationworkwithinahamletdominatedbySC/STandothervulnerablehouseholdsonpriority.Further,theStateMissionsneedtoprioritizepositioningSCandSTintheSHG,VOandCLFleadershiproles.Thisstrategyhassuccessfullyprovidedanedgetothesecommunitiesinacquiringleadershiprolesinthefunctioningofcommunityinstitutions.194

• However,implementationofsectoralinterventionsthattargetSC/STpopulationsshowmixedresults: The DDU-GKY guidelines prescribe that 50 percent of the fund allocation for SC and STpopulations at thenational levels. In linewith this, asofDecember2019,48percentof candidatestrainedunderDDU-GKYbelongedtoSCandSTcommunities(29percentwereSCsand19percentwereSTs).

190SameasFootnote202.191SameasFootnote202.192SameasFootnote202.193SameasFootnote161.194SameasFootnote161.

54%

104%99% 98%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19

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AnalysisofthePMAY-GhousesrevealedthatasofDecember2019,24percenthouseswereassignedtoSChouseholdswhile25percentwereassignedtoSThouseholds.Thus,approximately49percenthouseswereassignedtoSCandSThouseholds,whichfallsbelowthemandateof60percentallocationtoSCandSThouseholds. Thisrevealssignificantgapsintheeffectivenessofthescheme’spolicytoensureinclusionforthesevulnerablegroups.

• Pathways for community level decision-making andmonitoring of SCSP and TSP outcomesshouldbeexplored:TheDoRDAnnualReportsprovideinformationonthewaysinSCSPandTSPfundsarebeingallocatedandused.However,apartfromthis-thefundutilizationandsocio-economiccategory specific outcomes are not reported at more frequent intervals. Further, the role ofcommunities-inparticularSCandSThouseholds–inmakingdecisionsinfundusageandmonitoringitsgroundlevelutilizationremainsunexplored.

WayForward

• ThesectorshouldcontinueitstrendofbudgetallocationsundertheSCSPandTSP:Theyear-on-yearincreaseinSCSPandTSPallocationsarepromising.ItissuggestedthatallocationsunderSCSPandTSPatasectorallevelcontinuetobeinlinewithpasttrends,withexpansionsinbudgetallocationandhighutilizationrates.Further,thesectorshouldlooktoconstantlyreviewthestatusofSCsandSTsinruralareas,andreviseallocations,accordingly,therebyensuringthatthefinancialsupportareindexedtopresentlevelsofvulnerabilities.Further,thesectorcanalsolooktopromoteinnovativeprojectsthatdrawuponinstitutionalfinancetosupplementplanallocationsmaybedrawnup.

• Concerted efforts are required to ensure greater coverage of SC and ST populations: ThecoverageofSCandSThouseholdsremainslowerthanthemandatedproportionsunderskilltraininginDAY-NRLM and house allotment in DDU-GKY. Concerted efforts at various levels of schemeimplementationarerequiredtoensurethatthereisadequaterepresentationofSCandSThouseholdsintheRDschemes.

Atonelevel,pathwaysfortheflowofschemeinformation–benefitsandentitlements–tovulnerablehouseholdsshouldbestrengthened.Ground-levelawarenesscampaignstargetingSCandSTgroupsshould be prioritized to encourage greater participation in RD schemes. At another level, it isnecessarytofacilitateanenablingeco-systemforSCandSThouseholds,toempowerthemtobenefitfrom RD schemes. To this end, the sensitization of ground-level implementers to the specificvulnerabilitiesofSCandSThouseholdsisneeded.

• Community-ledmonitoringof fundutilizationand implementationshouldbeexplored: It isimportanttoensurethatcommunityvoiceisreflected intheuseofSCSPandTSPfundsintheruraldevelopmentsector.ExpandingthemandateofsocialauditstoincludethetrackingtheutilizationofTSPandSCSPfundscanbeconsidered.Further,theplanningprocessforthesefundswouldbenefitfromthe involvementof thecommunity in tribaldominantblocks.It isrecommendedthat inputs/suggestions of the local ST/SC community should be sought before finalising the plan forimplementationofanyprogrammeunderthesefunds.

(vi) UseofIT/Technologyindrivingefficiency

Introduction

Technologyhasplayedakeyroleinthedevelopmentofruralareas.Technology'smajorfunctioninruraldevelopmenthasbeenthree-fold,firstly,toprovideindividualswithinformationofanykind;secondly,toprovideonlineservicessuchasDBT;andthirdlytosupportmoresustainableinfrastructuredevelopment.

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Combining Information Technology in Rural Development can not only speed up the developmentprocess,butitcanalsofillthegapsbetweentheeducationallyandtechnologicallybackwardandforwardsectionsofthesociety.InthecontextofIndia’sexperienceof‘rurbanisation’,technologyholdsthepotentialtobridgethedevelopmentaldifferencesbetweenruralandurbanspaces.Further,ruraleconomiesareripeforinnovationsthatcandeliverbetterresultsforbothpeopleandtheenvironment.Scienceandtechnologyarethetoolstofuelsuchinnovationsandacceleratetransformationalchangeinruralareas.

The use of IT is closely linked to enhancing efficiency in sectoral interventions in the RD sector. Suchefficiency is derived by economizing on resource use in programme operations as well as inmarkettransactions. Further, IT providespathways for the speedy delivery of information across the country.Informationthatwouldotherwisebeconveyedthroughface-to-facecontact,post,courier,printdelivery,telegraphor telephonemay insteadbecommunicated indigitalelectronic formvia the Internet,thusaidingsmoothdecisionmakingandstreamlinedschemeimplementation.

Background

SinceIndependence,Indiahasbeenwitnessingarevolutionintechnologyandovertheyears,technologyhasplayedanintegralrole inthedevelopmentalprocess.GovernmentshaveincorporatedtechnologybeginningwiththeuseoftheradiothroughRadioforRuralDevelopment,popularlyknownas“RadioFarmForum”.TheexperimentwascarriedoutfromFebruarytoApril1956infivedistrictsofMaharashtrabyAllIndiaRadio(AIR).Rurallistenergroupswereorganized,whowouldlistentoradiobroadcaststwiceaweekforhalfanhour.Thegroupthenstayedtogetherfordiscussionofwhattheyhadheard.Impressiveknowledgegainsasaresultofradiolisteningwerereportedacrossilliteratesandliterates,agriculturistsandnon-agriculturists,villageleadersandothers195.

SatelliteInstructionalTelevisionExperiment(SITE)wasanothertechno-socialcommunicationexperimentineducationandruraldevelopment.Theone-yearexperiment(August1975-July1976)aimedtoprovidedirectbroadcastingof instructionalandeducational television in2400villages in the statesofAndhraPradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan. Rural adults viewed televisionprogrammesonimprovedagriculturalpractices,healthandfamilyplanning.

Theafore-mentionedinterventionsfocussedongeneratingawarenessandaugmentingknowledgegainsthrough the use of technology. However, in recent decades, technology has beenused intensively forgovernance, citizen-government interface, datamanagement andmonitoring.Computerization of landrecordshavebeenagreatsuccessintheapplicationofICTinruraldevelopment.Landrecordsareofgreat importance tocontemporarysocio-economic imperativesand theirrevisionandupdationarenecessaryforcapturingthechangesinruralsocialdynamics.Keepingthisinmind,theGovernmentofIndiainitiatedtheCentrallySponsoredScheme:ComputerizationofLandRecords(CoLR)in1988-89withmain objective of creating a land management information system. Further, in January 2004, theDepartmentof InformationTechnology (DoIT)wasestablished togivean impetus to theexpansionoftechnologyforthepurposeofthenation’sgrowth.

DoRDismakingcontinuedeffortstoprovideequitablegrowthopportunitiestoruralcommunitiesbythewaysofempowermentandupgradingtheinformationinfrastructureinruralandremoteareas.Overthelast decade, DoRD hasmade significant strides in honing its ICT infrastructure, encompassing robusttechnology-driveninterventionsandmodernmethodsininformationtransferanddecisionmaking.

195UKEssays.(November2018).ExaminingTheChangingMediaSceneInIndiaMediaEssay.Retrievedfromhttps://www.ukessays.com/essays/media/examining-the-changing-media-scene-in-india-media-essay.php?vref=1

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TheensuingparagraphsdetailthevariousstagesofICTdevelopmentundertakenbyDoRD:

• Introduction of ICT: With the advent of government websites in the late 1990s the term e-governancecameintoexistence.Thesewebsitesprovidedbothorganizationsandcitizenswithmoreconvenientaccesstothegovernment’svariousservicesandinformation.TodayvariousinitiativeshavebeentakenbyDoRDinIndiatostrengthentheICTinfrastructureandreadilyprovideinformationaswellaseasyaccessofvariousruraldevelopmentschemestoallthecitizensinruralIndia.

- Mobilephoneservice:Theadventofmobilephoneshasbroughtaboutatremendouschangeinagriculturesectorresultingintodramaticimprovementintheefficiencyandprofitabilityofthe agriculture industry. The spread of mobile phone service allow farmer to land theirproduct timelyanddirectly to themarketwherewholesalersare ready topurchase themwithoutthepresenceofmiddlemen.

- Radioandtelevision:WhileIndiahasalonghistoryofusingradiocommunicationtospreadawareness on key developmental issues, the television has been another input incommunicationtechnology.Radioandtelevisionhavebeenusedtodisseminateinformationonvariousinnovationsinagriculturaltechnology,acrossfarmers,entrepreneurs,extensionworkersandotherstakeholders.

- Internet:TheInternetisalsoanemergingtoolwiththepotentialtocontributeinagriculturesectorandinruraldevelopment.TheInternetenablesruralcommunitiesstayuptodateandtoreceiveinformationaboutthemarketandothernecessaryinformationintheindustry.TheInternetalsofacilitatesdialogueamongcommunitiesandhelptoshareinformationbetweengovernmentplanners,developmentagencies,researchers,andtechnicalexperts.

• Developmentofwebapplications:WebapplicationsandportalshavecometobedevelopedforvariousschemesandDepartmentsoftheMinistry.Theprimarymotiveguidingthisstagehasbeentheneedtocaptureinformationandmonitorprogress.Presently,MISportalshavebeendevelopedfor each of the schemes in the RD sector. The dashboards of these portals provide real-timeinformation,geo-taggedphotographsanddetailsonassets,createdinthepublicdomain.

Box7:SchemespecificwebapplicationsdevelopedunderDoRD

SchemespecificwebapplicationsdevelopedunderDoRD196

• NREGAsoftisalocallanguageenabledworkflowbasede-Governancesystemtocapturealltheactivitiesunder MGNREGS at Center/State/District/Block and Panchayat level. It is a transaction based system

integratedwith thePFMS,withunique identification of family,workers andwork. Further,NREGASoft

providesgeo-taggedshelfoftheworks/projectswithcostestimationthroughSECUREsoftware.

• Awaassoft is awebbased application forCentral and State housing schemes such asPMAYGand IAY.AwaassoftensuresSECCbasedcreationandverificationofPWL.ThethrustofAwaassoftisonevidence

basedmonitoringandconstructionlinkedDBTpayments.Thewebapplicationhasprovisionsforrecording

geo-taggedhouseswithphotosanddetailsontheuniqueidentificationofbeneficiaryandhouse.

• TheNSAPapplicationismeantforpensiondisbursementandbeneficiarymanagementforWidow,OldAgeandDisabilitypension.TheNSAPapplicationhasenabledAadharbasedpaymentsand facilitates claim

settlement under NFBS. The web application essentially provides a platform for disbursement for

Centre/Statepensionschemes.

196InformationprovidedbyITDivision,DoRD.

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• TheDAY-NRLMapplicationisawebbasedapplicationformanagingactivitiesrelatedtoSelfHelpGroups

inruralareas.TheNRLMe-GovapplicationisanendtoendworkflowfromSHGregistrationtotrackingfunddisbursementstoCommunitybasedorganisations.

• Under PMGSY, anOnline Management, Monitoring and Accounting System(OMMAS) has beendeveloped to identify targets and monitor progress of PMGSY Rural Roads. It has one of the biggest

databasesinIndia.Thesystemmanagesandmonitorsallthephasesofroaddevelopmentrightfromits

proposalmodetoroadcompletion.

• TheservicedeliveryplatformforRURBAN(RurbanSoft) iscreatedtomonitortheprogressforvariousactionplans.TheapplicationallowsonetocaptureandtrackapprovalofIntegratedClusterActionPlan

(ICAP),digitizeanduploadDetailedProjectReport(DPR),digitizepaymentsandfundmanagementunder

thescheme,ensureprogressreportingforworksandgeotaggingofworks/subworks.

TheseMIS portals createdatabases of basic records, facilitate the issue of copies, reduceworkload byeliminatingthedrudgeryofpaperworkandminimizepossibilitiesofdatamanipulation.Further,thelocallanguageenabledworkflowbasede-governancesystemscaptureallactivitiesatCentre/State/District/BlockandPanchayatlevel.

• Developmentofmobileapplications:VariouscitizencentricmobileappssuchasGramSamvaad,Meri Sadak, Awaas App, GeoMGNREGA and JANMANREGA (an asset tracking and feedbackapplicationforMGNREGSassets)havebeendeveloped,withtheaimtoprovidecitizenswithdirectaccesstoinformation,therebyenhancingaccountability.RuralICTapplicationsattempttooffertheservicesofgovernmentagencies(likeDistrictadministration,cooperativeunion,andStateandCentralDepartments)tothecitizensattheirvillagedoorsteps.TheseapplicationsutilizetheICTinofferingimprovedandaffordableconnectivityandprocessingsolutions.

DoRD’sexperienceofimplementingtheGramSamvaadapplicationprovestobeabestpracticeandprovidesvitallessonsinleveragingtechnologyincitizenengagement.

Box8:CaseStudyonGramSamvaadApp

“TherealessenceofdemocracyisJanBhagidari197”

PrimeMinisterofIndia,ShriNarendraModi

Development journey of a villagemust proceedwith public participation, andhence it is important to have

dialogue between the government and people. Like the guidelines on policy formulationmove from top to

bottom,correctinformationonpolicyimplementationandleakagesthereinshouldmovefrombottomtotop.If

thechannelofcommunicationisrightinplacethenplans,policiesandbudgetallocationcanbetargetedatright

place.Inlinewiththesethoughts,theGovernmentofIndiaisundertakingtheenormoustaskofmakingpublic

aware and interactingwith them to understand their needs. One popular route of for achieving this task is

throughuseofmobileapplicationtechnology.

“GramSamvaad”isacitizen-centricmobileapplicationdevelopedbyDoRDtoprovideasingle-windowaccessto

Gram Panchayat-wise information on objectives of the scheme, key features, resources available, physical

progress,beneficiarylistsandothercitizen-relevantinformationunderallruraldevelopmentschemesandthe

grantsunder14thFinanceCommission.Theclaimsoflocalgovernmentscanbeverifiedduring‘GramSabhas’

throughthispubliclyavailableinformation.Thisway,thedisseminationofinformationthroughthisapplication

servesasatoolforempowermentofruralmassesbyintroducinggreatertransparencyandaccountabilityatall

levelsofGovernment.

197TranslatedinEnglishlanguageasPeople’sparticipation.

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UserInterfaceofGramSamvadApp

TheprogrammesforwhichdataiscurrentlyavailableincludeMGNREGS,PMAY-G,DAY-NRLM,PMGSY,NSAP,

DDUGKY,SPMRMand14thFinanceCommission.Thisdataprovidescrucialinputsforthe‘SituationAnalysis’

phaseofpreparationofGPDP,andthushelpsinamoreinformeddecisionmakingatGramPanchayatlevel.The

tentative‘resourceenvelope’foraGPcanalsobedeterminedbasistheinformationavailablein‘GramSamvaad’.

Besidesbeingcitizen-centric,theapplicationisalsohelpfultoseeprogressundertheschemes,asitgivesthem

aquickviewasandwhenneeded,thusenablingquickandeffectivemonitoring.

The application is currently available in English, Hindi and Telugu. Other regional languages are also being

includedinaphasedmanner.Theapplicationmakesuseofamobilephone’sGPStofetchthecurrentcoordinates

andautomaticallyprovideinformationofthatlocation.Toovercomethechallengeofpoorinternetconnectivity

invillages,italsoworksinofflinemode.Withover5,00,000plusinstallationsonGoogleplaystoretheapplication

isgainingpopularityamongstpeoplelivinginruralIndia198.

Likewise,schemespecificapplicationshavealsobeendeveloped.Forinstance,theKaushalPanjee(underDDU-GKY)isabilingualapplicationtofacilitateself-registrationforDDUGKY/RSETItraining.Similarly,Janmanrega (underMGNREGS) andMeri Sadak (under PMGSY) aremulti-lingual applicationswhichensurecitizenfeedbackandviewingofinfrastructuredeveloped.

Figure11:Schemespecificcitizencentricapps

Source:ITDivision,DoRD

Inparticular, theMeri Sadakapplicationprovideskey insightson technologydriven interventions togarnercitizenfeedbackandmonitoringofruralinfrastructure.

198Retrievedfromhttps://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.nic.gramsamvaad&hl=en_IN.Accessedon26/5/2020.

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Box9:CaseStudyonMeriSadakApp

Infrastructurefacilitiesinruralareashasbeenoneofthepushfactorsformigratingfromruralareas.DoRDhas

undertaken consolidated steps through its schemes to ensure availability of infrastructure facilities within

villages.ProvidingroadstohabitationlivinginruralareasisonesuchinitiativeandisfulfilledthroughPMGSY.

Understanding that initiating a schemewithout feedback system creates loopholes in implementation,Meri

SadakAppwaslaunchedbyDoRD.Introductionofthiscitizenfeedbackmobilebasedapplicationhaspavedthe

wayforpromotingself-sustainableruralroadsassetmanagementandbettercontractmanagementandthefive

yeardefectliabilityperiod.

Ensuringeffectivecontractmanagementofruralassetsbyinvolvingandempoweringcommunityisthemost

significantlessonfromPMGSYexperience.Citizenengagementinmonitoringoftheseroadshasledtoamore

systematicmaintenanceof roadsaswell asqualityassuranceduring constructionandmaintenanceof these

roads. The five-year Defect Liability Period (DLP) under the contract makes the contractor responsible for

maintainingtheconstructedroadinaserviceableconditionfor5yearspostconstruction.

Theapplicationhasfollowinginnovativefeatures:

REPORTINGCHANNEL:Takepictures,tagitsGPSlocationandpostdetailsofPMGSYprojectsabout

whichcitizenisaggrieved.

TRACKSTATUS:Postsubmission,onecantracktheprogressofcomplaintthroughtheredressal

mechanism.

INTERIMRESPONSE:StateQualityCoordinators(SQCs)provideinterimfeedbackpending

resolution.

Withinayearofitslaunchtheapplicationreceivedmorethan1lakhdownloadsfromGoogleplaystoreandhas

hadmorethan5,00,000downloadsin3years199.

Otherserviceenhancementappsarepresentedinthefigurebelow:

Figure12:ServiceenhancementappsunderDoRD


199WorldBank.(2019).CitizenMonitoringofRuralRoadsunderPMGSY.

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Goingforward,learningsshouldalsobeincorporatedfromotherprogrammessuchasDeenDayalUpadhyayGramJyotiYojana.

Box10:CaseStudyonGarvApp

• DirectBenefitTransfer(DBT):Totransferbenefitstotargetedbeneficiaries,AadhaarbasedDBThasbeenadoptedasasectoralpolicy.TheJAMtrinity(JanDhan-Aadhaar-Mobile)hasbeenusedtotransfercashdirectly totheAadhaar linkedbankaccountsofbeneficiariesunderNSAP,PMAY-G,MGNREGSandDAY-NRLM.Further,theprocesshasbeenstreamlinedbylinkingthedataandtransferofthesectortotheDBTBharatPortal.Notably,thefigurebelowshowstheDBTprogressunderNSAP(throughCentralandStatedisbursement).Asisevident,themajorityofStatesandUTsinIndiaareemployingDBTforNSAPdisbursement.

Figure13:DBTdisbursementstatusunderNSAP-Statewise

The Garv App is a complete project monitoring mechanism for Government of India’s flagship program “Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gram Jyoti Yojana”. It is unique example of e-Governance as it enables participation of general public in monitoring a government program and makes the administration transparent and accountable to accomplish the target in given timeframe. With such a focused approach, the UE mission has achieved electrification of 7,108 villages during year 2015-16 against the set target electrification of 5,686 villages. The transparency provided by the application has increased public participation through social media which in turn has increased accountability. One example is of village Khajuan of Bihar. A resident of village, Sh. Sachidanand took up a task to expedite electrification in his village and facilitated resolution of issue of Right of Way being faced by the executing agency.

Source: National Conference on e-governance, e-Governance Division, Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG). (n.d.). GARV application- initiative under UE Mission- A Project Monitoring mechanism to monitor milestone based progress. https://nceg.gov.in/sites/default/files/GARV.pdf

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Byutilizing technology, transfersareefficientlymade therebyreducing the timeandcosts incurred inphysicaldistribution.Thiswasalsocorroboratedbyschemeimplementers.

Withthehelpoftechnology,thebeneficiary’smoneyisgoingdirectlytotheiraccount;alsothereislessnumberofcasesofmiddleman.Thebeneficiarygetstheirmoneydirectlyandtheyinvestinhousingaccordingly.SoAwaasSoftisbestintechnology(DistrictLevelKII,Jharkhand)

Further the real-time updation of data helps to improve the pace of interventions, while ensuringtransparency in sectoral interventions. J-PAL evidence on rural development from the finance andgovernancesectorsshowedrelevantimpactsoftheuseoftechnologyingovernmentpayments.

Box11:CaseStudyonUsingTechnologytoImproveGovernmentPayments

UsingTechnologytoImproveGovernmentPayments

Biometrically authenticated payment systems can reduce corruption and substantially improve the delivery

governmentpayments.However,itisimportanttohavevisibilityoverbeneficiaryexperienceanddesignreforms

keepinginmindlastmiledeliverychallenges.

● InarandomizedevaluationofabiometricpaymentssysteminAndhraPradesh,thetechnologyreform

oflinkingpaymentstobiometricsmartcardsincreasedthepaymentsthatbeneficiariesreceivedwithout

decreasingprogrammeexpenditure,showingareductioninleakage.

● An organizational reformwhere payment logistics were contracted to private banks and customer

serviceproviders(CSP)ineachvillagereduceddelaysandunpredictabilityinpayments.Thepresence

ofCSPsensuredeaseofaccesstopayments.

● Further,theGovernmentofAndhraPradeshdidnotmakethebiometrictechnologymandatory,sothat

beneficiarieswhocouldnotenrollcouldstillreceivepayments.Gradualimplementationandincentives

for implementerscanalignkeystakeholder interestsandmitigatethechallengesofpaymentsystem

reforms.

Providingmonitoring information inanaccessible andactionable format togovernmentofficials can reduce

paymentdelaysandimproveimplementationofsocialprogrammes.

● InastudyinthecontextofMGNREGS,governmentofficialsweretrainedtousePayDash,amobile-based

monitoringplatform,whichgeneratedreal time informationonpaymentdelays linkedtoemployees

responsibleforeachadministrativestep.Thestudyfoundthatprovidingeasilyaccessiblemonitoring

datatoofficialswhoareinapositiontoactonitsignificantlyreducedwagepaymentdelaysinareas

withworsebaselineperformance.

● InastudyinthecontextoftheRythuBandhuSchemeinTelangana,officialsresponsiblefordistribution

ofcheckswereinformedofaphone-basedmonitoringsystemwhichsurveyedbeneficiariesviaphone

and generated report cards on the officials’ performance. The knowledge of a monitoring system

improvedcheckencashmentratesandon-timedeliveryofchecks.

Sources:

Muralidharan, K, Niehaus, P., Sukhtankar, S. (2019). General Equilibrium Effects of (Improving) Public

EmploymentPrograms:ExperimentalEvidencefromIndia.WorkingPaper.

Muralidharan,K,Niehaus,P.,Sukhtankar,S.(2019).BuildingStateCapacity:EvidencefromBiometricSmartcards

inIndia.AmericanEconomicReview106(10):2895–2929.

Dodge, E., Neggers, Y., Pande, R., Moore, C. (2018). Having it at Hand: How Small Search Frictions Impact

BureaucraticEfficiency.WorkingPaper.

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Muralidharan, K, Niehaus, P., Sukhtankar, S., Weaver, J. (2019). Improving Last-Mile Service Delivery using

Phone-BasedMonitoring”WorkingPaper.

• Useoftechnologyinassetcreation:DoRDalsoencouragestheuseofinnovativetechnologyfortheconstructionofruralinfrastructuresuchasroadsandhouses.Theuseoflocallyavailablematerialsandgreentechnologyisreinforcedtoensurethesustainabilityofroads,andavoidtimeandresourcecostsincurredinfuturere-construction.UnderPMGSY,theguidelinesissuedbytheDoRDmandatetheStateGovernmentstoproposeminimum15percentoftotallengthofannualproposalsundernewtechnologies suchasCement stabilization, Lime stabilization,Coldmix,Wasteplastics, Cell filledconcrete, Panelled cement concrete pavement, Fly ash etc. Further, under PMAY-G, DoRDspecificationshavealsobeenrelaxedinrespectofgradingofmaterialsforgranularsub-baselayerinordertoencouragetheusageoflocallyavailable/naturallyoccurringmaterial/marginalmaterials.

• Use of technology in asset monitoring and maintenance: Once created, themonitoring andmaintenanceofassetsisequallyimportant.Trackingtheirprogressisamassivetask,giventhehighnumberofdevelopmentprojectsunderway in thecountryand thenumberofpeople involved inbuilding them. To make this process simpler and to remotely track the progress, DoRD hasundertakeninitiativesleveragingtechnologyandcutting-edgeinnovation.

UnderMGNREGS,DoRDhasgeo-tagged15millionassetsonNREGASoftMISsofar.NREGAsoftisacustom-madeapplicationthat,besidesallowingthegovernmenttotagandtrackprogress,providesinformationtocitizensincompliancewiththeRighttoInformation(RTI)Actandmakesavailablevariousdocuments—likemusterrolls,registrationapplicationsandjobcards,amongothers—whichareunavailabletothepublicotherwise.

AllthefundingpatternsarebasedondigitalmethodonlylikeAadhaarandPanCardunder“Geo-tagging.”Noweverythingisdoneonlineonly.AlltheschemesandprogramsofthevillagesliketheMISwhichareputontheportalanditismonitoredfromthereonly.Nowweareintothegenerationofdigitalizationandthissystemofinternetandprojectorhasinfluenceditalot(ClusterLevelKII,Uttarakhand)

Further,GeoMGNREGAusesspacetechnologytodevelopadatabaseofassetscreatedusingtechnologicalinterventionslikemobilebasedphotogeo-taggingandaGISbasedinformationsystemforonlinerecordingandmonitoring.Ason10thJune2019,ithasbeenimplementedin31StatesandUTs.Atotalof3.58croreprojectsoutof4.44crorecompletedprojectsarealreadygeo-tagged.200

Geo-tagging has also been performed of the houses constructed under PMAY-G, thereby avoidingduplicationinaddressesandfuellingoutput-basedstreamlinedfundtransfers,ashasbeenconfirmedbyschemeimplementers.

Withthehelpofgeo-taggingwecanmakesurethatthehouseismadeattheperfectlocationornot(DistrictLevelKII,Uttarakhand)

The tagging does not only document the delivery of entitlements but also captures the progressofconstructionworkofthehousewithphotosatregularstagesofconstruction.However,allPMAY-Gworksare exempt from geo-tagging under GeoMGNREGAPhase-I and Phase-II, since the geotag alongwithpicturesin5StagesoftheassetcreatedisalreadybeingcapturedunderPMAY-Gscheme.

200SameasFootnote23.

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• ManagementofPRIs:Intheruraldevelopmentsector,PRIsplayasignificantroleinground-levelimplementation.InordertoensurethatthefunctioningofPRIsfunctionssmoothly,themanagementof PRIs is devised through various e-governance applications which covers aspects like accounts,finances,procurementofrawmaterials,maintainingoflandrecords,agriculturemarketing,etc.

• Integration: A key aspect ofDoRD’s IT/technologydriven interventionshasbeen integrationofdifferent web/mobile applications to facilitate data exchange and benefit from other systemsdeveloped such as PFMS, LGDdirectory. For example, under PMAY-G, the databases of differentDepartments/Ministries/schemes converging to provide amenities to the beneficiaries areintegratedwiththeAwaassoftportal,asshowninthefigurebelow.

Figure14:IntegrationofportalsunderDoRD


• Goingforward:InteractionswiththeITDivisionrevealedthatgoingforwardthefocusisgoingtobeonleveragingdataanalytics,artificialintelligence,citizencentricgraphicaluserinterface(GUI)andstateofarttechnologies.

TheroleofgovernmentalorganisationshasbeencrucialforleveragingtechnologyintheRDsector.Manyorganizations of the government like Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC), Council forAdvancementofPeople’sActionandRuralTechnology(CAPART),NationalInstituteofRuralDevelopment(NIRD),DepartmentofScienceandTechnology(DST),NationalResearchDevelopmentCorporation(NRDC),Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)supportthegenerationandpromotionofappropriatetechnologiesundervariousschemes.Inaddition,engineering based educational institutions, state government organizations, non-governmentorganizations,voluntaryagenciesandprivateestablishmentsaugmenttheseefforts.

Inthecontextofruraldevelopment,CAPARTisparticularlyimportant.CAPARTisanautonomousbodysetupbyDoRDtointerfacebetweenthegovernmentandNGOsthatseektoimprovethequalityoflifeinIndia’sruralareas.CAPART’smissionistoextendthereachofthegovernmentprogramstoremoteareasandtheirmarginalizedpeoplethroughtheseNGOs,byleveragingtechnologyanddigitisationwhereverpossible.

Takeaways

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• DoRDhasmadeexcellent strides inutilising IT/technology in implementingprogrammes:DoRDhasdevelopedarobustandwell-integratedICTandtechnologybasedeco-system,cateringtobeneficiaryneeds andgrievances, aswell as administrative considerations.The sectorhasmadepositivestridesinthedirectionofutilisingtechnologytoimproveoperationalefficiency.TheDoRDICTeco-systemissummarisedbelow:

Figure15:DoRD’sICTeco-system


• Theinternetuserbaseinruralareascanbeleveragedfurther:Therehasbeenacontinuousincreaseintheinternetuserbaseinruralareas,whichcanbeutilisedfurther201.Ascitizensofruralareas become educated and get to know the conveniencewhich they can derive from access tointernet, they will definitely be able to exploremore and also stay well connected in line withgrowing trends. In linewith this,DoRD should look todigitise processes even further tousher ingreater efficiency in scheme operations. The sector should look to ensure deeper penetration oftechnologicalinnovationssothatthebenefitsofdigitalinitiativespercolatetograssrootslevels.

• Barriers to the adoption of ICT platforms continue to remain: While implementing ICTprogrammes,thefirstbarrierislanguage.TheinformationavailableoninternetisinEnglishasitisaworld-wideacceptedInternationallanguagewhichmaynotbeunderstoodbyallusersintheruralcontext.ThishighlightstheneedtolocaliseandcustomisecontentonICTplatforms.Further,lackofinfrastructureandlowlevelsofskillsamongthepopulationremainthekeybottleneckstowidespreadICT adoption, especially in Fifth and Sixth Schedule areas. This underscores the need for propertrainingandimplementationofICTprogrammesinasimplewayandinalanguagewhichiseasilyunderstandablebytheruralpeople.

Further,internetconnectivityandbandwidthissuesremainchallengesinmanypartsofruralIndia-particularlyinpartswhereinelectricityavailabilityiserratic.Majorpowercutsand'brownouts'affectingthecountrysiderangingfrom5to12hourseveryday.Inaddition,thereareproblemsinestablishingnetworksaswell.Mostimportantly,thelarge-scaleinvestmentrequiredinsettingupinternetnetworksinremoteruralareashasadiscouragingeffectoninvestors.

201Nielsen.(2019)DigitalinIndia–Round2Report.InternetandMobileAssociationofIndia.

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• ThereisaneedtoexpandfinancialsupporttotheruralICTinterventions:ItisimportanttonotethattheproportionoftheeconomyinvolvedinsomeorotherformofadaptationorusageofICTisstillverysmall.TheproportionofpeopleinvolvedintheICTindustry,especiallyintheruralareasisnegligible.202InorderforthebenefitsofICTtotrickledownaswellascontributetotheruralprosperity,thesettingupofseveralruralandvillagelevelmicroenterprisesiskey.Unfortunately,mostprofessionalswanttoworkintheurbanareaswherethereareampleopportunitiesavailabletothemforgrowthaswellasprosperity.DrasticstepsneedtobetakentoinjectfundsforthedevelopmentoftheICTsintheruralareas;increasinglybytheparticipationoftheprivatesector.

Further,seriousbandwidthconnectivityissuesneedtobeaddressedthroughfinancialsupport.Eventhoughtechnologyisavailabletoupgradethebandwidth,notenoughresourceshavebeenbudgetedby the Government to change this scenario. Financing difficulties are encountered by the localgrassrootslevelinstitutionsaswellasbytheStateGovernments.

• ICTprojectsintheagrariancontextareyettoshowsubstantialresults203:InIndia,overthelastfewdecades,hundredsofgrassroots ICTprojectshavebeen implemented. Invariably,agriculturebecomesoneoftheindispensablepartsoftheprojectservicemenu.However,substantialresultssuchas significant increase of agricultural production because of deployment of ICTs are yet to beobserved.ICTprojectsareyettomakeanybreakthroughinagriculturalinformationdissemination.Eventhough,ICTprojectsarepromisingtomakedifferenceandalsoacceleratinginformationaccessbysomefarmers,institutionalizingofICTsneedtobegivenmoreemphasis.

Wayforward

• AunifiedportalforallRDschemesshouldbedeveloped:Whileschematicconvergenceisakeyfocusareafortheruraldevelopmentsector,suchconvergenceshouldalsobeappliedtodigitalspaceswhich in turn will feed into synergistic scheme operations. There is a need for all the schemeimplementationteamstobeseamlesslyintegratedtoimproveinter-operabilityofthesedepartmentsandresultinrealtimeservicedeliveryfromonlineormobileplatforms.

• FocusonhumanresourcedevelopmentforICTshouldbestrengthened:GiventhatlackofskillsandawarenessimpedesadoptionofICTplatforms,DoRDshouldprovideastrongimpetustocapacitybuildingandtraining,forbothbeneficiariesandimplementingofficials-andwithaspecificfocusatthegrassrootslevel.CreatingawarenessonICTpotentials,aswellasskillandcapacitydevelopmentamongruralstakeholderswillfacilitatebetterusageofICTs.

• MakingICTcontentlocalandcustomisedshouldbeapriority:Research,educationalinstitutionsand extension systems should continuously strive for appropriate content localisation andcustomisationasperthedemandofallruralstakeholders,soastodemocratisecontentandencouragegreateruserengagement.

• Innovativeapproachestoe-governanceshouldbeadopted:ASMARTapproachtoe-governanceshouldbeundertakensuch that it isSpecific (stating theexact specificationsof theachievementstargeted),Measurable(ensuringanddemonstratingtowhatextentthegoalhasbeenmet),Achievable(ensuring outcomes, which are within the range of current technology, resources and people’scapacity),Relevant (startingwithmostpressingneedsandmovingtosecondarygoals)andTime-bound(includingdeadlines,frequenciesetc.)

202UNCTAD.(2019).DigitalEconomyReport.203MohanKumarC.K.(2014).ICTforRuralDevelopment.

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• Agrarian ICTs should be institutionalised: ICTs for agricultural extension projects need to becomparedandevaluatedobjectively.LowcostICTtoolssuchasmobilephoneshavealotofpromiseforagriculturalextension.Atthesametime,experiencesindicatethatICTinterventionsaregoingtoplaygreaterroleinprivatesectoragribusiness,marketinformationandmarketintelligence.Further,interventionscentredonthedisseminationoffarminformation(e.g.informinggovernmentschemes)andonlinemonitoringoftheprogressofthegovernmentalschemeshaveproventobesuccessful.Farmersnowneedinformationabouttrendsandtechnologyneededinfarmingsoas to produce more and participateeffectively insettingpriceof theirproduct.Tomakeall thispossible,institutionalisationofagrarianICTinitiativesshouldbeprioritised,byformulatingNationalandStatelevele-Agriculturepolicies,aswellasthroughhumanresourcedevelopment.

(vii) Development,dissemination&adoptionofinnovativepractices,technology&know-how

Introduction

Withtheglobalemergenceofdisruptivetechnologiestypifiedasa‘fourthindustrialrevolution’,morethaneverbefore,successfulruraltransformationrequirestheuseofinnovativesolutionsdirectedtobroadeningtheruralproductionbase.Suchinnovativesolutionswouldensuretheshiftfromtraditionalactivitiesintomore productive sectors and enablemembers of rural communities to enhance their livelihoods andwellbeing.Therecognitionthatinnovationisnotjustabouthigh-technologyproductsandtheknowledgefrontier is important. It is thereforenecessarytoshiftemphasistobuilding innovationcapabilitiesandfosteringlocalinnovationstoaddresschallengesspecifictolocalcontexts.

Growinginequalityandtheexclusionofpeoplefrominnovationprocesseshaveledtoabroadscientificdiscussionoftheproblemsofinclusion,inclusiveinnovation,andinclusivegrowth204.India’sruralsectorcallsforfollowingelementsininnovations,whichwouldnotbeenoughifimplementedindividually:

1. Economicgrowthand inclusive structural transformation, throughwhich investmentsgenerateemploymentinsectorsandterritorieswherethepoormayalsobenefit.

2. Increaseofproductivity inpoorruralhouseholds - increasingaccesstonaturalresources(land,water,forests)aswellasinputsandotherassets-toimprovetheircapacitytomanagerisksandincreasetheirproductivity,linkingsmall-scaleagriculturalmarketstoagri-foodsystems.

3. Expansionofsocialprotectionsystemsinruralareasandstrongercoordinationwithotherruraldevelopmentandnaturalresourcessustainablemanagementprogrammes.

4. Creationandimprovementofruralinfrastructure,especiallyinenergy,transportation,waterandsanitation.

5. Facilitationofdecentemploymentcreationintheagricultureandnon-agriculturalruraleconomy,bothintermsofself-employmentandwageemployment.

6. Generationofhumancapitalthroughaccesstosocialservices(healthandeducation).

7. Strengtheningofruralinstitutionsandlocalgovernmentstoencouragetheirparticipationinpolicydialogueanddecisionmaking,whichrequirespromotingprofessionalqualifications.

8. Empowerment of the rural poor by boosting their organizational capacity to promote politicalparticipationsotheycanbenefitfromtheprocessesofdevelopmentandeconomicgrowth.

204 Ustyuzhantseva. O (2017). Studies of inclusive innovation in sociotechnical systems: Case studies in Russia and India,InnovationandDevelopment,7:1,83-100,DOI:0.1080/2157930X.2017.1281359

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Development,disseminationandadoptionof innovativepractices, technologyandknow-howneed totakecognizanceoftheaboveaspects.Thestartingpointforreflectingonhowtoinduceinnovationsforsustainableruraldevelopmentistounderstandthevaryingconceptionsoftheterminnovation,aswellashow they might be produced. Innovations are changes made to current patterns which generateimprovements–suchasincreasesinproductivityandcompetitiveness;socially-mindednotionssuchastheincreaseofincome,sustainabilityandequity(FAO,2016;EuropeanUnion,2014)aresometimesaddedtothisdefinition.Inthisdefinition,thesubstanceofaninnovationisidentifiedbyitsresultsratherthanbytheprocessthathasproducedit.

Background

RoleofPRIsindrivinglocalinnovation

India, with about 2,50,000 Rural Local Bodies (Panchayats) which hold enormous opportunities inlocalizing the SDGs and meeting the goals. Panchayats are expected to play an effective role in theplanningandimplementationoffunctionsrelatedto29subjectsenlistedintheEleventhScheduleoftheConstitution.ManySDGtargetsarewithinthepurviewofthesesubjects.ThereportoftheCommitteeonPerformanceBasedPaymentsforBetterOutcomesinRuralDevelopmentPrograms(2017)byDoRDhasidentified thecentral roleof thePanchayat,humanresourcesand its capacitybuilding todevelop thenormsandcontoursofdevelopment,disseminationandadoptionof innovativepractices.Thedriversofinnovationshavebeenexpansionandperformance,drivenbyeffectivefieldimplementationforadequatestaffinglevels,programmetraining,andskillsavailabilityatlocallevel.Giventhepolicyimportance,thegovernmenthasinvestedininnovation,adaptationandreflexivityinprogrammedevelopmentsinceitwasinitiatedandsupportedmeasurestopromoteimpact,planningandadministration.

Usheringinadigitalage

In2015,thegovernmentlaunchedtheDigitalIndiaprogramme,whichaimstoclosethisgapbyfosteringinvestmentindigitalinfrastructure,improvingdigitalliteracy,andincreasinglyprovidingonlineservicestocitizens.India’sperformanceintermsofprovidingonlineservicesandallowinge-participationhassofarbeeninlinewiththatofthepeercountries,butfarfromtheglobalbest(57thand40th,respectively).However, almost all States have now been covered under Bharat Net, which provides broad bandconnectivitytotheGPs205.

Flexibilityinsectoralinterventions

FlexibilityinvariousschemessuchasMGNREGSandPMAY-Gonindividualbeneficiaryinvestmentshasresultedinenhancedincomesofthebeneficiariesandalsoimprovementinthequalityofassets.TheshareofsuchIndividualBeneficiarySchemeshasincreasedfrom21.4percentin2014-15to66.1percentin2018-19.UnderMGNREGS,several innovativepracticessuchastweakingthewageandmaterialratio(thatleadstonon-productiveassetsbeingcreatedsimplybecause60percenthastobespentonunskilledwageinaGP)hasbeencarriedout.Thewageandmaterialratioof60:40hasbeenallowedattheDistrictlevelratheratGPlevel.

Similarly,developmentofAnnualMasterCircularviz.;amastercircularissuedin2016,withconsolidated1039 advisories issued since the inception of the programme; is amended and issued every yearsubsequently.Thishashelpedtostreamlinetheimplementationoftheprogrammeandbringinclarity.

ResearchandDevelopment

205BharatNetStatusason25thSeptember2020,http://www.bbnl.nic.in/BharatNet.pdf

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ThereareanumberoforganizationsinIndia,bothprivateandpublic,thatperformR&Dfortheruralsector.This includes IITs.Arangeofapplicationsarebeingdeveloped invarioussectors that includeenergy (for lighting, cooking, transportation, and agriculture),water (for domestic consumption andcultivation),agriculture(betterseeds,practices,andequipment),manufacturing(smallscale,agro-based,etc.), sanitation, health, transportation, communication, environmental conservation, and ruralemployment.

Potentialforinnovationwithinthenon-farmeconomy

Considering the size and potential of the non-farm economy in the rural sector there exists a hugecapabilitytogenerateknowledgeoninnovativepractices.Pressuresfromscarcityofresourcesandlimitedornoaccesstofinancialinstitutions,technologies,andformalknowledgecreatesaspacefornewideas,experimentation,andpracticesthatareanalternativetoformal-sectorproductsandpractices.Thus,GrassRootInnovations(GRIs)canbeconsideredasnicheinnovationwithintheexistingsociotechnicalsystemofruralIndia.Theseinnovationsdrawattentionofmainstreamactors,andinteractionsbetweennicheinnovators andmainstream actors thereby resulting in launching transformation of the regime. Forinstance, the rural sector has come up with an innovative idea of setting up of Livelihood BusinessIncubatorCenters(LBIs)todriveinnovations,pilotanddisseminateitfurther.TheprimaryroleoftheDoRDhereliesinconvergingwiththeprocesstomobilizeandreallocateresourcesonalargescale,andtoprovide incentives forharnessingscience, technologyand innovation- for thepurposeofspurringtransformativedevelopment.

Innovationforruralemployment

ThroughitsDigitalIndiaprogramme,GovernmentofIndiaisworkingtotransformthecountry'sruraleconomyandcreateskilledjobs inruralareas.Fortheestimated156millionIndianruralhouseholds,mostlivinginpovertyaccordingtoIndia’sNationalSampleSurveyOrganization(NSSO),theinternetisaninnovativeinstrumentfordigitalaccesssoastocreatemoreemploymentandprovideinformationforwomenandyouthinruralareas.

ComplementingeffortstoincreaseagriculturalproductivityandemploymentisIndia’stripleinnovationsystem (JAM), consisting of JanDhan (the PrimeMinister’s initiative to open universal bank accounts,Aadhaar(aunique12-digitIDnumberforcitizens)andmobilephones.Further,MGNREGSusesDBTstopaybeneficiaries,andthishasreducedtransfercosts,wasteandcorruption-andsidesteppedanypossiblemisallocationoffundstransferredfromCentretoStatetoDistricttoPanchayatsfordistribution.

Thematically,onecanidentifythreecategoriesofissues:

1. Howdoesthestateatvariouslevelspromotetransformativeinnovationpoliciesbyapplyingmethodsthatcombineinsightsfromallheterodoxideasandexplorepotential forpoliciesthatcanfacilitateproductivityconvergenceandinclusivetransformationofruralareas?

2. How does the state build capacity for an inclusive process of co-operative learning forinnovative co-creation in ‘living labs’, and thereby explore the role of governance and instandardization?

3. Howdoesthestatecatalyseandsupportprovisionofpro-poorinnovationforsocialinclusioninruraltransformation?

Whilepublic-privatecollaborationisunderscored,it’simperativetoguideandfacilitatesuchinteractionsthroughendeavours,includesthefosteringofinnovationtoenhancesocialcohesion;reducepovertyandinequality; redistribute wealth; create jobs; protect the environment; ensure safety and security; andimproveeducationandhealthcare.

Takeaways

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• Innovation demands stakeholder interaction, which often requires skilled facilitation.Innovationcanbestimulatedbypartnershipsbetweencommunityorganizationsandbusinessesbutdue to different interests, facilitation is often needed in order for different players to recognize thebenefits/valueofworkingtogether,whicharenotalwaysapparent.Facilitatorscanhelpactorstoseethebenefits of collaboration. Innovation isneedednotonly atproduction level, but throughout thewholevaluechain.

• Innovationoftenrequiresaprocessofempowerment,trust-buildingandpowerre-balancing,inwhichskilledfacilitatorscanplayacriticalandenablingrole.Innovationasamulti-stakeholderprocess needs to balance competitive and collaborative impulses. Innovation along the whole chainrequiresthatdifferentstakeholders(publicandprivate,)cometogether,takerisksandjointlyimplementnew ideas. Trust and social networks need to be built up alongside technical knowledge and skills.Inclusionmustbeconsciouslysoughtandmanaged–whetherwomenorvulnerablegroupsarethoseatriskofbeingexcluded.Toensurethatinnovationsreachlesspowerfulgroups(e.g.women,the‘poor’)innovativeprocessesmustbeexplicitlyguidedtoinvolvesuchvulnerablegroupsandtoensurethattheless advantaged are not restricted to support roles, but can instead participate in decision-makingprocesses.Interactioniskeyandweneedskilledpeopletocoax,stirandnudgethatinteractiontosupportinnovation.

• Ruralinnovationprocessesrequiredynamicandlearning-orientedmonitoringandevaluation(M&E) to respond to a rapidly changing context. The success of development initiatives can beenhancedbygoodM&E,butruralinnovationprocesseshaveparticularrequirementsinrelationtoM&Eduetothenatureoftheseprocesses.TheyrequiredynamicandlearningorientedM&E,asthecontextandthereforeeffectsoftheinnovationprocessesrapidlychange.Oftenmanystakeholdersatdifferentlevelsneedtoquicklylearnfromeachother’ssuccessesandfailuresforresponsivemanagement.Forstakeholderstoinnovateandlearntogethertheyneedgoodinformation.Thisrequires‘entrepreneurialmonitoringandevaluation’thatsupportsinnovation.

• Communication plays a key role in innovations:Equally important to the innovation process isadequatecommunicationtoconveythebenefits,andtobuildthesocialcapabilitiestoensurethatendusersacquiretheknowledgeandtoolsnecessaryforappropriateuse,andthemaintenancecapacitytosustain, the newly adopted innovations. The involvement of marginalized communities in theinnovation process, to solve problems they identify and provide solutions based on their realities,resultsinbetterdevelopmentoutcomes206.Thelackofanagencytoensurecontinuousandasustainedadoptionprocessalsoprovidesspacetostepup,ifitwantstheinnovationtobetrulytransformative.

Wayforward

• An empowered body is needed to steer holistically the management of technological andpracticesrelatedinnovationsinthecountry:Itsscopewillincludescienceeducationandscientificresearchaswellascoordinatingandguidingvariousinitiatives.Theneedistopursueinter-ministerial,inter-disciplinary research besides breaking silos among various scientific departments/agencies. Theinherentweaknessesofinformationdisseminationtoenhancetechnologycommercializationmaybeaddressedbysettingupofvalueadditioncentres inup-scaling technologies, improving technologiesfrom technology readiness level to technology dissemination level, demonstrating up scaling of pilot,coordinating with investors to incubate, bridging the gap between institutions and technologyprovidersteams,enablingcommercializationandmarketingandprovidingtechnologysupportduring

206Arza,Valeria,andPatrickVanZwanenberg."Thepoliticsoftechnologicalupgrading:InternationaltransfertoandadaptationofGMcottoninArgentina."WorldDevelopment59(2014):521-534.

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production.TheDepartmentofScienceandTechnologyshould looktocreateaNationalTechnologyDataBankincoordinationwithallpubliclyfundedR&Dinstitutionssoastoprovideacentraldatabasefortechnologiesisdesired.

• Financialandtechnicalsupportforfrugalinnovationsintheruraldevelopmentsectorshouldbeexplored:Tobringvibrancytofrugalinnovations,anon-lapsable‘DistrictInnovationFund’withacorpusineachDistrictmaybecreatedandusedtopromoteGRIs.AtalInnovationMissionhasalreadylaunched Atal New India Challenges in partnership with five Ministries to create products fromtechnologiesandprototypesinareasofnationalimportance.These,AtalIncubationCenters(AICs)mayalsoprovide theplatformforpromoting frugal innovation.FurtherexpansionofAtalTinkering labsspecificallydedicated to rural sector shouldbe consideredbasedon theoutcomeof the first phasepresentlyunderway.

• TheM&Estructureshouldbebasedonaresult-basedmanagementframework:Thecriteriaforevaluation as mentioned in the NRLM implementation document need revision. The elements like‘innovation’needstobefurtherunbundledandveryspecificandmeasurablecriteriashouldbefixed.Thesecriteria should bemaintained in all the stages from project appraisal to delivery level.The idea ofincluding‘learning’askeycriteriaintheM&Eframeworkislaudable.However,suchmeasuresshouldbealsomadespecificandmeasurable.

• A criterion for the review of innovation support funds needs to be operationalized for thepromotionofinnovations:Thebroaderobjectiveswithconcreteanddetailedparametersengagingthefollowingmaybeconsidered:

1. Governance (in terms of the fund charter, organizational structure, management andaccountabilityarrangements)

2. MonitoringandImpact(intermsofM&Esystemsandimpactassessments)

3. Implementation(intermsofconcreteexperiencesandcasestudies)

4. TransactionCosts(intermsofadministrativeoroverheadarrangementsandcostsinrelationtoresults)

5. Flexibility(toincludeadaptability)

6. Beneficiaries(intermsofidentifyingprimarytargetgroups)

7. InnovationScouting(asidentificationandvettingstrategiesforinnovations)

8. ReplenishmentStrategy(asaplanforeconomicsustainability)

9. SelectionCriteriaandProcedures (asamatterofapplicationproceduresandselectioncriteria,includingthequestionofwhethertheseincludecompetitivearrangements)

10. Commercialization Learning (as a matter of learning and sharing systems, includingdocumentationanddissemination,whether throughbrokerage involving thepublicorprivatesector,andanyIPRsuchaspatents)

11. AccesstoandControlofResources(intermsofaccessandcontrolbybeneficiaries)

12. PartnersandStakeholders(asamatterofpartnershipapproachandstakeholderinvolvement)

(viii) Stakeholder&beneficiarybehaviouralchange

Introduction

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The2015WorldDevelopmentReport207highlightsthreemajorfeaturesofhumandecision-makingbasedontheevidencefromalargenumberofresearchpapers. `First,peoplemakemostjudgmentsandmostchoicesautomatically,notdeliberatively:wecallthis“thinkingautomatically.”Second,howpeopleactandthink often depends on what others around them do and think: we call this “thinking socially.” Third,individualsinagivensocietyshareacommonperspectiveonmakingsenseoftheworldaroundthemandunderstandingthemselves:wecallthis“thinkingwithmentalmodels”.’

Transformationalpotentialofbehaviourchange

TheEconomicSurvey2018-19hasdrawnonNobelLaureateRichardThaler’sBehaviouralEconomicsTheory208tolayoutwhatitdescribesasan“ambitiousagenda”forbehaviourchangethatwillbringinsocial change,which in turn,will help India transit to a $5 trillion economyby 2024-25. Fewof theprogrammesexecutedby thegovernmentof Indiaprovide testimony to thepotential forbehaviouralchangeinIndia.GivenIndia’srichculturalandspiritualheritage,socialnorms(thatplayaveryimportantroleinshapingthebehaviour),canbeutilizedtoeffectbehaviouralchange.Itprovestobeaneffectivemethod of economic analysis that applies psychological insights into human behaviour to explaineconomic decision-making. Drawing on the psychology of human behaviour, behavioural economicsprovidesinsightsto‘nudge’peopletowardsdesirablebehaviour.

Dopoorpeoplehave tochange theirbehaviour toenable theirhumandevelopment?Canpractitionersbringaboutsuchbehaviouralchangeamongthebeneficiariesoftheirdevelopmentactions?Thesearehighlycontestedquestionsinsocialscienceandindebatesonbehaviouralchange.ThereisneedinthecontextofruralIndiatoidentifythesetofspecificchangesinbehaviourthatareneededtoaddresscertainwell-knownissuesofunderdevelopmentinthecountry.

Behaviourchangeindevelopmentinterventions

Todate,researchtounderstandindividualbehaviourinthecontextofdevelopmentinterventionshastendedtofocusontheuseofexperimentalmethodstoidentifywherebehaviouralinsightscanbeusefullyappliedtoimprovetheeffectofanintervention.Behaviouralinsightscanbeparticularlysuccessfulforunderstandingone-off decision-making at onepoint in time, e.g.womenengaged in thrift and savingsprogramsorfamiliesdecidingtoengageinnon-farmeconomicactivity.

Thereisagrowingbodyofworkthatfocusesonunderstandingongoing,repeatedbehavioursandhabitformation,forexample,studieshavelookedattheeffectofincentivesonlongtermneedaroundcollectiveactionssuchasfederationsorproducerorganizations.Instancesalsoincludeinterventionsoncommonpropertyresourcestoincreasethewaterretentionpotentialinthelongterminentitlementprogrammesof Government of India, aswell as interventions to nudge to providewomenworkers the necessaryfacilityattheconstructionsites.

Some studieshave focusedon shifts ina set of behaviourswithina specific environment, for example,savingandriskaversionbehaviourinthemicrofinanceprogrammesinruralareas.

207Cammack,P.(2014).WorldDevelopmentReport2015:ProgrammingthePoor.TheMultilateralDevelopmentBanksandtheGlobalFinancialCrisisWorkingPapersSeries,7.208Thaler,R.H.(2016).Behavioraleconomics:Past,present,andfuture.AmericanEconomicReview,106(7),1577-1600.

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There are fewer examples of behavioural insights applied to understand behaviour in complex changeprocesses,whereasetofdifferentbehavioursneedtochangewithinindividuals,orwheredifferentactorsneedtoshiftmultiplebehaviourssimultaneously(e.g.ruralcommunityadoptingthepackageofsupportbeing offered within the housing and village road programs or rural households engaging with themaintenance of community assets). To effectively apply behavioural insights, it isnecessary to knowpreciselywhereandwheninaprocessofchangingbehaviourthatspecificbehaviouraldeterminantscomeintoplay,aswellastherelativeimportanceofvariousbehaviouraldeterminantsinthedecision-makinglandscapeandtheroleandinfluenceofotheractorsonthebehaviourchangeprocess.

Research on resilience and social-ecological systems has attempted to overcome the challenge ofexplainingbehaviourincomplexchangeprocesses,inparticularthehumandimensionsofsocial-ecologicaldilemmas. However, the research tends to focus on social units, rather than the complex interplaybetween individualsandthesocialunits.Suchconceptsdoattempttoanswerthechallenges thatarebeingfacedinthesocial-ecologicalsystemstoacknowledgethecomplexityandsocialdiversityofsystemsandtherebyachieveoutcomes.

Theruralsectorpolicydesigncanbethoughtasthemapanddevelopmentoutcomesasthedestination,then nudges can bethe pointers that gently guide actions towards the best route. Formulating thesepointers requires expertise at two levels: understanding why consumers pick fewer optimum routes(cognitivebiases);anddesigningsignsthatguideuserstobetterroutes(nudges/interventions).

Background

Toolsofstakeholderandbeneficiarybehaviourchange

Behaviouralsciencecanbeappliedtolarge-scaleruraldevelopmentprograms.Theverynatureofthesciencebeingimbuedinasocialandculturalcontextenablesittogenerateeffectiveandsustainedresultstopublicserviceprograms.Interventionsthataredesignedusingthissciencecanreducetheintent-to-actiongap.Thereexistsaplethoraoftoolslikedefaults,reminders,prompts,andincentivesthatcanreducepooradherenceandincreasecomplianceforsustainedimpactthroughoutthelifeofanintervention.Thereisevidenceofuseofsuchtoolsintheruraldevelopmentspaceaswell.

Forinstance,engagingwiththecadreofCommunityResourcePersons(CRPs)fromthecommunityunderDAY-NRLM,hashelpedpeopleidentifywiththeirlanguageandculture.TheseCRPshaveprovedtobekeysocialmotivatorsforprovidingcriticalinputsonvariousknowledge,skillsandrelatedbehaviourswithculturally appropriate socialmeasures to convert thought process into a sustainedhabit has yieldedresults.Anothergoodexample is theuseofdigitalplatforms toprovidemessages intheruraldomaindirectly to families’ mobile phones. This behavioural insight approach improves the management ofprogrammeperformances.TheimpressiveworkdonebyDoRD,onmonitoringtheimplementationofnationalflagshipschemesthroughDISHAdashboardsarealsonotableexamplesofdigitalinterventionsforbehaviourchange.

Leveragingsocio-culturalnormstochangebehaviours

Intheruraldevelopmentsector,contextualbehavioursarealsoshapedbysocialfactors,suchaspeople’scultural beliefs and their perceptions of how socially acceptable particular behaviours are in theircommunity.Thisiscriticalinthecontextofvarioussocialcapitalformationinitiativesintheruraldomain.Theinterventionsaroundsocialgroups,interpersonalinteractions,socialnorms,andmoralnormsdrivehomeanexplicitmessagethatisdesiredfortheprograms.

Socialgroupsmayincludecommunityorothersupportgroups.Inbehaviouralinterventions,theymaybeusedtoapplysocialpressureorleveragesocialcapitalinordertoinfluencepeople’spracticesand

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behaviours. Thismay includepublicmeetings and events or local language theatre that is tailored toand/or targets local traditions. For example, in a rural institution formation framework- - severalmeetingsandpubliceventsconductedaspartofIECactivitiesgoinlinewiththenudgetheorytoimprovedecisionsamongbothfemaleandmalepopulation.Suchinterventionsalsoprevailupontheinfluenceofmalemembersofcommunityandpreventstheparticipationofwomenfrombeingdiscouraged.

Behavioural change interventions primarily rely on design andmessaging that address the effect ofbehaviouralbiasesonhumanbehaviour.Thesebiasesarenouniquephenomenon ingovernmentandpublic policy, neither do they affect only a small percentage of the population—cognitive biases areeverywhere. Previous experiences suggest that, if planned carefully, and backed by accurate bias-targeting,then,suchinterventionsdowork.

InBihar,effortstoimprovethequalityofhealth-careservicedeliverybyfront-lineworkerstakesintoaccount popular ‘rituals’, like keeping a baby away from the ground in a cot (palna), or markingdecorationsaroundherhearth(chulah),fortransmittingmessagesthatareculturallyacceptable.Lessonsfrom such interventions can form the basis of other interventions in the rural sector related toinfrastructure,socialsecurityandlivelihoods.InruralIndia,wheresocialandreligiousnormsplaysuchadominant role in influencingbehaviour; behavioural economics canprovideavaluable instrument forchange.ManyIndianschemesthatemployinsightsfrombehaviouraleconomicshavemetwithsuccess.LeadingexamplesincludetheSwachhBharatMission(SBM)andBetiBachaoBetiPadhao(BBBP)scheme.

Roleof“nudgepolicies”

The efficacy of a new class of policies called“nudge” policies togently steer people towards desirablebehaviourevenwhilepreservingtheirlibertytochooseneedremindersandpositivereinforcementtosustainsociallydesirablebehaviour.FewexamplesofnudgepoliciesareforincreasingthesavingbasebythewomenledSHGprogrammesinIndia.Ruralwomenaresentmessagesregardingthewaysinwhichsavings canmake a difference to their household emergency needs. Even the rural populationmaybeofferedspeciallydesignedsavingsaccountsthatlockedupfundsuntilaself-specifiedtargetwasmet.

WhiletheJanDhanYojanaopenedalargenumberofbankaccountsinashortspanoftime,itssuccessreliesonpeopleusingtheseaccountsregularly.Theprogramme’smandateisnotonlytoopenaccountsbut to enable access to credit, insurance, pension schemes and other facilities offered by the formalbankingsector.Goingforward,theprogrammeofferstremendousscopetoemploybehaviouralinsights.Inlinewith“savingsup”and“savingsdown”theory209,thehabitofhouseholds’majorassetsorsavings,isacaseofclassic“savingup”technique.TheSHGmembershavealsoresortedto“savingdown”approachwherebytheyborrowedmoneytotidethroughknownorunknownexpendituressuchasanemergencymedicalexpenditure.

Theapplicationsofbehaviouralinsightsappeartobearesultofconfirmationbias(totheextentthatpastpolicieswereviewedwithabehaviourallens).ReducingcorruptioninMGNREGSinculcatesasenseofprideofbeingthebestlocalgovernancesystem(Panchayat)inaDistrictandrewardingitwouldgoalong way in ensuring behavioural change vis-à-vis compliance with program norms. In this scenario,governmentregulation,awardsandrewardpoliciesmaybeclubbedwithanudgeeffecttoincreasetheefficacyofpolicymaking.

Targetingdemandsidebehaviour

209Rutherford,S.(2000).Thepoorandtheirmoney.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.

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When economic, psychological, social, or other mechanisms inhibit service use, directly targetingdemand-sidebehaviourchangeisessentialforsustainedservicedelivery.Interventionsthatacknowledgeindividuals’decision-makingprocessesandtheimplicittrade-offsrequiredofindividualsarelikelytobemoresuccessful.Relevanceofobjectivestobehaviourchangecoversthreetopics:

1. Definingtheproject’stargetedpopulation,whetherandwhichbehavioursaretargetedintheprojectdevelopmentobjectives(PDOs)andotherindicatorsanddiagnosingthecurrentbehaviours.First,“behavioural”activitiesmusthaveadefinedpopulationoftargetbeneficiaries.

2. Next,bycapturingthePDOsandtheirindicatorsandbyinterrogatingthedegreetowhichtheprojectexplicitlyaimsforchangesinthewaybeneficiariesusetheiragency,Apilottestofwhetherornottheprojectisgovernedbybehaviouralconsiderationsseekstoidentifythetemplatetohelpanswerthequestionofwhethertheprojecthasidentifiedaspecificbehaviourthatitistryingtochange.

3. Finally,thetemplateasks fordetailsonwhethertherewasanydiagnosticworkdoneto identifythecurrent behaviours. Nearly all prescriptive behavioural frameworks emphasize the importance ofdoingdiagnosticworkbeforeaprojectisdesignedinordertounderstandthedifferentprocessesthatcanproducebeneficiarybehaviour.

It isrealizedthatthebehaviouraldiagnosticstage inprojectdesignistypicallyunderdeveloped.Suchdiagnosticworkmaycomefromawiderangeofsourcesbutunderstandingthecontextualbottleneckstobehaviourthatcanaffectthedesignoftheinterventioniscritical.

Successelsewhere

InIsrael,theissuingorrenewalofanID,passportordrivinglicense,becameconditionaluponansweringthequestionofbecomingaregistereddonor.Thedefaultoptionwasan‘opt-in’provision,whichgreatlyincreasedthelistofregistereddonorsbytargetingthestatusquobias.

Similarly, in Singapore—known for a number of innovations in governance—providing the averageelectricityusageofthelocalityonthebackofbillshasnudgedhouseholdstothinkabouttheirownenergyconsumption,drivingthemtowardsreducingittotheaveragelevels,anexampleofthegroupthinkeffect.

Copenhagen’s experiment of using green footsteps to lead to trash bins helped reduce littering by 46percent.Similarly,inSingapore,printingtaxbillsonthepinkpapertypicallyusedfordebtcollectionledtoanimprovementinthepromptpaymentrateofbetweenthreetofivepercentagepoints.ThesearethemeansthatcanwellformthebasisofstrengtheningtheroleofPanchayatsineithertaxcollectionorforthatmatterthenormsthatarerequiredtobedevelopedwithinthecommunity.

Takeaways

Behaviouralscience-basedapproachestodesignandtestdevelopmentinterventionshavecomealongwayintermsofidentifyingkeycognitiveprocessesandbehaviouralleverstotriggerbehaviourchangeinruralsector.AchangeinbehavioursandsocialnormsseemshugelyimportantforaddressingtheissuesfacedinruralIndia.Anexampleofthelowerworkparticipationrateamongwomenwithimplicationsforbothhumandevelopmentandeconomicgrowthofthecountrycanwellbeattendedtobythechangebehaviour.Thekeytakeawaysare:

• Rigorousevaluationofbehaviorisoftenmissedwhilemeasuringprogrammeperformances:However suchdata is crucial andcanhelp explain the limited impactofwell-intendedgovernmentprogrammes.

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• Peoplevaluelossesandgainsdifferently:Intheruralsector,thepotentiallossesoutofvariouseconomic opportunities are being viewed differently. There is a tendency to preserve what theyalreadyhave;theirperceivedloss/gainisbasedonabenchmark.Allentrepreneurialinterventionsforruraldevelopmentshouldtakecognizanceoffactsinordertoproposeforthebusinessopportunitiespotential.

• Behaviouraldesignframeworkrecognizestheopportunitytocloselylinkbehaviouralinsightsand intervention design: Such a frameworkhelps to identify unintended consequences, generatebettersolutionsanddiagnoses,anddevelopdiagnostictechniquesrelevantforothercontexts.

• Iterativeexperimentalapproachesholdthepotentialtobeingtransformationalchangeintheruraldevelopmentsector:Aniterativeexperimentalapproachrequiresisolatingthecausaleffectofasinglecognitiveprocessorpathway.Further,itisalsoimportanttofocusonasetofinterconnecteddesigninnovations.Akeystrengthofsuchanapproachliesinthethoroughtestingthattakesplaceateachpointintheprocessallowingformistakes,forexample,misdiagnosedproblemstobecorrectedalongtheway.

Wayforward

• There is need to merge the methodological approach of service design with behavioralinsights in value-chain based interventions: Service design offers both a process for carefullyfindingsolutions,andamethodologyforbasingsuchsolutionsonaknowledgebasethatisaswidelyand inclusively informed as possible. Theuser journey component of the framework allows us tovisualize the experiences andperceptions of users of a given technologyor service throughout achangeprocessandensuresthatimportantbehaviouraldriversandsocialprocessesarecapturedateveryphaseofthejourney.

The systems mapping component situates the lived experiences of users within complex social-ecologicalsystemsandhighlightsconnectionsbetweenusersandotherpotentiallyimportantactorsandprocessesatdifferentlevelsofsociety.Suchamethodologytofuelbehaviourchangeiscriticalforthevaluechain-basedinterventionsthatisdesiredforbothfarm/non-farm-basedinterventionsintheruralcontext.

• Everyruraldevelopmentsectorprogrammustgothrougha“behaviouraleconomics”auditbeforeitsimplementation:DoRDmayadheretotheprinciplesofbehaviouraleconomicstoconductits audit. Such an audit and themodifications undertaken, therein, can significantly enhance theefficacyoftheprogram.

• Mentalmodelsfocusingonaspirationsforabetterlifeshouldbeencouraged:Theimportanceof financial disciplines needs to be communicated effectively through popular narratives and byexposingpeopletosocialcontextswhichhaveundergonedesirablesocialchanges.Theexposuretothenewsocialcontextsmaycreatenewmentalmodelsenablingpeopletothinkaboutabetterlife.Thisneedforcreatingaspirationsorthedreamofadesirableworldisimportantinseveralcontextsinrural India.This isneeded forgendermainstreamingacrossvariousruraldevelopmentprogramsparticularly among the marginalized communities. The absence of such aspirations may bediscouraging.Multiplestrategiesmayberequiredforthispurpose.Consciouslycultivatingrolemodelsfromthesesocialgroupswhohavebenefittedcouldbeone.Theexperienceandsuccessoftheserolemodels may have to be communicated widely. Inspirational videos can be used for suchcommunication.

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Theinfluenceofprevailingmentalmodelsmayencouragepeopletobehaveinwaysthatmaynotbedesirablefortheirdevelopment.Decisionstoengageintoaprocessorprogrambasedontheprevalentmentalmodelisnotcompletelyeffectiveandhence,strategiestochangementalmodelsmustbetriedout.

• Thereisaneedforbehaviouralchangeamongdevelopmentresearchersandpractitioners:Thesestakeholdersmaybepronetobiases, ideologicalpre-conditioning,andincorrectpresumptionregardingtheabilitiesofthebeneficiariesofdevelopmentactions.Hence,theyshouldbemadeawareof their possible influences if their research is to inform development actions or policies. Thesestakeholdersneedtobemoreopentodatawhichdoesnotconformtotheirtheoryofaction,andalsototheneedtoexperimentineachandeverycontext.

Organizationsinvolvedindevelopmentpracticeshouldbemoreopentocontextualfactorsbothfromwithinandoutside.Thereneedstobeargumentsandcounter-argumentsatthetimeofdesignandatevery stage of the project implementation with respect to such behavioural biases. A conduciveenvironmenttoencouragegenuinedisagreementsandconcernsabouttheprogramstrategyshouldenablecriticalengagementwithoutaffectingtheprocessofimplementation.

• Informationdisseminationshouldbeundertakenacrossdiverseplatforms:Peopleactwithoutseekinginformationeitherbysimplybelievingthatsuchinformationisnotneededorbyacceptingwhatafewotherpeopletellthemtodo.Manypeoplemaynotacttimelytoparticipateinschemeseven if such participation is useful to them. Hence, information provision by all possiblemeans –includingthosethatcanbeeasilyaccessedbytechnologyandsocialmedia–isimportant.Theroleofreminders,publicnotices,non-monetarygifts(whicharegivenatthetimeofsubscription),makingproductsconvenientandeasytounderstandareimportant.

• Steps to increase the coverage of education should be taken to benefit from cognitivestimulation:TheoneareawheresomeprogressisachievedinIndiaistheprovisionofeducationwhich is necessary for the socio-emotional and cognitive stimulation of not only the children butessentialfortheircognitivedevelopmentandachievementsduringadulthood.Thoughasystemforeducationisinplace,thisisnotwell-utilized(forthecognitivestimulation).Makingitmoreeffectiveisanimportantcontributortothecognitivedevelopmentoftheruralpopulation.

(ix) ResearchandDevelopment

Introduction

Ruralcircumstancesarechanging;developmentthinkingischanging;andruraldevelopmentpolicyneedstokeepup:thesearethecoremessagesforresearchanddevelopment.Differentgovernmentsanddonoragencieshavedifferentperspectivesandpursuedifferentcombinationsofruraldevelopmentpolicies.Ifaidforruraldevelopmentistobere-establishedonagrowthpath,thenitwillbewithinthewidercontext,dominatedbyideasabouttheComprehensiveDevelopmentFramework,PovertyReductionStrategyPapersandSectorWideApproaches.Keyfeaturesoftheholisticapproach,ownership,partnership,andresults-orientation(especially inconnectionwiththeInternationalDevelopmentTargets)havetobesuitablyimbibed.

Basedonsecondaryliteraturereview,emergingissuesinruralsectorareasfollows:

1. Theparadoxinfunding:Themajorityofthepoorstillliveinruralareas,andyetdonorsupportforagriculturalandotherruraldevelopmenthasslumped.

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2. Adiminishingurban-ruraldivide:Ruralandurbanlivelihoodsare inter-dependent,andthere israrelyasharpgeographicaldividebetweenruralandperi-urban.Ruraldevelopmentstrategiesmusttakeaccountoftheurbanlinksandcontext.

3. Diversifiedlivelihoods:Therearefewfull-timefarmersnow,ashouseholdspursuemulti-functionalandmulti-spatial livelihoods.Thus,support to thenon-farmruraleconomy and tomigrationareasimportantasagriculturalsupport.

4. Small-holderfarminginruralareasfacesnewchallenges:Increasinglyruralhouseholdsconsistofpart-timefarmers,worksmallerplotsandareheadedbytheelderly,youngandwomenwhofaceseverecreditandinputconstraints.Further,theformatofaccesstosubsidiesandextensionserviceshaschanged.Marketchangesincreasetheneedforspecialisttechniques,qualitycontrol,information-intensivetechnologiesandmarketinginvolvinghightransactioncosts–factorswhichprovidelargerfarms with economies of scale. Targeted assistance is needed where small-scale farming can becompetitive;otherwisesmallfarmersneedgoodexitsfromfarming.

5. Reversestatecompression:Astrongstateisneededtounderpinthemarketandenableprivatesectordevelopment.Publicinterventionsareneededtoincreaseaccesstonewopportunities(agriculturalornon-farm)specificallybythepoor,andtoestablishtheinstitutionalframeworkforeffectivemarketdevelopment.

6. Technological targeting: Production increases based on the seed-fertilizer model of the GreenRevolution have slowed. New technologies are likely to be more crop and region specific, andinformation-intensive. Technical change is largely biased against the poor. Policies to targettechnologiesneed tobe location specific.Public intervention isparticularly required indevelopingtechnologiesandinformationchannelsappropriatetopoorfarmers.

7. Rethinking institutional capacity and governance: Many recommended measures for ruraldevelopment cannotbe effectivewithout significant capacity buildingand institutional support. Insomeareas,decentralizationshouldprevailtoreinforcepositivetrendsforincreasedaccountability.Butinsomeareas,likeaspirationaldistricts,thesecond-bestsolutionswouldbemoreeffectivethanattemptsatbusinessasusual.

8. Growingdivergencebetweenlowandhighpotentialareas:Lowpotentialareashaveverydifferentneeds as compared to high potential areas where diversification and modernization is alreadyunderway. They generally still need agriculture-based development, are least likely to gain fromglobalizationopportunities,andwillgeneratelowerreturnsbecauseoftheirinherentdisadvantages(remoteness,poorsoilsetc.).Policymustadapttocontext.

9. Ruralrisksandvulnerability:Theruralsectorfacesnewrisksduetoincreasingnaturaldisastersandrapideconomicchange.Externalsupportforrisk-mitigationandcopingstrategies isgenerallyinsufficient.Publicandprivaterolesinsupportinginsuranceandrisk-copingneedtobestrengthened,whichinturndependsonthefiscalburdenbeingaddressed.

10. Preventing and managing conflict: Conflict has a debilitating impact on rural livelihoods, andincreasing levels of conflict threaten the achievement of poverty reduction targets. Programframeworksand implementationstrategiesneedtoescape fromtheconceptualandprogrammaticconstraintsofalinearapproachtoreliefanddevelopment.

Background

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DoRD is committed to eradicate poverty and hunger from the rural India and usher in all rounddevelopmentofruralmasses.Accordingly,theDoRDisimplementinganumberofprogrammes,whichaim at, bridging the rural-urban divide, guaranteeing wage employment and ensuring food security,providingeconomicupliftbyself-employment,creatingruralinfrastructure,providingdignifiedlivingbyproviding shelter and restoring lost or depleted productivity of natural resources like land,water andbiomass.Theresearchanddevelopmentneedsoftheruralsectorhasbeenattendedtoby‘GuidelinesforEvaluation, Impact Assessment and Research Study’ which lay-down in clear terms, themethods andprocessesofresearchanddevelopment,alongwiththepriorities.

Overthelastfewyears,thebudgetaryallocationsforruraldevelopmentprogrammesareincreasingatafastpace.Consideringthesizeandscopeoftheprogrammeimplementation,itisnecessaryforthepolicymakersandimplementerstoknowthebenefitsandimpactsofsuchdevelopmentintervention.

Inordertoassesstheoutcomesofthishugeexpenditureandtoimprovetheefficienciesandeffectivenessoftheprogrammes,theMinistryorganizesevaluationandimpactassessmentstudiesonaregularbasis.Issuesandchallengeslimitingtheeffectiveimplementationoftheprogrammeatthegrass-rootlevelcanbe diagnosed through detailed micro-level data analyses and corrective measures can be outlined,accordingly.Further,DoRDregards theevaluationof itspolicies,programmes, schemes,projectsandinterventionsasaninstrumentofaccountability.

The evaluations are entrusted to the agencies internal to the Ministry (Programme Divisions, NIRD,Monitoring Division, etc.), or external agencies or are conducted jointly. Partnership by choice inevaluationisencouraged-betweentheMinistryandoutsideagencies,betweenprogrammedivisionsandmonitoringdivision.But,inordertoensurecredibility,thirdpartyindependentevaluationstooarethepreferredmode of evaluation. The focus of the evaluation approach is practical, and the findings areuseabletolargeextent.Toensureusabilityofthefindings,themainusersofevaluationareinvolvedinspecifyingtheobjectivesandselectingthemostappropriatemodel,methodsandtheory.Theevaluationstudies are either ex-ante, ex-post and/or mid-term. The instruments such as concurrent evaluation,evaluationandimpactassessment(pilotorotherwise)tooareemployed.Whereverevaluationisnecessaryor mandatory, funding provisions are made to conduct such studies. All the policies, programmes,schemes,projectsandinterventionsoftheMinistryareframedinsuchawaythatitbecomespossibletoevaluate them meaningfully. This means; outcome budgeting, logical framework analysis, stakeholderanalysisandmoderntoolsofmanagementareusedwhileframingthem.ThefindingsoftheevaluationstudiesoreventhedashboardsoftheMinistriesaresharedandupdatedregularlywithalltheconcernedasperthediscloserpolicyoftheMinistryandtheRighttoInformationAct.

In general, the evaluation and impact assessment studies capture the ground realities regarding theexecution/implementationprocessesandtheimpactoftheprogramme/projects.However,thesestudiesingeneral,attimesdonotexaminespecificquerieswithregardtoindividualprogrammes/projects.Thetheories,hypothesesandassumptionson thebasisofwhich the ruraldevelopment interventionsaredesignedandimplementeddonotfindpropermentionedintheprobes.Astheutilityofsuchstudiesareofimmenseimportancetostrengthenthepublicaccountabilityoftherangeofpovertyalleviationandruraldevelopmentprograms,issuebased,andthematicresearchstudiesaredesired.Suchresearchstudiesmayconcentratemainlyon:

1. Sector, area and programme/scheme/project specific issues relating to theories, hypotheses andassumptionsofgovernmentinterventionsinruralsector.

2. Adoptingresearchmethodologykeepinginviewtherecentdevelopmentsinthefieldofsocialresearchinthesubjectofeconomics,statistics,sociologyandpsychologyetc.

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3. Ensuringthatthefindingswillbeusedtodesignandimplementcentralgovernmentinterventionsattheall-Indialevel.

4. Prioritizingstudiesthatcutacrossvariousgovernmentschemes/interventions.

There are several modes of devising operational plans viz.; Suo-moto proposals; Invited Proposals(Competitive); Commissioned Proposals (Non-competitive), depending upon specific needs of policymakingandpreparationofScheme.

National Institute ofRuralDevelopment andPanchayati Raj (NIRDPR) has been leading the researchagendakeepinginviewtheshiftsindevelopmentparadigms.ThemajorthemesforNIRDresearchincludepovertyreductionandruralemployment,environmentandsustainabledevelopment,decentralizationandgoodgovernance,andtransferoftechnology.Itlaysspecialemphasisonlivelihoodsofcorepovertygroupsandempowermentofmarginalizedgroupsandwomen.

TheInstitutealsoundertakesactionresearchprojectsonrelevantthemes.NIRDPRhasbeentakingupresearchstudiesonseveralthemesrelatingtodevelopmentstrategies,qualitativeaspectsofprogrammeimplementation,focusingonDoRDschemesandemergingdevelopmentissues.Inaddition,casestudiesofsuccessfulinitiativesarealsotakenup.Thestudiesidentifythecriticalareasaffectingtheprocessofimplementation,deficienciesandalsoclearlysuggestactionpointsbasedonthecausativeanalysis.

The Institute disseminates the results of the research studies and recommendations of its variousseminarsandworkshops throughanumberofpublications. Itbringsoutaquarterly JournalofRuralDevelopmentandmonthlyNIRDPRNewsletterinEnglishandHindi.TheJournalofRuralDevelopment,apeer-reviewed quarterly publication is rated highly among the academicians. The journal publishestheoretical andempirical articles andprovides a forum for exchangeof views betweenvariouspolicymakers,planners,researchersandfunctionariesconcernedwithruraldevelopment.TheCentreforMediaand Rural Documentation (CMRD) of the Institute acts as a referral and serving agency for the ruraldevelopmentsectorasawhole.

In addition, several national institutes and centres of excellence are engaged in undertaking variousresearchtooffernecessarylinkagestothepoliciesandprogramsinruraleconomy.Largelytheresearchthemeshavebeenfocusedonthefollowing:

• Analysis of theories, hypotheses and assumptions of wage employment interventions, self-employment interventions, skill development, rural road sectorwith special reference toPMGSY;ruralhousingsectorwithspecialreferencetoPMAY(G);ruralinfrastructuresector;

• InclusivegrowththroughRuralDevelopmentProgrammesviz.,MGNREGSandDAY-NRLM;

• Womenempowermentandgenderissues;

• Levelsoflivingofwomenandothervulnerablesocialgroups;

• LabourmarketrelationsandroleofgovernmentinterventionslikeMGNREGSandDAY-NRLM;

• Processstudiesofvariousschemes/programmestofindoutitseffectivenessandefficiencies;

• RuralDevelopmentandgoodgovernance;

• Sustainablelivelihoodsupport-roleofgovernment,particularlytheDoRD;

• VulnerabilityreductionthroughRuralDevelopmentProgrammes;

• Financialinclusion;

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• SocialCapitalformationanditsimpactontheimplementationofRuralDevelopmentProgramme;

• Communitybasedmonitoring;

• Socialauditandcommunityempowerment;

• Public-private-PRI-communitypartnershipsforsustainabledevelopment;

• Convergencefeasibilitiesandmethods;

• Ruraldevelopmentinterventionsandhumanskillimplications;

• InstitutionalcapacityofPRIsandEffectiveImplementationofRDProgrammes;

• GenderBudgetinganditsoperationalization.Takeaways

• Strengtheningfeedbackmechanismisdesiredurgently:TheofficersattheDistrictleveloftenfeelthattheironlyrolewithrespecttothepoliciesofthecentralgovernmentisimplementingthemaspertheguidelines.Whiletherearehugelacunaseveninputtingtheoryintopractice,acruciallinkthatismissinginpolicyformulationisthefeedbackonexistingpolicieswhichshouldcomefromtheofficersin chargeat the lowest tierofdevelopmentadministration, that is, either theBlockDevelopmentOfficeroradistrict-levelofficerinchargeofdevelopmentadministration.Anefficientinstitutionalizedfeedback channel should be established so that the challenges faced are brainstormed by thoseinvolved inpolicy formulation and implementation, and the learnings canbe incorporated in thepoliciestomakethemmoreeffective.Theabsenceofinstitutionalizedfeedbackmechanismwillonlyleadtoineffectivepoliciesgettingimplementedinaninefficientmanner.

• Widedisseminationofresearchfindingsshouldbefurtherencouraged.Apartfromprofessionaljournals/books,finaltechnicalreportsofcompletedprojectsmaybedisseminatedthroughoneormoreof the following channels, as appropriate viz.; website of the Ministry; website ofNIRDPR/SIRDs/Institutes;WebsitesofMajorUniversities (throughUGC);Websitesof StateRuralDevelopmentDepartments;ProfessionalandPolicy-makers’Workshops.

• R&D efforts should focus on calibrating India’s social safety net programmes to presentcircumstances:TheobjectivesanddesignofIndia’ssafetynetprograms,whetherfoodorcashbased,need to evolve with economic growth and the changing nutritional needs of the marginalizedpopulations.Thefutureroleofsafetynetsneedstobemoretransformationalratherthanvulnerabilityreducing. Overall effectiveness of safety nets would depend to a large extent on how they arecombinedwithstructuralreformsandlong-terminterventionstoincreasehumancapabilitiesandaddressstructuralpovertythroughthat.Synergiesbetweenagricultureandsafetynets, therefore,becomeessential.Urbanization,especially,posesachallengeaswellasopportunityinrestructuringthesafetynetarchitecture.ThefutureresearchanddevelopmentthemesshouldtakeintoaccountthefactthatIndiawouldbemoreurbanthanruralby2050.

• Research efforts exploring agrarian innovations would be significant knowledge gains:Institutional interventions, such as Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) and cooperatives, canoffsetscaledisadvantages facedbysmall farmsinsupplyingtothemodernvaluechainsaswellasaccesstoelectronicmarketsandfuturestradingplatforms.Byreducingtheriskassociatedwiththeadoption of new crop technologies and reducing transaction costs in market access, theseinterventions could help in farm diversification aswell as better price realizations in the output

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market.AppropriateappliedresearchtoidentifyinnovativemodelsandsolutionsthathighlightsuchwaysbythestageofdevelopmentaparticularStateisinshouldbeprioritized.

In the few States with low agricultural productivity, FPOs have the potential to enable greatercommercialization, enabling greater yields. Linkages to output markets will help incentivize theproductionofpulsesandcoarsegrains,giventheircomparativeadvantage.Inagriculture-ledstatesandurbanizingstates,alternativemodelssuchascontract farmingaremore likely tosucceed sincefarmsintheseareasarealreadyhighlycommercialized.Hence,aggregationmodelsandpilotstohelpreduceorganization costsof engagingwithamore significantnumberof small farmsand reducecontractingcoststoevolvepolicymeasureswithnecessaryfinancialandinsurance-basedservices,linking them to information and extension services and enabling market linkages by improvingconnectivity,willfurtherincentivizesocialcapitalformationeffortsandestablishlinkagesacrossthevaluechain.Thefocusnowshouldshiftonresearchaimedatstructuraltransformationsintheruralsectorsoastoaugmenttheeffortsoflivelihoodmissions.

Withincreasingdemandforqualityandhigh-valueagriculturalproduce,alternativevaluechainsandnewermarketingplatformshaveemerged.Verticalcoordination(VC)bywhichretailersformdirectlinkageswith farms,bypassing traditionalmarkets,hasbeengrowing in India’smoreprogressivestates.VC can bemore relevant for regions with good linkages tomarket (agriculture-led growthstates),whilefuturesandwarehousingplatformscanbeusefulfornon-perishablecommoditiesandcanemergeinlowpotentialareas.

• A sustained focus on climate change is desired in all R&D efforts: Climate change can havesignificantadverseimpactsonagriculturalproductivity,ruralincomesandwelfare;inaddition,itcanposeseriousriskstothefoodsecurityofnotonlytheruralpopulacebutfortheeconomyasawhole.Climateresilientpoliciesforthefutureshouldallowdiversificationofgreeningruraldevelopmenteffortsinwaysthatenhancetheenvironmentwhileimprovingthefoodproductionsystemandalsotheemploymentpatternandincomesecurityofruralyouthsinparticular.Climatechangerisksmustnotbeunderstated,andappropriateactionstowardsitsmitigationneedtobeadoptedinalltheresearchanddevelopmentdimensionsoftheruralsector.Theresearchshouldbefocusedoninsightswithdataand evidence on the current systems challenges from external forces such as the overuse of theenvironmentandthealsotheprojectionsonactionsdesiredfromtheperspectiveofclimatechange.

• Thereispotentialforchangeinallowingpublicsectoraccesstoprivatesectorinnovations:UnlikeGreenRevolutiontechnologieswhichwerepublicsectorgenerated,technologicalinnovationstodayaregeneratedintheprivatesectorandhenceposechallengesofaccessforruralsector.Processevaluationsandmonitoring,formativeassessments,impactevaluationsandsummativeevaluationsshouldbesuitablydesignedtotakecognizanceofinstitutionalinterventionsthatenablepublicsectoraccesstoprivatesectorinnovationsandtoadaptthemtoruralsectorarecrucial.

• Spatial dimensionsof ruraldevelopmentneed to take into cognizance the constraints andopportunities differently and require different strategies: Key factors such as proximity andaccesstocities;theamountandqualityofnaturalresources;densityofsettlementandvulnerabilitytonaturalcatastrophesneedstobeconsidered.Simplifyingacomplexspatialpicture,itmaybehelpfultodistinguishbetweenperi-urbanzones,the‘standard’countryside,andremoteruralareas.

In general, though, ‘location theory suggests that rural areas indeveloping countries onlyhave acomparative advantage in a narrow range of activity. These dimensions have implications fordiversification. Rural people seek to diversify livelihoods and may do this locally or over longdistances: thephenomenonof ‘multi-locational’households is increasingly familiar. Inmanyplaces,

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thereisaU-curveofdiversification,whichseesnon-farmactivityconcentratedamongthepoor(asasurvival or coping strategy) and among the rich (as an accumulation strategy). Similarly,decentralization,de-concentrationanddevolutionaimtomakethestateapparatusmoreresponsivetolocalneedsrequireemphasis.Indoingsotheessentialpreconditionsforsuccesssuchasadequatefunds;powers;andaccountabilityofelectedrepresentativestocitizens,andofbureaucratstoelectedrepresentativesneedtoformthecore.

Wayforward

In the ecosystemof research institutions, universities and think tanks chargedwith the taskof ruralsectortransformation,thewayforwardtocarryforwardresearchanddevelopmentagendamayengagethefollowing:

• ResearchRoles:Institutionsandcentersofexcellencearesupposedtodoextensiveresearchontheruralcontextinordertofindouttheinequalitiesbetweenthedifferentsub-systems.Often,earliestpredictionshelpindivertingorabolishingformulationofprogramimplementationframeworks.

• CoordinatingRoles:Significantcoordinatingrolesbetweendifferentsub-systemsoftheruralsectoraretobeprioritizedinordertounderstandthefutureimplicationsandalsotoidentifyissuesinaneffective,convenientandtimeboundmanner.

• Innovation:Innovativesolutions,whereandwhenrequired,inordertobringthebalancebetweenvarioussub-systemsneedtohelpunderstandtherootcauseofanyproblemandsuggestsolutions inordertoaddresstheproblemsatisfactorily,effectivelyandefficiently.

• Testing Roles: Roles of such nature provide credibility and proof of concept to newlyinnovated/invented solutions/models/strategies that work perfectly in sync with various sub-systems.Primetestingmayprecedebeforeimplementinganythingontheruralsectorasawhole.Testingalwaysgivesoptionstofinetuneandfoolproofthesolutions/models/strategies.

• IncubationRoles:Someideas/solutionssometimesrequireincubationfacilitiesinordertodevelopafull pledged solution. Conducive atmosphere to incubate such solutions/ideas to amatured levelwouldbedesired.Fore.g.;ruralcottageindustriesbeingset-upwillhaveinherentinitialchallengesofsiteorlocationproblem.However,latertotheinitiationofworkandproductionitmaynotbeabletolocateittoaplaceofchoiceuntilthemicroenterprisereachesacertainstage.Incubationcentreshelpingrowingmicroenterprisesbyreducinganinitialinvestmentcostsandtherebymakingventuresprofitablebyanearlyperiod.

• MediatingRoles: In the rural development space, often the inclusionof several organizations inachieving a particular goal may help the sector at large to increase its effectiveness of itssolutions/models. In such situations, a mediating agency coordination role on research anddevelopmentamongseveralecosystemsmayhelptobringoutthedesiredsynergy.

• VentureCapitalRoles:Thebiggestobstacleintheruraldevelopmentsectoristhedearthofviabilitygapfundingattimestosecureemploymentofmasses.However,sourcing,channelizingdistributingandrecollectingitinanorganizedmannertosafeguardtheinterestsofalltheinvolvedstakeholdersismajorchallenge.Therewouldbeseveralstakeholdersrequiredtocollectivizeandtherebydevelopthenecessarybridge.

• EvaluationRoles:Intheprocessofruraldevelopment,evaluationofexistingactionsandstrategiesiscritical.Italsocallscontinuousmonitoringofimplementingmodels/solutionsonaregularbasisto

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ensurethatobjectivesareachievedinacontinuousandtimeboundmanner.Besidesthis,continuousevaluationofallruralandruralconvergentpoliciesmaydedicatedlybecarriedout.

(x) Unlockingsynergieswithothergovernmentprogrammes

Introduction

Mutuallybeneficialprogramsalongruraltrajectoriescancontributesubstantiallytoruralsector’ssmart,sustainableandinclusivegrowthagenda.Successincreatingsynergiesislargelydeterminedbydecisionsmadeatlocalandregionallevels.Well-designedgovernancearrangementscanbeconducivetodecisionsthatstrengthenbeneficialrelations.Thematicfunctionallinkagescuttingacrossdepartmentstoidentifyand strengthen policies, governance systems and practices is desired. Some of the key concerns onunlockingsynergiesinclude:

1. What type of synergies (fund, institutional technical expertise, and socialmobilization) has beenattempted?Howsimultaneousconvergenceofallthedimensionscanbeachieved?

2. Howparticipatorywastheprocessadopted?WhetherPRIsorlocalbodies,inparticular,havebeeninvolvedintheplanningandimplementationofconvergenceinitiatives?

3. Whatisthescopeforachievingmulti-sectoralcollaborationtakingintoaccountregionaldiversitytomakeasignificantcontributiontoprojectsustainabilityandmaximizationofbenefits?

4. What institutional arrangement would ensure the identification of convergence projects by thecommunityforwideracceptanceandownership?

5. Whyarethesuccessful/innovativeprojectsnotbeingreplicated?Howcanthisbeinstitutionalized?

6. Howtoaddressthevariousfactors(capacity,commitment)hinderingtheconvergenceplanningforachievingsynergyandoptimaluseofresources?

Background

Social sector expenditure accounts for a major share of the government expenditure. The financialresources currently allocated under different thematic areas, such as rural development, health andfamily welfare, school education and literacy, food and public distribution, women and childdevelopment, grants from the 14th Finance Commission, and State shares for Centrally SponsoredSchemes,amountstomorethanRs.4lakhcroresannually.BudgetexpenditureonRuralDevelopmentitselfhasbeenenhancedby62percentfromRs.58,630croresintheyear2013-14,toRs.95,990croresintheyear2016-17.Later,thisamountrosetoRs.1,05,448croresfortheyear2017-18.

Asaconsequence,substantialpublicinvestmentsarebeingmadeforstrengtheningofruraleconomyandlivelihoodbaseofthepoor.ThisincludesespeciallythemarginalizedgroupssuchasSC/STsandwomen.Toeffectivelyaddresstheissueofpovertyalleviation,thereisaneedtooptimizeeffortsthroughinter-sectoral approaches. The convergence of different programmes with MGNREGS, such as WatershedProgrammes,NationalAgricultureDevelopmentProgramme(RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana),NationalHorticulture Mission, Scheme of Artificial Recharge of Ground Water through Dug well, BackwardRegions Grant Fund, would enable better planning and effective investments in rural areas. Thisconvergencewould bring synergies between different government programme/schemes in terms ofplanning,processandimplementation.Thiswillalsofacilitatesustainabledevelopment.

Inthissense,althoughsubstantialpublicinvestmentsarebeingmadeforstrengtheningruraleconomyandlivelihoodsbaseofthepoor;duetomultidimensionalityofpoverty,thereisaneedtooptimizeeffortsthrough synergies with other departments. There is a growing realization that the phenomenon ofpovertyismorecomplexthanmeremismatchinincomeandexpenditureofaparticularhousehold.

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Hence,itisnecessarytodevelop/unlockthesynergieswithothergovernmentprogramstoaddressthismulti-dimensionality of poverty, which is based on convergence, accountability and measurableoutcomestoensurethattheresourcesareeffectivelyspentinproviding“sustainablelivelihoodsforeverydeprivedhouseholds”.Itmeansthatwhileexistingresourcesareusedmoreeffectivelyalongwithannualincreases,progressisalsomonitoredonthebasisofanagreedsetofindicatorsemployedbydifferentcentral and state departments. Thus, a composite index would not only ensure accountability andconvergence,butalsoindicateprogressonmeasurableoutcomesattheGramPanchayatandhouseholdlevel.

Inthisregard,itisimportanttonotesomeofDoRD’sinitiativestoensureasustainableandintegratedRuralDevelopment.OnethatdeservesmentionistheDishainitiativebuilttowardsamoreparticipativegovernancetofacilitatesynergiesinplanning,monitoringandimplementationofdifferentschemes.Itsmandate seeks to achieve efficient and timely Centremonitoring of all administrative levels throughcoordination,synergyandconvergenceforgreaterimpact.TheinitiativeinvolveselectedrepresentativesanddistrictadministrationinschemeimplementationstagesinquarterlyCommitteeMeetings.ItalsoreliesonadigitalMIS system forunifieddatakeeping.Another initiative is thePerformanceReviewCommittee, inwhich the performance of difference schemes under the umbrella of theMinistry arereviewed.AllPrincipalSecretariesofallStatesareinvitedtoattendthemeetingpersonallytoparticipateintheadvancementstowardsthevisionofNewIndia2022andthe75MilestonesforIndia@75.

Another initiative that contributed to a better understanding of poverty is the SocioEconomicCasteCensus, conducted by DoRD in 2011. The SECC data allows us to understand the socio-economicconditions of a household from the perspective of multidimensional deprivations (e.g. landlessness,householdsheadedbysinglewoman,SC/SThouseholdsetc.).Multidimensionalityofdeprivationmeansthatahouseholdcouldbedeprivednotonlyduetoabsenceofassets,poorqualityofhousing, lackofaccess to sanitation and clean water but also due to social inequality, lack of education, absence ofsustainablelivelihoods,inadequateincome.Inadequateskillsor/andhealthcarethisdeprivationitselfcould be further compounded due to say disability or absence of an earningmember in thewomenheadedhousehold,whichcouldthrowspecificchallenges.

After the 73rd Amendment to the constitution, three tier Panchayat systems are increasinglyspearheading thedevelopmenteffortsat thegrassroots.However,due tomultiple layersofplanning,administrationandresourceallocationtotackledeprivation,theeffortsareoftendispersedintimeandspaceleadingtosuboptimalresults.Thus,convergentplanningwiththeGramPanchayatasitsbasicunitprovidesthekeytoaddressmultidimensionalityofpovertybysynergizingallresources–financialandhuman– insaturationmode,acrossdifferentgovernments,departmentsandschemesto target thesedeprivationssimultaneouslyandithastobestateledpartnershipforruraltransformation.

The overarching global commitment on SDGs seeks to address the inequalities across countries anddisparitiesofopportunity,wealthandpower.The2030agendaforSDGsadvocatessustained,inclusiveandsustainableeconomicgrowthasanoutcome.DoRDisthenodalministryofGovernmentofIndiaforSDG goal; “End poverty in all its forms everywhere”. The achievement of such outcome requiresconvergenceofplans,effortsandconstantmonitoringofprogressforremedialmeasures.DoRDstrivestowork on the sustainable and inclusive growth of rural India through amulti-pronged strategy bydiversification and enhancement of livelihoods opportunities, providing social safety and developingqualityinfrastructure.

Toensure transparency inMGNREGS,district administrationandGramPanchayats tried to involvemultiple

agenciesintheimplementationofworkincludingallthemajorlinedepartments,suchasRevenue,PublicWorks

Department,Agriculture,Horticulture,etc.Further,10,454inspectionshavebeendonebytheblock-levelrural

development functionaries and 1,677 inspections by the district-level officials of the Rural Development

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Department.Additionally,5,432inspectionsaredonebytheLineDepartmentofficials.Theseofficersaregiven

amonthlyminimumtargetoffiveinspections.Theadministrationcloselymonitorsthesetargetsduringmonthly

reviewmeetingsofRevenueandotherLineDepartmentfunctionaries.Formotivatingandencouragingthem,a

revolvingtrophyhasbeenintroduced.Everymonth,thetrophygoestothedepartmentandtheindividualsdoing

the highest number of quality inspections Thus, thismulti-agencymonitoringmechanismhelps to keep the

village-level implementingmachineryona constanthighalert.Thishasensuredcorrectness inMusterRolls

eliminatingghostworkers.

Takeaways

• The present approach to synergy falls short on addressing multidimensional aspects ofpoverty: Schemesaredesignedbasedondifferent conceptionsandapproaches towardspoverty,whichcreatesadiscrepancybetweenthevariousstrategiesadoptedineachscheme.Asaresult,thereisconsiderablevarianceinselectioncriteriaandtargetingacrossschemes.Thisisbecausethereisaspatial and temporal mismatch in supporting individuals and households through differentgovernmentschemes.Inthissense,synergiesacrossdepartmentscouldcontributetoawidervisionof the multidimensionality of poverty, one which would be more consistent across differentinterventions and lead to more effective interaction with agencies. This includes especially linedepartments, Panchayat Raj Institutions, banks and other financial institutions for resources isrequiredforproductivepovertyreductionefforts.

• ThereareoverlapsamongsimilarschemesunderDoRD:TheMinistry’sschemesfocusonlocalinfrastructure development, betterment of poor by providing wage employment and self-employmentopportunities.Overlapsleadtorepetitiveplanning,aswellaslackofsynergy.Thereisaneedtoevolveasystemofsynchronizationamongtheseschemes.Further,variationsinbenefitsandsupportprovidedundertheseschemescreateproblemsatoperationallevel.Thereisalsoaneedtoidentifyasolutiontoaddressthisissue.

• Planning,implementationandmonitoringofdifferentschemesworkinsilos:Thefunctionaldeliveryofprogrammestendstohappenindependently,resultinginunderutilizationofcapacityandsub-optimaloutcomesacrossdepartmentsanddifferentadministrative levels.Thisoften imposesobstacles to poverty alleviation. Therefore, there is need to bring in synergies between differentgovernmentprogrammesandschemestoachievesubstantialpovertygoals.

• TherelationshipbetweenPanchayatsandinstitutionsofthepoorneedtobestrengthened:InviewoftheeminentrolesofPanchayatRajInstitutions(PRIs),itisnecessarytoconsciouslystructureandfacilitateamutuallybeneficialworkingrelationshipbetweenPanchayatsandinstitutionsofthepoor.LinkageswithPRIsareparticularlynecessaryatthelevelofVillagePanchayats.

• PartnershipswithNGOsandotherCSOscontributetosynergies:DoRDprogrammesoftenseekpartnerships with Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and other Civil Society Organizations(CSOs),attwolevels-strategicandimplementation.ThepartnershipsareguidedbyDoRD’scorebeliefsandvalues,andmutualagreementonprocessesandoutcomes.

Wayforward

• Unlocksynergiesinplanning,implementationandmonitoringacrossschemes:HouseholdsandvillagesshouldbeconsideredasthebasicunitofplanningthatfacilitateshouseholdlevelmicroplanandGPdevelopmentplan.Harmonizingselectioncriteria,implementationprocessesandguidelinesandavailabilityof fundsat thesame time iscritical for implementation.Thiswouldneedpoolingfinancial and human resources in different schemes of government and their rationalization inimplementing the plans atHH level andGPDP. This requires alignment of interventions towardsconvergencesatalllevelsofgovernment.

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• Buildpartnershipswithgovernmentandnon-governmentstakeholders:ThereareunexploredopportunitiesofpartnershipswithNGOs,CSOs,academicandtraining institutions,Public,PrivateandCooperativeSectorstotaptheirareasofstrengthandexperience.

• Set a robustmonitoring and evaluation strategy of synergy interactions:Monitoring effortswouldincludeindicatorsfortrackingprogressofsynergies,assessmentoftheperformanceofGPs,arrangementsregardingthecoordinationofworkofdifferentadministrativelevels,suchasCentralandStatelevelmonitoringcommitteesformation,andabaselinedatatobeinterlinkedwithDISHAportaltoprovidefocusedinterventionsandresourceconvergence.

• ProvideHumanResourcesupport:Itincludesinformationeducationandcommunicationactivitiesandasystemofincentives,particularlyforGPs.

• BuildlinkageswithPRIs:ItisnecessarytoinvolvePRIsinprogrammeimplementationandbuildinginteractiveplatformsbetweenPRIsandSHGs/Federationsformutualsupport.

(xi) Reformsandregulations

Introduction

Regulations codify the spaces encompassing rural development and reforms bring in processes thatestablishresponsiveandgoodgovernanceinthesespaces.Thissectionaimsatdocumentingthedifferentlegislationsthatimpactruraldevelopmentasasectorandhaveadirectbearingontheprogrammaticinterventions and the different reform processes that have been instituted by other ministries anddepartmentsinadditiontothereformsthathavebeenundertakenbyDoRD.

Background

Regulations

Theevaluationhasnottakenintoaccountspecificregulationsthatoperateforspecificlivelihoods,e.g.agriculture, forest based livelihoods, fisheries, khadi and village industries etc. These are livelihoodspecificandcomeintoplaywhenactivitiesrelatedtotheselivelihoodsisundertaken.Thelawsthatareconsideredherearetheonesthatcreateanenablingenvironmentwithinruralspacesandthelawsthatempowerruralpeopleandhouseholds.Lawsfallingundereachofthesetwocategoriesaredetailedintheensuingparagraphs.

Enablingenvironment

Thereare three typesof laws thathavean impact in themanner inwhichruralspacesaregoverned(Panchayat andPESA); extensionof rural development intonew territories (FRA); and the laws thatoperate for the development and functioning of people’s collectives (Cooperatives and ProducerCompany).

(i)Panchayats:tofulfiltheconstitutionalmandatetoorganizevillagePanchayatsandendowthemwithsuchpowerandauthority that enables them to functionasunitsof self-government (Article40), theSeventyThirdConstitutionalAmendmentwaspassedthatledtoinsertionofPartIXintheconstitution.Article243Bensuredthatthere“shallbeconstitutedineveryState,Panchayatatthevillage,intermediateanddistrictlevels”.TheAmendmentredefinedthepoliticalandadministrativestructureinthecountrywhereinPanchayatsareendowedwithpowerstofunctionasunitsofself-governmentinruralareas.ConsequenttotheAmendment,eachoftheStatesenactedtheirrespectivePanchayatRajActsandtheinstitutionsofPanchayatRajwerefirmlyestablishedinallruralareasofthecountry.Atpresentthereare654DistrictPanchayats,6,824IntermediatePanchayatsand2,55,534VillagePanchayatsinthecountry.AllstatesexceptDelhi,Mizoram,MeghalayaandNagalandhavePanchayatinstitutionswithintheruralareasofthestate.

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Panchayatsonceconstitutedholdofficeforaperiodoffiveyears.TheircompositionatalllevelsisbasedondirectelectionsfromterritorialconstituencieswithinthePanchayatarea.However,Stateshavebeengiventheoptiontodeterminethemannerofelectionof theChairpersonforeachof thesePanchayatiinstitutions.ThereareprovisionsforreservationofseatsforSC,STandwomensoastomakepoliticalrepresentationpossibleforthesociallyandeconomicallymarginalizedgroupsintheruralsociety.

Though the Constitution gives flexibility to States to determine powers and authority that may benecessarytoenablePanchayatstofunctionasinstitutionsofself-government,italsolaysdownthatallsuchlawsshouldcontainprovisionsfordevolutionofpowersandresponsibilitieswithrespectto(i)thepreparationof plans for economicdevelopment and social justice; and (ii) entrustingPanchayats forimplementationofschemesforeconomicdevelopmentandsocialjusticelistedinEleventhScheduleofthe Constitution. The schedule lists 29 subjects which among other items include issues related tolivelihoodssuchasagriculture,minorirrigation,animalhusbandry,fisheries,minorforestproduce,smallscale industries, and khadi and village industries. Programmes pertaining to rural housing, drinkingwater,roads,povertyalleviationprogrammes,markets,andsocialwelfarenowfallwithinthedomainofPanchayatsinruralareas.

Panchayatshavethusbecometheprimaryunitforgovernanceinruraldevelopment.Thesectorinallitsprogrammaticinterventionsplaysthedualroleofone,workingthroughPanchayatsateachlevelintheimplementationof schemesandprogrammes,and theother, to strengthen these institutions throughgraduateddevolutionofpowers,functions,andresources.

(ii)PESAforScheduleVAreas:Article244oftheConstitutionprovidesforthedeclarationofareasasScheduledAreasinthecountry.TwotypesofScheduledareashavebeenenvisagedintheConstitution:one, isScheduleSixareasthat includethetribalareas inthestatesofAssam,Meghalaya,TripuraandMizoram;andsecondistheScheduleFiveareaswhichincludestribalareasotherthantheareasunderScheduleSix210.TheConstitutiondoesnotspecifycriteriafordeclarationofanareaasaScheduledArea,yet the principles followed by different Acts, Commissions and sub-committees211 includespreponderance of tribal population; compactness and reasonable size of the area; under-developednatureofthearea;andmarkeddisparityintheeconomicstandardsofpeople.Atpresent10StateshaveFifth Schedule areas, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,MadhyaPradesh,Maharashtra,Odisha,RajasthanandTelangana.

There are three implications that have a direct bearing on the formulation and administration ofinterventionsrelatedtoruraldevelopmentinScheduledAreas.First,GovernoroftheStateisempoweredtoimpactimplementationofanAct,oritspartthereof,subjecttoexceptionsandmodificationsasdeemednecessary.Second,Governormaymakeregulationsforpeaceandgoodgovernmentoftheareathatmayinclude(i)prohibitionorrestrictiononthesaleoflandbyoramongmembersofST;(ii)allotmentoflandtomembersofST;and(iii)conductofbusinessofmoneylendingbypersonswholendmoneytomembersofST.Third,theprovisionsofPanchayatActsofrespectivestatesneedtoconformtotheprovisionsofPESA212forScheduledAreasintheirrespectivestates.

TheProvisionsofthePanchayats(ExtensiontotheScheduledAreas)Act,1996isanActthatextendstheprovisions related to Panchayats in theConstitution and the consequent respective StateActs to the

210ScheduleFiveandScheduleSixareasgaintheirnomenclaturemainlybecausethelistoftheseareasisgivenintheScheduleFiveandScheduleSixoftheconstitution211‘Excluded’and‘PartiallyExcluded”areasundertheGovernmentofIndiaAct,1935;ScheduleBofrecommendationofTheExcludedandPartiallyExcludedAreasSubCommitteeofConstituentAssembly;andtheScheduledAreasandScheduledTribesCommission1961.212 THE PROVISIONS OF THE PANCHAYATS (EXTENSION TO THE SCHEDULED AREAS) ACT, 1996 No.40 OF 1996 (24thDecember,1996)

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ScheduledAreassubjecttocertainexceptionsandmodificationasspecifiedundertheact.ThePESAhasprovisionsthatareprotectivetowardsthelifeandlivelihoodsofScheduledtribes;andprovisionsthatestablishthesupremacyofGramSabhaasaninstitutioninthedesign,developmentandimplementationofplansfordevelopmentofsuchareas.Morespecificallytheseprovisionsareasfollows:

• ProtectionofthelifeandlivelihoodsofSTs:PESAprohibitstheStateGovernmenttomakeanylawthatisinconsistentwiththecustomarylaw,socialandreligiouspracticesandtraditionalmanagementofcommunityresources.

• EstablishmentofGramSabha:InScheduledAreas,villagecanbeahabitationorgroupofhabitations,orahamletorgroupofhamletscomprisingacommunityandmanagingitsaffairsinaccordancewiththeirtraditionsandcustoms.PESAenableseverysuchvillagetohaveGramSabhaconsistingofnamesofpersonsincludedintheelectoralrollsforPanchayatsatthevillagelevel.Thisimpliesthatevenahamlet inaScheduledArea cangetdeclared itself asavillageandhave itsownGramSabhaandprogrammesandschemesofdevelopmentspecificallyfortheirvillage.

• SupremacyofGramSabha:PESAestablishesthesupremacyofGramSabhathroughprovisionsthat:(i)mandatetheirapprovalandrecommendationoftheGramSabha.TheGramSabhawillapproveplans,programmesandprojectsforsocialandeconomicdevelopmentbeforethesearetakenupforimplementation;andtheywillidentifyorselectpersonsasbeneficiariesunderpovertyalleviationprogrammes. Further it is mandatory to consult Gram Sabha before acquisition of land fordevelopmentprojectsandbeforeresettlementandrehabilitationofpersonsaffectedbyprojects.TheGramSabharecommendationsaremandatorypriortogivingprospectinglicenseorminingleaseforminorminerals;andbeforegrantofconcessionfortheexploitationofminormineralsforauction;(ii)empowertheGramSabhatointerveneinspecificinstancesespeciallytosafeguardandpreservethetraditionsandcustomsofpeople,theirculturalidentity,communityresourcesandothercustomarymodeofdisputeresolutions;(iii)endowsGramSabhaswithspecificpowerstoenforceprohibitionorregulateorrestrictthesaleandconsumptionofanyintoxicant;toexercisecontroloverownershipof minor forest produce, money lending to Scheduled Tribes, management of village markets,institutions and functionaries in all social sectors, and local plans and resources for such plansincluding tribal sub-plan; and prevent alienation of land; (iv) makes Panchayats accountable bymakingitmandatoryforPanchayattoobtainfromGramSabhaacertificateofutilizationoffundsbythePanchayatfortheplan,programmesandprojectsimplementedintheirarea.

PESA creates an exception within the rural development space specifically for Scheduled Tribecommunities.TheprogrammaticinterventionsandtheirimpactshavetobeassessedinreferencetotheprovisionsofPESAbeforetheycanbeimplementedinthesegeographies.InfactsomeoftheprovisionsofPESAhavebeenextendedtoallruralareas,Forexample,theendorsementofSECCfinal listbytheGramSabhaisapplicabletoallPanchayatsinthecountry.Similarly,theidentificationofworksunderMGNREGSarerequiredtohaveapprovalofGramSabhabeforethesecanbesentforinclusionasshelfofprojects under the programme. PESA has contributed in bringing Gram Sabha as a central body forapprovalofworksandinterventionsinthevillagesinallruralareasofthecountry.

(iii) Forest Rights Act:The Scheduled Tribe and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition ofForestRights)Act,2006213,popularlyreferredtoasFRA,wasenactedprimarilytorecognizeandvesttherightsoverforestandoccupationinforestlandbyScheduledTribesandotherforestdwellersespeciallywhoserightshavenotbeenrecordeddespitethefactthattheyhavebeenresidingintheseforestsforgenerations.TheActcreatesalegalframeworkforstakingclaim,thenatureofevidencerequiredtobacktheclaim,andtheprocessofvestingrightsinrespectofforestlandtotheabovementionedcommunities.

213TheScheduledTribesandOtherTraditionalForestDwellers(RecognitionofForestRights)Act,2006,No.2of2007.

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TheActisequallysensitivetotheneedsforconservationregimeofforestsandincludesresponsibilitiesfor sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance along withachievinglivelihoodandfoodsecurityaspartoftherightsthatarevestedonSTandothertraditionalforestdwellers.

Fromthepointofviewofruraldevelopmentasasector,FRAdefinestwocategoriesofrightsthatarevestedundertheactthatalignitselfwiththesectorasfollows:

- Individualforestright(IFR):Thesearerightsavailabletoindividualtoholdandliveinforestlandforself-cultivationforlivelihoodorforhabitation.Theserightsalsoincluderightofownership,accesstocollect,useanddisposeofminorforestproducethathasbeentraditionallycollectedwithinoroutsidethevillageboundaries.Exceptionhasbeenmadeforprimitivetribalandpre-agriculturecommunitiestoholdcommunitytenuresoverland.Theserightsarethusalignedwiththeinterventionsrelatedtolivelihoods,shelter,andemploymentwithintheruraldevelopmentsector.

- Community forest right (CFR): Community rights for nistar and other community uses andentitlementslikefishandotherproductsofwaterbodies,grazing(bothsettledandtranshumant),andrightstoprotect,regenerate,conserveandmanageanycommunityforestresourcethathasbeentraditionallyprotectedandconservedforsustainableuse.TheCFRalsoextendstoincluderightofaccesstobiodiversityandcommunityrighttointellectualpropertyandtraditionalknowledgerelatedto bio and cultural diversity. These rights relate to interventions pertaining to livelihoods andinfrastructuredevelopmentwithintheruraldevelopmentasasector.

FRAcreatesanexceptionunderForest (Conservation)Act,1980where in itprovides fordiversionofforestland(ifrecommendedbytheGramSabha)forlistedfacilitiesthatinvolvefellingofnotmorethan75 treesperhectare.The listedactivities, interalia, includes tanksandminorwaterbodies,drinkingwatersupplyadwaterpipelines,waterorrainwaterharvestingstructures,minorirrigationcanals,skillup-gradationandvocationaltrainingcentres,roadsandcommunitycentres.Thus,ruralinfrastructuredevelopmentcanbeundertakenthroughinvestmentsinruralinfrastructurethathaveadirectbearingonthelivelihoodactivitiescarriedoutbySTandotherforestdwellingcommunities.

Accordingtothe latestreportavailable87percentof theclaimshavebeendisposedof tillNovember2019.Amongstthese40,92,183havebeenIndividualForestRightsand76,174havebeenCommunityForestRightclaims.

FRAhashadtwoimpactsintheruraldevelopmentsector:one,theprogrammesofruraldevelopmenthavebeenextendedtohouseholdsandcommunitiesthathavebeenrecognizedundertheactasthetagofencroachersonforestlandwasremoved;andsecond,theissuesofforestconservationandlivelihoodsforthesecommunitieshavegainedprominenceforruraldevelopment.Thoughthesectorassuchhasnotcreatedanyspecificprogrammedealingwithforestdwellerscommunitiesandtheprogrammeatpresentareshortonexperienceanddesignforimprovementsinlivelihoodsandinfrastructureintheseareas.

(iv)Cooperative:ThespiritofcooperationanditsinstitutionalformshavebeenexistentinruralIndiaforages,beitdevariorvanaraisystemsforcreationofvillagetanksandforests,orphadsthatwereusedtoimpoundwaterleadingtoequitabledistribution,orlanawherepeasantspartneredwitheachothertocultivate jointly.The first codified formof theCooperativeActhoweverdatesback to1904with theenactmentofTheCooperativeCreditSocietiesAct,1904.TheActwasrestrictedtocreditcooperativesandby1911therewere5,300suchsocietiesinexistencewithmembershipof3,00,000persons.

ThesubjectofcooperativesocietiesisplacedundertheStateListintheConstitution.ThisenabledeachStatetoframeitsownlawsandrulesthatgovernedthefunctioningofcooperativesintheirrespectiveStates.However,aMultistateCooperativeActwasframedbytheCentralGovernmentforcooperativesthatoperateinmorethanonestate.ThefirstoftheseActswasenactedin1954whichwasreplacedin

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1984thathasreplacedwithTheMultiStateCooperativesSocietiesAct2002214.ThepurposeofthenewActhasbeenstatedto“servetheinterestsofmembersinmorethanoneState,tofacilitatethevoluntaryformation anddemocratic functioningof cooperatives aspeople’s institutionsbasedon self-help andmutualaidandtoenablethemtopromotetheireconomicandsocialbettermentandtoprovidefunctionalautonomy.”215

Thelegislativespaceforco-operativeshasbeenstrengthenedwithenactmentofTheConstitutionNinetySeventhAmendmentActin2011.Theamendmentledtothreecriticalchanges:one,thefreedomtoformcooperative societieswas placed as one of the fundamental rights in Art 19(1); second, in DirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicyadditionalarticle43BwasinsertedthatenjoinedupontheStateto“promotevoluntaryformation,autonomousfunctioning,democraticcontrolandprofessionalmanagementofco-operativesocieties”;andthird,PartIXBwasinsertedtitledTheCooperativeSocietieswhichenabledtheStatestomakelawsforcooperativesocietiesfortheirincorporation,regulationandwindingupbasedontheprinciplesofvoluntaryformation,democraticmembercontrol,membereconomicparticipationandautonomousfunctioning.SimilarenablingprovisionhasbeenprovidedforCentralGovernmenttomakelegislationrelatedtomulti-statecooperativesocieties.

There are 8,33,560 cooperative societies in the country with a total membership of 274.97 millionpersons.Amongstthese17%arecredit-basedsocietieswhereasothersareengagedinnon-creditrelatedactivities.Theadvantageofthefederatedstructureofcooperativesisreflectedinthefactthatthereare17Nationallevel,399Statelevel,and357Districtlevelfederations.Additionally,1,255Co-operativesareregisteredunderMulti-stateCooperativeActandimplyingthattheirareaofoperationsisinmorethanonestate216.

Cooperativespresentanorganizationalformatthatisbackedwithenablinglegislationtocollectivisethepoorandenablethemtotakeadvantageoftheirsynergeticsocialcapital.Theorganizationalformatissuitedfordevelopingandstrengtheningfederatedinstitutionsthatmayberequiredasthecollectivesgatherstrengthinnumbersoverlargegeographicalareas,namelyclusterofvillages,orblockandevendistrict level.With each State having a long history of Cooperatives Acts in place there is sufficientexperiencewithinStatestonavigateweaknessesandconstraintswithintheirrespectiveActsanduseitforthebenefitofthepoor.

(v) Producer Company: The concept of Producer Company (PC) was introduced through andamendmenttotheCompaniesAct1956in2002.ThebasisofPCisthedefinitionofprimaryproducethathas been defined as produce of farmers arising from agriculture including animal husbandry,horticulture,floriculture,pisciculture,viticulture,forestry,forestproduce,re-vegetation,beeraisingandfarming plantation products, produce of persons engaged in handloom, handicraft and other cottageindustries;byproductsofsuchproducts;andproductsarisingoutofancillaryindustries.

PC is a body corporate registered under Companies Act that carries on production, harvesting,processing, procurement, grading, handling, marketing, selling, export of primary produce of themembers or import goods or services for their benefit. The scope of PC also includes rendering oftechnicalserviceand/ortraining,education,researchanddevelopmentforpromotionoftheinterestsofthemembers;andgeneration,transmissionanddistributionofpower,revitalizationoflandandwaterincludingtheiruseandconservation,andcommunicationsrelatedtoprimaryproducts.

InaPConlypersonsengagedinactivityconnectedwithorrelatedtoprimaryproducecanparticipateintheownership.AsfarmersaretheprimaryproducerthePCshavecometobeknownmorecommonlyas

214TheMulti-StateCooperativeSocietiesAct,2002[ActNoof39of2002]in2002215PreambletoTheMulti-StateCooperativeSocietiesAct,2002216IndianCooperativeMovement,AStatisticalProfile,NationalCooperativeUnionofIndia,2016

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FarmerProducerCompany(FPC).Aminimumof10primaryproducersarerequiredfortheformationofthecompanywhichafterincorporationwillbeknownaslimitedliabilitybodycorporateandaprivatelimitedcompany(withoutthelimitationofmaximum50members).ThereisnolimitonthemaximumnumberofmembersfortheFPC.

Atpresent,thereare7,374ProducerCompanies217registeredundertheamendedCompaniesAct.

PCasaninstitutionalformathasstringentprotectivemeasuresasitrestrictsthemembershiptoPCtopeoplefromandamongsttheprimaryproducersonly.Thisensuresthattheproducerwillbetheownerof the organization and the organisationwill thuswork for the betterment of themembers and theprimaryproduce.PCsalsorepresenttheopportunityforprimaryproducerstomoveupthevaluechainoftheirproduceandtakeadvantagethroughvertical integrationofprocessesandbytradinginvalueaddedproducts.

EmpoweringPeople:Guaranteeingemployment

Therearetwolegislationsthatdefinetheentitlementsofruralhouseholdsandindividualsasrightsandcreate legal framework which enables them to access these as rights. These two legislations areMGNREGAandRPWDAct.

MGNREGS

Oneofthefocusesofruraldevelopmentplanninghasbeenproductiveabsorptionofunder-employedandsurpluslabourforceinruralareas.Programmesforwageemploymentwerelaunchedandimplementedthat provided relief to the rural poor. However, an increasing need was being felt to create a legalframeworkthatwillensureminimumdaysofemploymenttoeveryhouseholdinruralareas.BasedontheexperienceoftheEmploymentGuaranteeSchemeofMaharashtratheGovernmentofIndiaenactedtheMahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct218 thatcame in to force from1April2007.ThepurposeoftheActis“enhancementoflivelihoodsecurityofhouseholdsinruralareasofthecountrybyprovidingatleastonehundreddaysofguaranteedwageemploymentineveryfinancialyeartoeveryhouseholdwhoseadultmembersvolunteertodounskilledwork.”219

TheActlaysdowntheconditionsandthemannerinwhichtheguaranteeofhundreddaysofemploymentwillbefulfilled:(i)eachstatetoprepareandnotifytheSchemethatwill,interalia,specifyhowtheadultworkerswillbeenrolled,demandwork,conditions foremployment,assessmentofwork,paymentofwages,andlistofpermittedworks.TheseschemesareknownareMGNREGS(MahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeScheme)withreferencetothenameofrespectivestates;(ii)wageratesthatwillbepaidundertheScheme;(iii)conditionsunderwhichunemploymentallowancewillbepaid.

MGNREGS is comprehensive in its approach and coverage of the issues related to commitment ofprovisioningguaranteedemployment.ItlaysdowntheinstitutionalarrangementincludingdistributionofrolesandresponsibilitiesalongwithpowersandfunctionsattheCentre,State,District,IntermediateandGramPanchayatlevel.AnelaborategrievanceredressalandaccountabilitymechanismincludingthatofSocialAuditshavebeenmandatedwithintheact.

PersonswithDisabilityAct

TheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesAct,2016(RPDAct)waspromulgatedbyGovernmentofIndia,interalia,togiveeffecttotheprinciplesofnon-discrimination,equalityofopportunityandaccessibilitytoDivyang in thecountry.TheActcomprehensivelyaddresses theirrightswithrespect toeducation,

217Neti,Annapurna,Govil,Richa, andRao,MadhushreeR., (2019), "FarmerProducerCompanies in India:Demystifying theNumbers,"ReviewofAgrarianStudies,vol.9,no.2,availableatras.org.in/fc5e6f86c86e8548e3eb17f4ec8fbc9f218TheMahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct,2009(42of2009)219PreambletoTheMahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct,2009

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healthcare,rehabilitation,employmentandskilldevelopmentandprotectionagainstviolence,abuse,exploitation. For the rural development sector, specific provisions of the RPD Act that apply are asfollows:

- Promotional (Employment and Livelihoods): These are provisions that direct the governments atappropriate levels to formulateschemesandprogrammes,subject to theireconomiccapacityanddevelopment,forDivyangthatincreasetheiropportunitiesforemploymentandlivelihoods.Theseprovisions relate to facilitation of Divyang for: (i) vocational training and self-employmentprogrammes(sec19);(ii)loansatconcessionalrates(includingmicrocredit)(sec19);(iii)marketingofproducts(sec19);and(iv)servicesandprogrammesfortheirrehabilitationincludingprogrammesforemployment(sec27).

- Protective(Socialsecurity):TheRPDActexpectsGovernmentstoformulateschemesandprogrammestosafeguardandpromotetherightsofDivyangforadequatestandardofliving.Amongotherthings,theseschemesrelateto(i)disabilitypensions,subjecttosuchincomeceilingasmaybenotified;andaccess to safe drinking water and accessible sanitation facilities. Though the Act stipulates thatprovisioningofsuchschemeswillbesubjecttothelimitsofeconomiccapacityanddevelopmentofrespectivegovernments,yettheActstatesthatthequantumofassistanceshallbeatleast25%higherthan the similar schemes applicable to others (sec24); and (ii) conduct of social audit to ensureprotectionfromadverseimpactofallgeneralschemesandprogrammesandtomakesurethattheneeds,requirementsandconcernsofDivyangarebeingmet(sec48).

- Entitlement(infrastructure):ThereareprovisionsintheRPDActthataccordsrightstotheDivyangasspecificentitlementsthatappearasreservationsingovernmentprogrammes.Theseprovisionsinclude (i) measures to provide accessible roads to address mobility (sec 41); (ii) five percentreservation in allotment of agriculture land and housing, poverty alleviation and developmentalschemes,andallotmentoflandonconcessionalrateswheresuchlandistobeusedforpurposeofhousing, shelter, setting up business, enterprise, recreation and production centres (sec 37).AccordingtoCensus2011thereare2.26croresDivyanginIndiawhichcomprise2.21percentofthetotalpopulationofthecountry.AmongtheDivyang,56percentaremalesand69percentofdisabledpopulationresidesinruralareas.Theagebreakupofpopulationofdisabledpersonscompriseof17percentinthe10to19yearagebracket,16percentinthe20to29yearand21percentintheelderlyagebracketof60plusyears.

MGNREGSisapplicabletoallpersonsresidinginruralareas,theRPWDActisspecifictoDivyang.TheintentandpurposeoftheboththeActsishowevertodefinetheentitlement,createaframeworkandprocesstoclaimentitlement,andestablishaccountabilityfordutybearersincasetheentitlementsarenotmadeavailablewithinthegiventimeframe.WhereasMGNREGSis implementedbytheDoRDtheRPWDActhasimplicationsforthesectorwhereithastodevelopinterventionsandsecureresourcesthatwillbespecificallydirectedtoDivyang.AlargepartofcoveragebythesectorhasbeenensuredbymakingthecriteriaofdisabilityasinclusivewithintheSECCdata.ThishasensuredidentificationandselectionofthesegroupsofpersonsforindividualbenefitschemeslikethePMAY-G.ThedesignofinfrastructureandlivelihoodsrelatedprogrammaticinterventionsdocatertotheneedsofDivyangbuttherearenospecificdesignandprocessinterventionsthatensurethatthesebenefitsaresecuredandreservedforthemonly.

Reforms:GoodGovernance

Goodgovernanceframeworkshaveemphasizedontheparticipationofbeneficiariesaspartofdecisionmaking processes; on addressing spatial and inter-household inequalities to make interventionsinclusive; and an accountability framework that monitors and ensures compliances with laws andguidelinesofthescheme.

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DecentralisedGovernance

The73rdConstitutionAmendmentledtotheestablishmentofPanchayatsandtheconsequentStateActsgavethemtheStatespecificlegalmandatefortheirfunctioningasunitsofself-government.However,theautonomy of these institutions has been critically linked to the availability of untied funds at theirdisposalthatallowsthemtomeettheirdevelopmentalaspirations.PreparationofGPDPasapricehasbeen institutionalizedwhich isnowincreasinglybeingusedtogivedirectiontodevelopment inruralareasofthecountry.

IntheGramPanchayatDevelopmentPlan(GPDP),the14thFFCrecommendeddevolutionoflargeamountofmoneytoGramPanchayatstothetuneofRs.2,00,292croresforprovidingbasicservicesforaperiodoffiveyearsduring2015-20.Thiswasthreetimesmoreallocationthanwasrecommendedunderthe13th FFC. The Ministry of Panchayat Raj framed guidelines for the preparation of Gram PanchayatDevelopment Plans (GPDP) for economic development and social justice based on participatoryprocessesandconvergenceofallschemesofCentralandStategovernmenton29subjectsthathavebeendevolvedtoPanchayatsunderScheduleXIoftheconstitution.

GPDPessentiallyhasthreedimensions:first,itcapturesthevisionofwhatthepeoplewouldliketheirvillagetobe;second,itsetsoutgoalstoachievethevision;andthird,itgivesanactionplantoreachthestatedgoals.GPDPsareexpectedtorespondtothegoalsandactionplansinamannerwhereexecutionofplanswillleadtowardstheachievementofSDGtargetsby2030.

Outof2,66,870GPs93percenthadapprovedGPDPsin2019-20.ThenumberofGPsinthecountryoptingforfocusareawisedatafortheyear2019-20isgiveninthefigurebelow.ThefocusareaofBasicServiceincludeswater,sanitation,healthandPDS;Socialwelfareincludesschemesforweakersectionsandtribalwelfare. HumanDevelopment includes education, libraries, women and child, and cultural activities.Livelihoodsincludetheentirerangeoflivelihoodsinruralareasagriculture,animalhusbandry,fisheries,small scale industries, andkhadi andvillage industries. Infrastructure is abroadgroup that includesschemesforenergy,plantation,housing,roads,socialforestryandirrigationworks.ItisnoteworthythatlargestshareofworkswasinBasicservicesfollowedbyLivelihoodsandInfrastructure.

Figure16:FocusAreaWiseGPsPlan2019-20

Addressinginequalities

Inclusionimpliesaccountingforinequalitiesanddifferencesamongregionsandhouseholds.Wherethelaws mandate non-discrimination and equality of opportunity, it is reforms like adoption of

22%

6%

9%

26%

37%

Basic Service Social welfare Human DevelopmentLivelihoods Infrastructure

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TransformationofAspirationalDistrictsprogrammeandSECCdata for targetingofspatialand inter-householdinequalities.Thedetailsofboththesereformativeactionsisgivenbelow.

(i) Geographical: Aspirational districts:The story of India’s growthwill not be complete unless itensuresthatgrowthisbothinclusiveandsustainable.Itisthusimperativethattheresultsandfruitsofdevelopmentaresharedbyallandtheprocessesofdevelopmentandgrowthcreatespaceswhereallcanparticipate and contribute in the growth story. There is, however, spatial dimension tounderdevelopment in the country. There are places that have not been able to keep pace withdevelopmentonaccountoftheirrelativelypoorresourceendowment,poorerinfrastructuralnetwork,lowqualityofsocialcapital,lowstandardsofhealth,nutrition,educationandskills.Dependingonthecontext these factors appear as cause and symptom of under development. The programme forTransformationofAspirationalDistrictswas launched toaddress thecausesofunderdevelopment inthesedistrictsandgiveasustainedpushthatwillbringthesedistrictsindevelopmentalignmentwithotherareasofthecountry.

TheTransformationofAspirationalDistrictsprogrammeisaimedtoincreasethepaceofdevelopmentalactivitiesinselected117districtsin28statesofthecountry.TheprogrammeisimplementedbyStatesandthefocusistoidentifyandusethestrengthsofeachdistrictandprioritiseattainableoutcomesforimmediateimprovement.TheprogrammeworksonthethreecoreprinciplesofConvergence,betweenschemesofCentralandStategovernment;Collaboration,amongcitizensanddistrictteamsofCentralandStategovernment;andCompetition,amongdistrictstomaintainandsustainthepaceofdevelopment.TheprogrammedrawsonfivethematicareasincludingEducationandHealthandNutrition.Theotherthree themes,AgricultureandWaterResources,Financial InclusionandSkillDevelopment,andBasicInfrastructure,arerelatedtoindicatorsofRuralDevelopmentastheyseektoenhancemultipleaspectsoflivelihoodsandinfrastructureinruralspacesinthesedistricts.

Theprogrammemonitorsthereal-timeprogressofaspirationaldistrictsbasedon49indicators(81data-points)fromthe5identifiedthematicareas.NITIAayoghascompletedabaselinerankingof101districts.Thedistrictsarerankedbasedontheirprogressonareal-timebasistoassess‘distancetofrontier’–i.e.thedistanceofeachdistrictfromthestate’sandnation’sbest.Thedistrictsarerankedineachofthefivethematicareasaswellasonacompositeindex.Thedashboardinrealtimeprovidesrankingofeachofthe aspirational districts aswell as give rank of the top and bottom district for each theme and oncompositeindex.220

(ii) Household: Addressing Deprivations: Identification of poor households is a prerequisite foreffectivetargetingofbeneficiariesunderpovertyalleviationandruraldevelopmentprogrammes.BPLCensuswas conductedbyDoRDevery five years since1992.TheCensusprovided credible basis forevidence based intervention; an estimate of extent of poverty in the country; and efficacy of thegovernmentprogrammesinamelioratingsocio-economicconditionsofthetargetedbeneficiaries.TheBPLCensuswasconductedin1992,1997and2002.TargetingbasedonBPLlistwasnegativelyaffectedbyseriousmethodologicalerrorsthatledtoerrorsofexclusionandinclusionwhichnotonlydeprivedthe poor fromgetting benefits of poverty alleviation programmes, but also placed the non-poor intocategoryofpoor.

SumitBoseCommitteerecommendeduseofSECCdatafortargetingthepooranddeprivedhouseholdsasbeneficiariesofpovertyalleviationprogrammes.TheBPLlistispreparedbasedonthedataprovidedbyNSSP,whereasSECCdatarankshouseholdsondifferentparametersofdeprivationandalsoaccordstheopportunityofprioritizinghouseholdsbasedoncriteriaofmultipledeprivations.Further,sinceSECC

220NITIAayog(2018)AspirationalDistricts:UnlockingPotentials,NITIAayog,GovernmentofIndia

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has disaggregated data on different deprivations it allows use of the same data set for targetinghouseholdsfordifferentprogrammes.

SECCwas conductedwith participation fromDoRD,MoHUA and Office of the Registrar General andCensusCommissioner.TheSECCwasarespondentbasedsurveythatwasratifiedbytheGramSabhaandGram Panchayat. It had six steps: Enumeration, Supervision, Verification and Correction, Draft listpublication,ClaimsandObjections,Finallistpublication.Thefinalapprovedlistservedasthereferencedatatotargetprogrammesofruraldevelopment.

Accountability

Detailsofaccountabilityandtransparencythathighlightthereformsinstitutedforgoodgovernancearegiven in the Accountability and Transparency section of the report (Page 87). To summarise, theaccountability in the sector takes place through multiple mechanisms that include performancemonitoringthroughwebbasedMISsystemwellsupplementedbygeo-taggingofassetsandmonitoringby DISHA committee at district level. The second system in assessment by National LevelMonitors,conduct of Common reviewMissions and evaluation studies of specific schemes. The third oversightmechanism entails statutory audit compliances aswell as the social auditmechanism that has beendevelopedandinstituteduptoGramSabhalevel.Foreachofthesethreesystems,specificmechanismsand frameworkshavebeendevelopedwhichhavebroughtconsistencyanddepthto theanalysisandhave given valuable feedbacks for enhancingmanagement and operational efficiency in programmeimplementation.

E-GramSwaraj

MinistryofPanchayatiRajincollaborationwithStateshasundertakentheenormoustaskofe-PanchayatinMissionModeProjectunderDigital IndiaprogrammeofGovernmentof India.Theproject aims toautomate internalworkflowprocesses of all the 2.5 lakh Panchayats across the country andmake asignificant contribution in transforming the ruralgovernance landscape in thecountry.With the14thFinanceCommissionmakinglargeamountsofmoneyavailabletoPanchayatsithasbecomeimperativetoinstallarobustandeffectivemonitoringsystemthatcapturesactivitiesinalltheirmanifestformsnotonly from planning to implementation but also fulfilling accountability compliances and ensuringsustainabilityofbenefitsandimpacts.

Thee-GramSwaraj,under thee-Panchayat, isasingleplatformforplanningandaccountingneedsofPanchayats. Developed as part of Panchayat Enterprise Suite, it aims to bring transparency andstrengtheningofe-Governance inPanchayat institutions. Ithas fivemodules:onemoduleprofiles thePanchayatintermsofdetailsofelectionsandelectedmembersofthePanchayats;thesecondmodulefacilitatesplanningbyrecordingsuggestionsofGramSabha, repositoryof shelfofprojects,detailsofresourcesintermsofbudgetaryallocationfromallsourcesandenablesconvergenceandpreparationofaction plans. The third and fourth modules are focused on progress reporting and accountingrespectively.Thesemodules trackphysical and financialprogress includinggeo taggingandsecuringtechnicalandadministrativeapprovalsofworksandadoptdoubleentrycashbasedsystemforworkbased accounting andmonitoring of flow of funds. Themodule facilitates daily, monthly and yearlyclosureofbooksofaccounts.ThelastmoduleisanAssetDirectorythatkeepsaninventoryofallmovableandimmovableassetsofthePanchayatsalongwiththeirlocation,statusandownership.

Takeaways

• Strengthening Decentralisation of Governance. Rural development interventions conform totakingforwardtheagendaofstrengtheningPanchayatsinthecountry.AsallthesubjectsentrustedtoPanchayats fallwithin thepurviewof rural development sector the collaborationbetween thesector and Panchayat is not a strategic option but a constitutional imperative. Working with

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Panchayatsandincreasinglygivingthemspaceinplanningandimplementationofprogrammesofruraldevelopmenthascreatedinstitutionalexperienceintheseinstitutionsthathasworkedforthestrengtheningofdecentralizedgoverning systems.Making functionsactionable throughreformistmeasureslikeGPDPfurtherstheconstitutionalvisionofemergenceofVillagePanchayatsasunitsofself-government.

• Sensitivitytotribalculturalmilieu.Mostofprogrammesofruraldevelopmentaredesignedforuniversalcoverageandimplementation.Theregionalorculturalvariationsbasedongeographicalandcommunitygroupsarenotgivenenoughprominence.Forexample,thedesignofruralhouseshasgeographicalvariations,buttheyhavenotbeendesignedfortheneedsoftribalgroupsthatgivespecificmeaningtodifferentpartsoftheirhouse.Similarly,theinstitutionofSelf-HelpGroupshasbeentransplantedintribalareaswithoutassessmentoftheirowntraditionalsystemsofcollectivesandmechanismsforextendingcredittoeachother.InlargepartthetribalgroupsinPESAareashavenotbeeninformedoftheirrightsandpowerunderthePESA,generallyorthroughprogrammesofruraldevelopment.Thus,thetraditionalwisdomandsociallyacceptedinstitutionshavenotbecomepart of the development design and rural development as a sector seems to have lost on thisopportunity.

• Forestasaspecialsubsector.AdministrativelyforestshavealwaysbeenadministeredbyMinistryofForestaccordingtotheprovisionsofForestConservationAct.Asaresult,ruraldevelopmentasasectorhasnotdevelopedspecializationinforestbasedlivelihoodsasithasonfarmandfarmbasedlivelihoods. Further, rural development interventions that always lie outside the forest area.However, with FRA bringing in area significant population, hitherto outside the ambit of ruraldevelopment,aspartofthesectorimpliesdevelopingforestspecificinterventionsinlivelihoodsandinfrastructureforthesegeographiesandpeople.

• RightsandEntitlements.Therightsandentitlementsframeworkhasbeenempoweringtotheruralhouseholdsandhavegiventhemopportunitytovoicetheiraspirations.Theimpactsofthesearealsoreflected in theprocesses associatedwithGPDPs thathas further strengthened thesevoices.Theimpacts of rights based framework in legislations and their follow up with administrativelyimplementedschemeshaspromptedformulationofsimilarlegislations(e.g.NationalFoodSecurityAct)inthecountry.

• Bridging the digital divide. Use of ICT and computer based, and digital technology is makingaccountabilityeasierandavailabletocitizens.AtoneenditismakingtasksofPanchayatseasierandontheotheritisbridgingthedigitaldividethatexistsbetweenurbanandruralareas.

Wayforward

• Nodefinitionof“country”.Therehasbeennodefinitionofruralorcountryinanyofthelegislationsinthecountry.TheTownandCountryPlanningActdonotdefinethewordcountry.Withruralandurban areas developing as a continuum the distinction becomes important as institutions ofgovernanceandstandardsofservicesandservicedeliverywillhavetobealignedaccordingly.Suchadefinitionwillcontributeindevelopinglongtermplansforthecountry,similartotheplansthatareenvisagedfortownandcities.

• Nolegalframeworkthatwillguaranteesocialsecuritytoelderlyandwidows.Atpresent,thereisnolegalframeworkthatdefinestherightsandentitlementsrelatedtosocialsecurityoftheelderlyand widows. These legislations will establish benchmark minimum of social security and willguaranteeaminimumstandardofdignifiedlivingtothemarginalizedanddependentpopulationinthecountry.

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• DecreaseofAgency functionofPanchayats.Thedesignof ruraldevelopmentprogrammeshasvisualized Panchayats in the function of agency of the rural development administration. ThedelegationoffunctionsanddevolutionofpowerstoPanchayatshavetogininnumberandcontentsothatthesearesubstantiveinnatureandenablePanchayatstoincreasinglyfunctionasunitsofself-government. A review of functions entrusted to Panchayats in the rural development sector canhighlight and develop a plan that will gradually transfer powers and function to Panchayatinstitutions.

• Universalisation of programme design. Programmatic designs are universal in nature. Theguidelinesneed tomakeexception fordifferent geographical areas (ScheduleFive andSix areas)different communities (tribal groups) to account for their diversity and to people in differentcircumstances(Divyang)tocatertotheirspecificneeds.ThesewillrequiregreaterparticipationofStatesindevelopmentofprogrammaticdesignsandformulationsofschemes.

• Bringing forest and forest based communities and livelihoods as special group. Forest andforestbased livelihoodsneed tobe carvedoutas special groupwithin ruraldevelopment so thatspecificinterventionsinlivelihoodsandinfrastructurecanbedevelopedforthem.

• PilotsfromAspirationalDistrictforreplication.AspirationalDistrictshavedefinedpathwaysthathaveshownprogressondifferentindicators.Thereisurgentneedtodocumenttheexperimentsthatwereundertakenforplanningandimplementationthathaveincreasedpaceofdevelopmentinthesedistrictsforwiderreplicationalloverthecountry.

• MakingSECCdynamic.ForSECCtobemadeeffective,itneedstobemademoredynamicwhereinitsupdationismorefrequentsothathouseholdsthathavebeenleftoutorhaveaddedtothelistofdeprivedhouseholdsareincludedintheprogrammesforruraldevelopment.

(xii) Impactonandroleofprivatesector,community/collectives/cooperatives

Introduction

Theruraldevelopmentsectorcompriseskeystakeholdergroupswhocontributetoandareimpactedbysectoraloutcomesindifferentways.Theprivatesectorhasincreasinglybecomeanimportantstakeholderinruralspaces,therebyopeninguppossibilitiesofpublic-privatepartnershipsandcreatingspacesforinnovationandresearch.Further,India’shistoryofruraldevelopmenthasstrongmechanismstoinitiateandreinforcecommunityparticipation,withpeople’saspirationsanddemandsformingthebasisofpoliciesandprogrammes.Furthermore,collectivesandcooperativesarekeyinnovationstoaggregateactionsandinterestsinruralspaces,therebyenablingcitizenstochannelizetheirfundsandeffortstowardscommondevelopmentalgoals.

Background

PrivateSector

Privatesectorcontributiontoruraldevelopmentisattwolevels:oneisthroughparticipationincreatingofvaluechainsthatenablesproducersinruralspacetogainbyparticipatingasprocessorsinthevaluechain;andsecond,asCorporateSocialResponsibility(CSR)investmentinruralspaces.

(a)Valuechaincreation

Theinitialyearsofagriculturalgrowththatwereinstrumentalinusheringindevelopmentinruralareaswerefocusedoninterventionsdesignedtoincreaseproductionandproductivityoffarms.However,inthe1990sasagricultureproductionstabilizedandthesectorwasopentoprivateplayerstheopportunityofprivatesectorcominginparticipateinthecreationofvaluechainsbecomepossible.Further,theprivate

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sectorexpandeditspresencefromagriculturetoothersub-sectorsthatincludedanimalhusbandryandlivestockfarming,fisheries,handloomandhandicraftproducts.

Theprivatesectorplaysmultiplerolesinthevaluechain:astradingpartners,serviceproviderslikestorageand transportation, design and technology providers, knowledge disseminators, processors of` primaryproduce and creators of agriculture/off farm business hubs in rural areas221. The private sectorparticipation has been instrumental in bringing transformation in agri-based businesses as well asmovementofsurpluslabourinruralareasfromagriculturetonon-agriculturalsectors.

There ishowever lackofdata that captures the roleandcontributionofprivate sector contribution increationofvaluechainemanatingfromruralsector.Theinformationavailableisanecdotalanddoesnotprovideamacropictureofthetrendsandimpacts.

(b)CSRinvestment

ThetotalCSRspendin2014-15wasRs.10,065crorethatincreasedby54percenttoRs.18,653crorein2018-19.However,overthisperiodtheamountinitiallyincreasedin2015-16butthendecreasedinthesubsequenttwoyearsandfinallyunderwentaquantumjumpin2018-19.During2014-15to2018-19theexpenditureunderCSRforRuralDevelopmentincreasedby45percent.222

AsproportiontothetotalspendunderCSR,investmentsunderruraldevelopmenthavegrowninabsoluteaswellaspercentage terms.Ruraldevelopment comprised10.5percentof totalCSR in2014-15but itincreasedto12.3percentin2018-19indicatingthatwithincreaseinCSRexpenditureruraldevelopmentisincreasingitsshareinthetotalspendbyprivatecompanies.223

Figure17:TotalCSRspendandExpenditureonRuralDevelopment(Rs.crores)

TheCSRspendishoweverunevenacrossdifferentstates.ThemajorityofinvestmentisinMaharashtra,TamilNaduandAndhraPradeshfollowedbyKarnataka,Rajasthan,OdishaandDelhi.Sectorwise,thelargestshareisthatofeducationfollowedbyhealthandthenruraldevelopment.224

CivilSociety

Thereare92,484NGOsregisteredwithDarpanportal.Amongstthese22,891(or24percent)workinthefieldofruraldevelopment.Thesecivilsocietyorganizationsaccessfundsfromgovernment,corporate,

221AdaptedfromJainN(2019)Roleofprivatesectorinbuildinganefficientagriculturalchain,TERI222NationalCSRPortal,MinistryofCorporateAffairs.Retrievedfromhttps://www.csr.gov.in/.Accessedon27May2020.223SameasFootnote239.224SameasFootnote239.

1,059.34 1,376.16 1,554.77 1,479.80 2,308.83

10,065.93 14,517.21 14,333.04 13,708.02 18,653.48

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19

Rural Development Total CSR Spend

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foreignandindividualdonations.In2016-17thelargestdonationscamefromforeignsourcestothetuneofRs.14,824croresfollowedwithCSRfundofRs.13,465croresandgovernmentdonationsofRs.5,367crores. There is no centralized data for individual donations, yet these have been estimated to beapproximatelyRs.461crores.225

The thematic disaggregation of data present difficulties for its categorization. For example, in case offoreignfundsthebroadcategoriesareSocial,Educational,Religious,EconomicandCultural.ThematicdisaggregationispossibleincaseofCSRdatathatindicatesthat18%datatocivilsocietyorganizationshasbeenforruraldevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.Incaseofindividualdonationlackofcentralizedanddisaggregateddatarestrictsassessmentofthematicdatasets.226

Communitycollectives

SelfHelpGroups(SHGs):TherearetwomajorsourcesthatareresponsibleforformationofSHGsinthecountry:NABARDthroughitsSHG-BLPprogrammeandDAY-NRLM.BoththeProgrammeshavetogetherformed 1 crore SHGs in the country that cover 12 crore households in rural areas. These SHG havemobilized Rs. 23,324 crore worth savings by March 2019227. Almost half (50.77 lakh) SHGs hadoutstandingloanamountsasofMarch2019whichwereworthRs.87,098crores.228

Cooperatives:Therewere8,33,560cooperatives in thecountry in2016witha totalmembershipof274.97millionpersons.Ofthetotalcooperatives46,870(around5.6percent)weredefunct.Amongstthetotalcooperatives,17percent(141,118)werecredit-basedcooperativesandtheremainingwerenon-creditbasedcooperatives.ThecooperativeshadatotalsharecapitalofRs.383,285million.Amongthecooperativestherewere12National,399stateand3,571Districtlevelcooperativefederations.Further1,255weremulti-statecooperatives.229

Thecontributionofcooperatives innationaleconomycanbeassessedwiththefactthatcooperativescover94.32percentvillagesanddistribute17percentofthetotalagriculturecreditandKisanCardsto75.71percentfarmers.230

ProducerCompanies(PC):Thereare7,374producercompaniesregisteredinIndiabetweenJanuary2003andMarch2019.231Thepaceof registrationof companieswas slow in the initial10years of theamendmenttotheCompaniesAct.Itisonlyafter2016thattheregistrationofPCstookoffwithmorethan1,691companiesbeingregisteredduringtheyear.In2019,atotalof11,804producercompanieswereregistered.232

Atotalof445companiesareintheprocessofbeingstruckofforhavebeenstruckoffrepresenting6percentof the totalcompaniesregistered.Thepercentageofcompaniesstruckoffmaybe lowas theprocessofstrikingoffbeginsaftertwoyearsofregistrationandwhenthecompanyhasbeengiventimetorespondtothequeriesoftheMinistryofCorporateAffairs.Significantly,46percentofthecompaniesthathavebeenregisteredformorethan10yearshavebeenstruckoffbytheMinistry.233

225CentreforSocialImpactandPhilanthropy,AshokaUniversity.(2019).EstimatingPhilanthropicCapitalinIndia:ApproachesandChallenges.226SameasFootnote242.227NationalBankforAgriculture&RuralDevelopment.(2019).StatusofMicro-FinanceinIndia2018-19228SameasFootnote244.229NationalCooperativeMovementofIndia.(2016).IndiaCooperativeMovement:AStatisticalProfile.230SameasFootnote246.231RegisteredasproducercompaniesunderSection581ofPartIX-AoftheCompaniesAct1956orSection465oftheCompaniesAct2013232Neti,A.,Govil,R.,&Rao,M.R.FarmerProducerCompaniesinIndia:DemystifyingtheNumbers.233SameasFootnote249.

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TheregisteredproducercompanieshaveatotalauthorizedcapitalofaboutRs.15.7billionandtotalpaid-upcapitalofaboutRs.8.6billion,withanaverageofRs.1.17millionpercompany.Thereareabout4.3millionshareholdersacrossallproducercompanies.234

KeyTakeaways

• Rural Development sector has gained by collaborating with private sector, civil societyorganizations and people’s collectives: The gain to rural development by collaborating withprivate sector and civil societyhasbeenmanifold. Therehasbeenwidespreadpenetrationof civilsocietyandpeople’scollective(especiallycooperatives)inthelengthandbreadthoftheruralareasofthecountry.Theseorganizationshavebeenabletobuildastrongsavingandcreditbaseforcollectivesofthepoorandensuredtheirfinancialinclusionwithbanks.

In addition to its financial contribution through CSR funding, the private sector has madecontributionsbywayofdevelopingandstrengtheningofvaluechainenablingmovementfromproducetoproductandfromfarmtofirm.

• Therearenocomprehensivepolicyguidelinesforengagementwithprivatesectorandcivilsocietyatasectorallevel:Thereareschematicguidelinesthatstipulatethemannerofengagementwith collectives and civil society for the purpose of the scheme only. For example, theDAY-NRLMguidelinesstipulatetheengagementofNGOsastechnicalsupportagenciesandtheformationofPCsasaggregatorsofproducerwithcommonrangeofproduce.Thereare,however,nocomprehensivepolicyguidelinesthatcreatesspaceforinterfaceandengagementwithprivatesectorandcivilsocietyorganizations on a regular basis which are not only knowledge sharing platforms but also forcollaborativeresearchanddevelopmentaswellactionorientedinitiatives.

WayForward

• Creationof knowledgeharingplatformwithprivate sector and civil societyorganizations:Bringingtogethersectoralrepresentativesfromtheprivatesectorandcivilsocietyforknowledgesharing and exchangewill bring depth to the sector as it will gain from different experiences andcompetencies.

• Interfaceplatformsthatcangiverisetoprivate-public-collectiveinitiatives:Thereisneedtofacilitate promotion of public, private and people’s partnerships that will create the base forinnovationandhighriskventures.Theseinterfacesmaycreateanewbreedofstartupsindifferentfieldsofruraldevelopment-namelylivelihoods,infrastructureandsocialsafetynets.

• Policyforengagementwithprivatesector,civilsocietyorganizationsandpeople’scollective:There is need for sector level policy framework and guidelines that enable regular interactionbetweenprivatesector,civilsocietyandpeople’scollectiveswithruraldevelopmentinterventions.Thepolicyneedstotakealongtermviewthatwillpromotetheseengagementsandcreatesynergiesamongthestrengthsofdifferentinstitutions.

(xiii) Migration

Introduction

Migrationisacomplexandmultifacetedphenomenon,manifestedinavarietyofforms,fromlocalmobilitytopermanentrelocationacrossinternationalboundaries.235Despitetheimportanceofmigrationasthe

234SameasFootnote249.235Avis,W.R.(2017).Scopingstudyondefiningandmeasuringdistressmigration.

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harbingerofeconomictransformation,itsuffersdefinitionalinconsistencies.TheUNConventionontheRightsofMigrantsdefinesamigrantworkerasa ‘personwho is tobeengaged, isengagedorhasbeenengagedinaremuneratedactivityinaStateofwhichheorsheisnotanational’236.However,thisdefinitiondoes not take in to account caseswheremigrants leave their place of origin on account of economicinsecurity, conflicts, political or social persecution, environmental degradation or disasters or simply insearchoftheirverysurvival.

Based on review of various definitions that exist in different countries, scholars have grouped themotivations tomigrate in to five criteria:directionofmovement,destinationofmovement,durationofmovement, lawfulness of movement, and willingness to move. Such a classification has been made tounderstandthe‘degreetowhichindividualsorhousehold’sdecisiontomigrateismadevoluntarilyorinvoluntarily’.237 Voluntary migration indicates a decision based on their intrinsic desire to bringimprovement in theireconomic lifebyexploringbetter livelihoodoptions. Involuntarymigrationontheotherhanddepictsamigratorymovementthathaselementsofcoercionorthreatstolifeandlivelihoodsfrommanmadeornaturalcauses.Arelevantandsignificantfactorforruraldevelopmentasasectoristhephenomenaofdistressmigrationthatispromptedbythelackofaccesstoemploymentandtheinabilitytosurvivewithdignity238.

Background

Migrationgainsconstitutionalsanctionwhichguaranteesallcitizenstherighttomovefreelyandresideandsettle inanypartof thecountry(Article19),prohibitsdiscriminationon thebasisofplaceofbirth(Article 15), andguarantees equal opportunity to all citizens inmatters of public employment (Article16).ThesesanctionshavebeenfurtherstrengthenedwiththerulingoftheSupremeCourt239thatheldrestrictionsbasedonresidenceforthepurposeofemploymentunconstitutional.Economically,migrationrepresents opportunity that carries human capital to regions where it is needed thereby enablingacquisitionofnewskillsandbetterstandardsofliving240.AtmacroeconomiclevelruraltourbanmigrationhasbeenthedriverthathasfuelledtheIndianeconomyawayfromagriculturetowardsmanufacturingandservices.

DataonmacrotrendsinternalmigrationinIndia isbasedonCensusandthequinquennialhouseholdsurveyscarriedoutbyNSSO.Censusdefinesmigrantasapersonresidinginaplaceotherthanhisorherplaceofbirthoronewhohaschangedplaceusualplaceofresidencetoanotherplace.Residentisdefinedasonewhoisstayinginalocationforsixmonthsormore.NSSOusesthechangeinusualplaceofresidenceas thebasis of identifyingmigrant. In its64thRound (2007-08),migrantwasdefinedas ahouseholdmemberwhoselastusualplaceofresidence,anytimeinthepast,wasdifferentfromthepresentplaceofenumeration.Inboththecasesthefactofmigrationhasbeencapturedbutthereasonformigration(basedon thewillingness criteria)hasnot been captured. Thisdefies amacro level assessment of the trendofdistressmigration andwhether the interventionsat the sector level in ruraldevelopmentareable toaddressthephenomenaofdistressmigration.

Sangeeta(2017)241explorestheinvertedUrelationshipbetweenincome/wealthandmigrationtolooksintosituationsofdistressmigrationorhighlevelsofmigrationsatabysmallylowlevelsofincome.Thepaperpositsthatasincomeincreasesthereisanincreaseinmigrationtillacertainpointbeyondwhich

236 Faso,B. (2012). InternationalConventionon theProtectionof theRightsofAllMigrantWorkersandMembersofTheirFamilies.237SameasFootnote252.238Mander,H.&Sahgal,G.(2015).InternalMigrationinIndia:DistressandOpportunities.239CharuKhuranav.UnionofIndiaandOthers(CivilWritPetitionNo.73/2013)240Korra,V.(2011).LabourmigrationinMahabubnagar:Natureandcharacteristics.EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,67-70.241Sangita,S.(2017).PovertyandMigration:EvidenceofDistressMigrationinIndia.InIARIW-ICIERConference(pp.23-25).

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there is an inflection.Beyond this point, there is adownward sloping curve,wherein improved levels ofincome lead to decreased migration. At the same time there is a cost associated to migration andhouseholds that areunable tobear the costmaynotmigrate andmay remain trapped in the zone ofimmobility.Sangeeta(2017)uses64thRoundofNSSOdataandgeneratesevidencethatatextremelylowlevelsofincometheinvertedUcurvehypothesismaynotholdtrueforincome/wealthandmigration.Thatis,lowerlevelsofincomewillcausedistressmigrationandthehouseholdsmayoptforunsafepassagestomigrate.

Rural development sectormakes investment at both ends - investments that facilitatemigration, andinterventionsthatseektoarrestthephenomenaofdistressmigration.

- Sectoralinterventionstofacilitatemigration:Investmentsininfrastructurebywayofroadruralnetworksenhancemobilityandbringdownthecostoftransportation,therebyfacilitatingmigration.Further,SPMRMrecognizestherural-urbancontinuumandadoptsaclusterapproachforlivelihoodsenhancement. This, in turn, creates a network which facilitates increased opportunities foremploymentwithin the cluster. These interventions are directed towards increasedmovement ofhouseholds seeking better job opportunities. Effects may also manifest in the form of decreasedmigrationasthejobseekerswillchoosetocommute,andnotmigratewithinthecluster.

- Sectoral interventions to mitigate distress migration: Sectoral investments that direct theirimpact on decreasing distress migration are at four levels: one, provisioning of demand-basedemploymentunderMGNREGSthatguaranteeswork/unemploymentallowance;two,providingsafeandsecureshelterbywayofhousingthatactsasadis-incentivetomigrate(atleastforlongperiods);three,provisioningofpensionsunderNSAPthatmakescashavailabletothehouseholdsthatactasadeterrenttomigrate;andfourth,easyaccesstocredittothepoorfamiliesthroughtheSHGs(includingVulnerabilityReductionFund)providesopportunitiestothefamiliesonthresholdofdistresstomakeinvestmentsintheirfoodsecurityandlivelihoodsandrefrainfrommigratingindistress(theimpactof the scheme and programmes on distress migration will be discussed in detail in respectiveschematicsectionsinthisreport).

Takeaways

• Thereisalackoftypologiesofmigration:Migrationasaphenomenonhasbeenwelldocumentedand researched. Surveys and narratives explore the phenomena as an evidence of structuraltransformationonIndianeconomyandasevolutionoftheeconomyfromanagrarianbasetowardsindustrialandserviceorientedsourcesofwealthcreation.Theseexplorationshavenotdwelledintodifferenttypesofmigration,otherthanmakingbroadgeneralizationsofthepushandthepullfactors.Thelackoftypologiesofdifferenttypesofmigrationhascreatedaninformationandknowledgegapwhereinitisnotpossibletoassessanddeterminelongandshorttermstrendsinmigrationingeneral,anddistressmigrationinparticular.

• Sectoralinterventionsfacilitatemigrationaswellasseektoarrestdistressmigration:Intheabsenceofclearandconsistentdefinitionofdistressmigrationitisdifficulttomakeanassessmentofthe impact of sectoral interventions on distressmigration. Evenwithin programmes, the factor ofmigration is not tracked in regular monitoring and review processes. Consequently, the ruraldevelopmentpolicydependsonsystematicevaluationstoprovidefeedbackontheimpactmigrationand distressmigration of the investmentsmade in the sector. These gaps constrain the sector inidentifyingandgivingprioritytohouseholdsthatarethevergeofdistress.

• MGNREGS holds the potential to mitigate distress migration to some extent:MGNREGS isperhapstheonlyprogrammaticopportunitythathasthecapacityandtheflexibilitytobringsuccourand relief to households and geographies facing distress on account of prolonged drought and/or

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naturaldisasters.Theprogrammehasincreasedtheguaranteeof100daysto150daysinDistrictsthatfacehighlevelsofmigrationonaccountofdroughtsituations.However,sincetheprogrammeisdemand-based,itdoesnotimpactthedecisionsofthehouseholddirectlybutindirectlybymakingworkavailable locally.Other issuesof foodsecurity,debtburdenetc.arenotaccountedfor intheprogramme.

WayForward

• Initiate demand for definition ofmigration and typologies of different types ofmigration:DoRD,representingthehosttomigrants,cancollaboratewithMoHUA,asdestinationandrecipientofmigrants,demandingthedefinitionofmigrationandcreationofcategoriesandtypologiesofdifferenttypes of migration. These will bring in consistency in data collection and exploration in thephenomenonofmigration,anditsreasonsandimpactsthereof.TheMinistryofStatisticscanprovidetechnicalbackstoppingtodevelopglossaryrelatedtomigrationinthecountry.

• TrackmigrationaspartofregularMISofprogrammes:Thesectorneedstoinitiatetheprocessoftrackingmigrationasaresultofitsprogrammaticinterventions.Thetrackingcanbeofboth,theindividuals andhouseholds thatwere facilitated tomigrate (byway of skill development and/orthroughfacilitativeinvestmentsintheireconomicsystem),andhouseholdsthatweresupportedtoreduceorstoptheirmigrationindistress.Thisdatawillbehelpfulinprovidingrealtimeinputsoftheimpactsofprogrammesinruraldevelopmentforpolicymaking.ThepilotfortrackingmigrationcanbemadepartofTransformationofAspirationDistrictsprogrammewhichwillgiveapan-Indiaviewofthemagnitude,extent,processes,factors,andreasonsformigrationinthecountry.

• Promoteimpactstudiesonmigrationunderdifferentprogrammes:Sofarthestudiesinruraldevelopmentandmigrationhavebeenwithreference toMGNREGS.However, the impactofotherprogrammesespeciallyPMAY-G,PMGSY,NSAPandSPMRMonmigrationhavenotbeen studiednorassessed.Theseimpactstudieswillbehelpfulindevelopingimpactindicatorsforeachoftheschemesandalso generate thenarrative thatwill link investment in rural spaces to development of humancapital, thereby laying down conditions that facilitate migration (whether in distress or forimprovementinstandardofliving).

• Developingapackagedapproachtoaddressdistressmigration:Theissueofdistressmigration,atpresent,doesnothaveapackagedapproach.ThereisrelianceonMGNREGStoprovideworklocally.Otherissuesoffoodsecurity,debtservicing,availabilityofsafedrinkingwateretc.arenotpackagedwiththeprogramme.Eveninhighmigratingdistricts/regionsthereisneedforapackagedapproachtoaddresstheissueofdistressmigration.

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1.3. Issues and Challenges Ruralsectorwithconsiderablehistoryofvaryingscaleofprojectsandapparentsuccessandchallengesrequiresstocktakingforunderstandingtherelevantissuesandchallengesforfuturepolicy.Therehasbeenconsiderablerecentdiscussionofthechangesthataretakingplaceintheruralsector,bothwithinrural economies and in terms of the approaches adopted towards rural policy. The predominantcharacterisation is of a single change, commonly from an approach focussed fundamentally on theagriculturalsectortowardsonefocussedontheruralspaceandmorediversifiedeconomicactivity.Thesewere driven by a need to ensure domestic food security and the central role of agriculture in ruraleconomies. This approach met variety of objectives for food security, rural development and farmincomessimultaneously.Therehasbeenasteadierprocessofeconomicandsocialchangeinruralareasoveraperiod.

Thecoreoftheruraltransformationagendanowisdefinedbythefollowingmajorimperatives242:

• Reducingpovertyandinequalities243:notonlythoseinheritedfrompastpolicydecisionsandsocialstructuresbutalsothenewgapsandinequalitiesbeingcreatedbytheprocessofrapidchangeitself.

• Ensuringfoodsecurityandacceleratingagriculturaldevelopment244:securingarelevantroleandopportunitiesforsmall-scaleproducersandfamilyfarmersinvaluechains.

• Creatingmoreandbetter jobsandeconomicself-sufficiency245 inruralareas: includingsmalltownsandintermediatecities.

• Ruraleconomicdiversification246asamajordriverofjobcreation.Atthesametime,addressingimperfectrurallabourmarkets.

• Meetingtheclimateadaptationandenhancinggreenagenda247.• Stimulating growth of rural towns and intermediate cities and strengthening the links248

betweenthemandtheirruralhouseholds.• Managingthecomplex249andsensitiveissueofrural–urbanmigration250.• Securinguniversalaccesstobasicpublicservices251withimprovedqualitystandards.• Securing widespread access to efficient and sustainable financial services and capitalwith

improvementsinefficiencyandinstitutionalcapacityofruralfinancialsystems252.

242 The agenda of rural transformation has been arrived at based on references derived from secondary literatures. Ruraltransformation(bothstructuralandsectoral)vis-à-vistherelationshipsthatexistsfindrelationshipbothintermsofconceptualunderpinningsandpolicyimperatives.243 Claire Aubron, Hugo Lehoux et Corentin Lucas (2015); Poverty and inequality in rural India.http://journals.openedition.org/echogeo/14300244HLPE.2016.Sustainableagriculturaldevelopmentforfoodsecurityandnutrition:whatrolesforlivestock?AreportbytheHigh-LevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionoftheCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity,Rome.245IFAD(2019)Creatingopportunitiesforruralyouth;RuralDevelopmentreport246Mehta,Niti.(2018).OccupationalDiversificationandRuralTransformation.10.1007/978-981-10-8962-6_2.247UNDP(2012)GreeningRuralDevelopmentinIndiaVolI&VolII.248 Sietchipinget.Al (2014)TheRoleof Small and IntermediateTowns inEnhancingUrban-RuralLinkages for SustainableUrbanization,RegionalDevelopmentDialogue,vol.35,2014https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322909630(accessed8thMarch2020)249Bhagat (2017) International Institute forPopulationSciences,Mumbai.PaperpresentedatUnitedNationsExpertGroupMeetingonSustainablecitieshumanmobilityandInternationalmigration,PopulationDivision,DepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsUnitedNationsSecretariatNewYork7-8September2017250 Bhagat, R. B. (2016) ‘Changing pattern of migration in India’, In C. Guilmoto and Gavin Jones, (eds.) ContemporaryDemographicTransformationsinChina,IndiaandIndonesia,Springer,Dordrecht,pp.239-254251SameasFootnote65.252IFAD.(2016).RuralDevelopmentReportChapter7–RuralFinance.

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• Promotinginnovation,researchanddevelopment253focusedontheneedsofruralecosystemwithengagementforcommunityandruralproducerswithopportunitiesofferedbydigitaltransformation.

• Putting inplacesocial support schemes includingcash transfers,pensionsandemploymentguaranteesforthemostvulnerabletosecurethebasichumandignityandeaseofliving254foreveryruralhousehold.

Alltheseoffersustainablelong-termoutcomeswithlocalized,inclusiveeconomicgrowth,complementedandnotreplacedbysocialsupportschemes.Theevolutionofsuchapatternleadingtotransformation,enabling ecosystem and convergence-based interface across all the nodes of rural sector viz.;infrastructure,livelihoodsandsocialsafetynetsaretabulatedbelowtounderstandtheempiricalpatternandspatiallyexplicitnarrativeoftheruralsector.

Table8:EvolutionofRuralDevelopmentTransformationAgenda255

Underpinning Paradigm–Old Paradigm–New EnablingpoliciesParadigmBasicprinciples Agriculturepolicy

RuralPolicyMultisectoral

(Competitiveness)Multipledimensionsaddressedbyprogramsviz.;ruraleconomy(infrastructurecreationandlivelihoods);decentralizedplanningandimplementation(PRIs)&resilience(ecologicalandparticipationofwomenineconomyandsociety)

Policy,ProceduralandInstitutionalChanges

Supportforsingledominantresourcesector

InclusionandInclusivegrowth

• PromotionofHumanDevelopmentandgenderEquality

• CapacityBuildingforDecentralization

• SustainableLivelihoods• Vulnerabilityreductionand

SustainabilityTools Subsidies Transparencyand

AccountabilitysystemsofPRIsDevolutionandAutonomytodecentralizedplanningFiscalprovisioningandTargeting

• IntegratedapproachincorporatingSubsistenceruralhouseholds,diversifiedruralhouseholds,Specializedfarmandnon-farmhouseholds(agriculture,livestockfisheries,forestbased,services,skillbasedetc.)&transitioningruralhouseholds(Rural–urbancontinuum)

• Aimstoaddressbothspatial-andregionalandgender-baseddisparities/inequalities

Keyactorsandstakeholders

CentralandStateGovernmentsand

Alllevelofsynergywithinandoutsideincorporatingpublic,

• InterfacewithPublicsector,privatesectorandnon-

253FAO(2017)Innovationforsustainableruraldevelopment254ILO(2014)Socialprotectionforolderpersons:KeypolicytrendsandstatisticsSocialprotectionforolderpersons:keypolicytrendsandstatistics/InternationalLabourOffice,SocialProtectionDepartment.-Geneva:ILO,2014(Socialprotectionpolicypaper:No.11,ISSN:1020-9581;1020-959X255Relatedindicestoarriveatthematrixhavebeenestablishedbasedonthestatisticalinformationandthepatternofruraltransformation in India. Three multidimensional assessing indicator system viz.; Rural Development Index (RDI), RuralTransformationIndex(RTI)andurban-ruralcoordinationindex(URCI)havebeenconsideredasenumeratedinthestudybyOhlan(2016);RuralTransformationinIndiaintheDecadeofMiraculousEconomicGrowth,JournalofLandandRuralStudies4(2)1–18�2016CentreforRuralStudies,LBSNAADOI:10.1177/2321024916640110

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Underpinning Paradigm–Old Paradigm–New EnablingpoliciesParadigmsectoralfocussedInstitutions

privateandcivilsocietyandlocalstakeholders

governmentorganizations/civilsociety

• Demographicstructureandtrendsconsideredforeconomicopportunitiesandwelfare

Approach Uniformlyappliedtopdownpolicy

Bottomuppolicy,localstrategiesEmpowereddeliberativedemocracy(EDD)(Funget.al.,2001)256

Opportunity(Demand)basedvs.Necessity(Provisioning)basedwithpolicyandinvestmentbalance

RuralDefinition

Noturban(Classifiedbasedonpopulation)

Ruralasvarietyofdistincttypesofgeographies

Functionalareas:Switchfromstaticdefinitionof“rural”and“urban”towardmultidimensionalpoliciesthatincorporateruralareasintoregionaldevelopmentandbuildonpositivedynamicsofruralurbanlinkages

PolicyandOperationalParadigmofRuralSector

Theincreasedcomplexityanddifferentiationofruralsectoralsohasimplicationsforthewaysinwhichpolicydecisionsandvariousoperationalparadigmarebeingcontextualized.Diversityofvariouskindsimpliesthatappropriatedecisionswithinthemulti-levelgovernancesystemfortheadministrationofprogramsintheIndianruralsectorshouldincludeaneffectivesovereignsystemfordeliveringpoliciesandassessingtheirimpacts.

Thecausalmechanismincludingfocusontheissuesandchallengestodrivetheruralgrowthwillbringaboutnotonlyeconomicbutalsosocialstability.Anintegratedapproachwithallsubsectoralpoliciesinconformitywitheachother,publicgoodsbecomingefficientinservingtheirpurposeandmarketsserveas guiding force towards allocation ofresources, the vision ofminimum government, maximumgovernancecanberealised.Theentireprocessmaynotbeachievedovernightbut itmayset theballrolling.

Developing productive assets and expanding economic inclusion to develop a supportedmarket ledapproach,whichaddressesregionaleconomicopportunities,withoutchangingthedemandleddriveofcurrent investments is the need. Investment in monitoring and evaluation to assess sustainability,creationofplatformsandnetworkingsystemsforquickpeertopeer/cross-programmelearningtooarecritical.Systemicimpactsofthesocialcapital-basedprojectstonegotiateandmediatethetermsonwhichthepublicandprivatesectorinteractwiththepooronacompletelynewscalethatfacilitatestargetingandinclusionandbuildsonitsleveragingcapacitywillbedesired.HouseholdsustainabilityalongwithcosteffectivenessandeconomicratesofreturntocopewithresilienceandencourageinnovationsandopportunitiestobuildinglinkagesforfuturewillprovetobeanenablerforthestructuraltransformationoftheIndianruraleconomy.

1. TargetingthePoor257

256Fung&Wright(2001).Deepeningdemocracy:Innovationsinempoweredparticipatorygovernance;PoliticsandSociety,Vol.29,No.1.257Targeting thepoor formspartof theNational levelKII thatwasconductedwithShriNCSaxena (Chairman,CommitteeconstitutedbyMinistryofRuralDevelopment).FurtherthearticlebyShriNCSaxena:Hasitignoredtoomanypoorhouseholds?EPW,Vol.50,Issueno;30,25thJuly2015toohasbeenreferredto.

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Thesubjectof‘what’ispovertyand‘who’arethepoorhasbeenalong-debatedissueinpublicdiscourseforpovertyalleviationinthecountry.Where‘what’ofpovertyisimportantfordeterminingmeasuresofpovertyandtherebyestimatesofnumberofpoor,the‘who’ofpovertygainssignificanceintargetingandidentifyingbeneficiary’spovertyalleviationprogrammes.

Thediscourseon‘what’ofpovertyhascomefromincome-minimumcaloriesin-takemeasurementtothecontentiousmonthlypercapitaconsumptionexpenditure258thatwasrevisedbyRangarajanCommitteein2012. As shortcomings of thesemeasurements became apparent, themulti-dimensional character ofpovertywasrecognized.Thecastecensusthatwasmandatedtobeconductedin2011wasreorientedtocollect data in terms of economic deprivation. SECC 2011 was a respondent-based survey that wasratifiedbyGramSabhaandGramPanchayatthathasbeenusedtoestimatethepoorandthehouseholdleveldatahasbeenusedtotargettheprogrammesaimedatpovertyalleviation.ThemaincriticismofSECChasbeenthree-fold:methodological;under/overreporting;andupdation.

(i) Methodological: Where privileges are attached in a respondent-based survey and vestedinterestsmaycreepinanddistortinformation.Thishasthelikelihoodofincreasingtheerrorsofinclusionandexclusioninthesurveyanditsinterpretation.

(ii) Under/Over reporting: There are specific sets of data that havebeen challenged andhaveraisedquestionovertheauthenticityandreliabilityofSECCdata.Forexample,governmenthad declared a figure of 7.7 lakh manual scavengers in Lok Sabha but the SECC dataenumerated only 1.8 lakhhouseholds. Similarly, the poorestwere enumerated to be 1.65millionwhicharewellbelowthefigureofnumberofissuedAntyodayacardsat25million.

In addition to the under-reporting of the poor, therewas over-reporting of the rich. Thisoccurredbecausethedefinitionofdeprivationwaskeptnarrowsothatmorecanbeexcluded.Forexample,owningatwo-wheelerwastakentobeameasureofrichnessirrespectiveofthefactthatitcouldhavebeenasecond/thirdhandpurchaseandwithouttakingintoaccounttheabilitytouseitatcurrentlevelofincome.

(iii) Updation: TheBPLsurveyswereupdatedeveryfiveyears.Therehasbeennocommitmentordeclarationfromthegovernmentonthefrequencyofupdationofthelist.Asaresult,thehouseholds who had lost out due to various reasons and new entrants do not have theopportunitytogettheirnamesaddedintheSECClistandstaketheirclaimforentitlements.

Oneofthereasonsthatmaketargetingofpooracontentiousissueisthechallengetodetermineauniformcriterionformeasurementofpoverty.Invastanddiverseeconomicandsocialmilieu,thismaynotbethebeststrategyforthesector.

2. TransformativePush:Panchayatsasdriversofchange259

Panchayatsthatgainedconstitutionalstatuswiththeenactmentof73rdconstitutionalamendmenthaveled tocreationofan institutionalarchitecture thathasmade implementationof theschemesof ruraldevelopmentuniversal. There are2, 69, 059GramPanchayats in the country thatprovide local self-governance to 6, 40,930 villages in the country. With conditions attached to the 14th FC grant, thePanchayats prepare their Gram Panchayat Development Plans according to the local needs andaspirations.

258Alagh,Y.K.(2010).Thepovertydebateinperspective:movingforwardwiththeTendulkarcommittee.IndianJournalofHumanDevelopment,4(1),33-44.259Sinha&Jaiswal(2020),PositioningPanchayatsasagentsofChange,NationalCouncilofAppliedEconomicResearch,NewDelhi

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ThereisstrongevidencethatsuggeststhatruralIndiaisatthresholdofamajortransformationawaitingthefinalpush,awaitingitsbutterflymoment.Anecdotalinstancesindicatethatthistransformationwillbe based on tapping/emergence of local genius and local energy. The potential for leadership andcommitmenthasbeencreatedthroughtheinstitutionofPanchayats.

AtpresenttheschemesofruraldevelopmentPanchayatsplayacriticalroleinselectionofbeneficiaries(MGNREGS,PMAY-GandNSAP),preparationofplansforinfrastructuredevelopment(PMGSY,MGNREGSandSPMRM), andexecutewageemployment scheme (MGNREGS).Theperspectiveanddesignof theprogrammes view Panchayats in the role of agency of Central government where the structure andgrammaroftheprogrammehasbeenpre-decided,andthePanchayatshaveaspecificroletoplayintheirexecution.

TheotherfactorthatbringsintheroleandfunctionofPanchayatsintoruraldevelopmentistheverybasic structure that defines the political economy of a federal State that is based on the tenets ofcooperativefederalismandthecontroloverresources.Boththeseaspectsarebasedontwomythsthathavebeencreatedandinstitutionalized:

(i) Lackof InstitutionalCapacityofPanchayats:Apopularmyththatoperatesamongst thepolicyinfluenceringovernmentisgenerallyarticulatedaslackofinstitutionalcapacityofPanchayats.AnobservationinthisregardintheConvergenceReportofNRCDDPisnoteworthy.Thereportstatesthat“observationmadeinthecourseofthereviewoftheCSSsisthatbureaucratswithexperienceinruraldevelopmentandPanchayatiRajgenerallyhaveamorepositiveperceptionoftherolethatPRIscanplayinmoreeffectivedeliveryofservices.Officerswithlittleornoexposure/experiencetoeitherruraldevelopmentorPanchayatiRajtendtobrushasidesuggestionsofinvolvementofthePRIs.Theysupporttheirperceptionwithanecdotalreferencetotheirownfieldexperience,oftendatedbyover25-30years,andwithlittleregardtosubsequentdevelopments”260.

At the same time, there is evidence that suggests thatwhenever Panchayats are endowedwithfreedomtoexercisetheirjudgementtherehavebeenapositivequantitativeandqualitativeimpacton theprogramme.The same report stated that “there is ample anecdotal evidence to show thatwhereverPanchayatiRajInstitutionsoftheirownvolition,orwiththeauthorityconferredbytheStateGovernments,haveinvolvedthemselvesinoverseeingthefunctioningofSchools,AnganwadiCentresandPrimaryHealthCentres,invariably,absenteeismofstaffhascomedownbecauseclientsatisfactionbecomesanissue.ThishasledtoanalmostimmediateimprovementofthequalityofservicesfortheAamAadmi.Clearly,anydirectandupfrontinvolvementofPRIsintheplanning,implementationandoversightofCSSs,beingsofarrunthroughdepartmentalstructures,doesimpactoutputsandoutcomesinapositivemanner.”

ThedesignofinstitutionalmechanismPanchayatswithparamountsupremacyofGramSabhaandthepoliticalprudenceoftheelectedrepresentativescreatessituationswheredecisionsandtheirexecutionmustcorrespondcloselytotheneedsandaspirationsoftheelectorate/GramSabha.

(ii) ResourcesareavailablewithandwillcomefromCentre:Anunstatedbutunchallengedmyththatpervadesthinkingindeterminingresourcesandagenciesforruraldevelopmentisthattheresourcesareavailablewith theCentreand it is theCentrewhichwillallocate theseresources. ItassumesperpetualdependencyofStatesandhencebyimplicationPanchayatsonCentre261.

Thismythhasbeenbusted in caseofprogrammespertaining to social safetynet. Ineachof theschemesunderNSAP,theStategovernmentstopuptheamountallocatedbyDoRDtoimprovethe

260 Convergence Report, Centrally Sponsored Schemes: Identifying a domain for the Panchayati Raj Institutions. NationalResourceCellforDecentralizedDistrictPlanning.261FindingofaKeyInformantInterviewwithaseniorofficialfromtheNGOsector.

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efficacyandeffectivenessoftheseschemes.SimilarexperimentshavebeenmadeincaseofPMAY-Gwhere States have added on amenities to the houses constructed under the rural housingprogramme.TheargumentneedstobestretchedtogivethisspaceandopportunitytoPanchayatstoaddandcreatetheirownvaluewithinthelargerframeworkofruraldevelopment.

3. SpecificusedevolutionbyFinanceCommission262

FinanceCommissionmayadopttwostreamsofdevolutionoffunds:one,istheregularprocessofmarkingfundsintoschematicorprogrammaticsilos;andsecond,specificusedevolutionoffundsthatareplacedin an escrow account which can be drawn upon by states subject to fulfilment of certain conditionpertainingtoruraldevelopment.Forexample,matchingfundstoGramPanchayatsthatareabletoraisefundsformaintenanceofinfrastructurecreatedunderprogrammesofruraldevelopment.Similarly,theFinanceCommissioncanplacefundsintheescrowaccountthatcanbedrawnbyStatesorPanchayatstoupscale/replicateanyoftheproveninnovation/pilotsdevelopedbythemtotheentirestate.Theprimarycriterionforspecificuseshouldbeactivitiesandprocessesthatimprovetheeaseoflivinginruralareas.

4. Addressinginequalityandregionaldisparity263

Among the various axes of inequality in India, regional disparities have acquired greater salience inrecenttimes,withdemandsbeingmadeforspecialstatusforcertainstatesonthisbasis.WhathasbeencompletelyoverlookedintheprocessisthatregionalbackwardnessinIndiaisamovingfrontierwiththemost intense forms of poverty and deprivation getting increasingly concentratedwithin enclaves ofbackwardness,especiallythoseinhabitedbyindigenouscommunities.

Thisspatialdimensionofunevendevelopmentinthesepolariseddistrictscallsforare-examinationofsomeof the conventional theories of developmentplanning.Mainstream regional economicplanningentailsagrowthpolestrategydesignedwiththeexpectationoffavourablespin-offimpactsforthelargerregion. Advocates for the strategy argue that all regions do not possess equal capacity to grow anddeliberatefocusingofinvestmentonalimitednumberofcentreswouldsatisfyanecessaryconditionfordevelopment.

5. Convergence264

Whenconvergencehasbeenbuilt intothedesignoftheprogramme, it inevitablyhappensandisalsoreportedupon.Inmostcases,suchconvergenceshaveelementoflinearitybuiltintoitthatmakesiteasierfor different implementing agencies to build their execution system on achievement of the previousmilestone.ThisisbestexemplifiedinhousesconstructedunderPMAY-G.Thedesignandguidelinesoftheschemeprovidefor90persondaysofunskilledlabourwhichisimplementedandreportedunderMGNREGSaswellasPMAY-G.Similarly,assistanceforconstructionoftoilet,distributionofgasunderUjjwala,etc.happensafterthehouseisconstructedandtheinformationistransmittedtotherelevantimplementingagencies.

However, incaseofSPMRM,where thedesignof intervention isbasedon thepremiseof convergentplanningandexecution,makingdifferentagenciesworktogetherhasbeenthemajorchallenge.Further

262AccountabilityInitiative,CentreforpolicyResearch(2019);DevolutionofUnionFinanceCommissionGrantstoPanchayats–AstudyfortheFifteenthfinancecommission.263Jose(2019),IFMR,Chennai-India'sregionaldisparityanditspolicyresponses,JournalofPublicaffairs,volume19,issue4.264 https://aajeevika.gov.in/en/content/convergence-partnerships finds mention by DoRD wherein various CSS addressdifferentdimensionsofpovertyanddeprivationwithconvergenceto facilitateentitlements, Improvequalityofrural lifebyenhancingcapabilities,skillsenhancement,creatinglivelihoodsopportunitiesthroughfacilitatingInstitutionalfinance,PhysicalInfrastructureetc.

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verticalintegrationinDAY-NRLMandMGNREGSwithintheschemeandacrosstheschemeshaveposedfunctionalchallengesofcoordinationandcollaboration.

6. Non-FarmLivelihoods265

Transition from agriculture-based employment to non-farm job opportunities is both the driver andindicator of change in rural areas. This out-migration of labour from agriculture is constrained bymultiplefactors:availabilityofskill,employmentopportunitiesnotbeingabletomeettheaspirationallevels of the rural populations, growth of entrepreneurial ability, access to credit based on crediblebusinessplan,facilitativeecosystemforgrowthofmicroenterprises,landlawsthatdonotpermitchangeoflandusefromagriculturetonon-agricultureuses,etc.

7. MaintenanceofInfrastructure266

The rural development sector has made substantial investment in creation of range of social andeconomic infrastructure: roads, housing,water harvesting, and storage structures, soil andmoistureconservation works, basic amenities including drinking water, sanitation etc. In some cases, themaintenanceofinfrastructurehasbeenbuiltintodesign,e.g.roads,butthesamecannotbesaidforotheritemsofinfrastructure.

Thedemand forrepairandmaintenanceofhousesconstructedunder IAYhasbeenexpressedby thebeneficiaries. Similarly, the ponds constructed in the first phase of MGNREGS are now demandingresourcesfortheirmaintenanceandupkeep.ThePMGSYroadsconstructedintheearly2000sarenowpasttheircontractualperiodofmaintenance.

Intheabsenceofregularmonitoringandmaintenanceoftheinfrastructureitislikelythattheruralareaswill lose theadvantageofwellbeingandeaseof living thathasbeendevelopedduring theperiod.AtpresentthemaintenanceistheresponsibilityoftheStates.Theyareexpectedtocreateamaintenancefundfortheinfrastructurecreatedunderruraldevelopmentprogrammes.Thisprogressinthisregardhas been inconsistent and except for PMGSY, the need for and the system for maintenance ofinfrastructurehasnotbeenfactoredintotheprogrammes.

8. GreenTechnology267

In the context of climate change and the depletion of natural resources the implementation ofInfrastructureprogrammesinruraldevelopmentspacesnecessitateincreasinguseofgreentechnology.The construction material used in construction of houses; rural roads; wells, animal sheds, dams,irrigationworksetc.havenotbeenassessedfortheircarbonfootprintandmodifiedinusagetomakethetechnologyusedgreenandclimateadaptive.

Adoption of green technology requires re-orientation of skills and procurement of relevant greenmaterial. The implementationmachinery is not geared to, nor do they take it their responsibility, tosearch for and institute green processes and material in construction of infrastructure under ruraldevelopmentprogrammes.This factorhasnotevenbeen identifiedandhencenotbeen incorporatedundertheSPMRMprogrammewhichislikelytousherinmajorinfrastructuredevelopmentworksinatleast300clustersindifferentlocationsinthecountry.

9. SustainabilityofSocialSafetyNets268

265http://www.mksp.gov.in/images/2_Advisory_on_diversification_Farm_Livelihoods_14_April_2020.pdfadvisoriesondiversificationoflivelihoodsunderDAY–NRLM.April2020.266McCord&Paul(February2019);AnIntroductiontoMGNREGAInnovationsandtheirPotentialforIndia-AfricaLinkagesonPublicEmploymentProgramming–WorkingPaperGIZ.267SameasFootnote283.268WorldBank.(2018).TheStateofSocialSafetyNets.

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Socialsafetynetshavelargelycomedowntomeandirectcashtransferstothebeneficiaries.Thesenetshave been effective in providing critical assistance to the most vulnerable and marginalized. Theseperpetual cash transfers raise the challenge of defining sustainability as by themselves these cashtransfersdoaddressthecausesandfactorsthathaveledtothevulnerabilitiesandmarginalizationofthebeneficiaries.

IfthewelfarecharacteroftheStatedemandsthatthecashtransfersshouldcontinueinperpetuitythentheissueofadequacyofpensionamountsanddemandfromothervulnerablegroupsshouldbetakenintoaccountwithgreaterdegreeoffrequencythanitisbeingdoneatpresent.

10. ReimaginingRuralAreas:FutureofWork

The dominant outlook of rural spaces (socially, economically or politically) has been with a deficitperspective.Thatis,ruralareaswerealwaysviewedashavinga“lackof”-itcouldbelackofknowledge,resources, productivity, opportunity, facilities, amenities and so on. The consequent programmaticinterventions were on provisioning that would remove one (or more than one deficit). This led toidentification of a visible product (house, road, amenities, natural resource, credit)whichwas to betransplantedinruralareaswiththeassumptionthatthiswillremovethedeficitandhenceincreasethewellbeingof theruralpopulation.Theperspectiveworkswell indefiningandcreatingapotential forchange.

Presently,ruralareasfacedwithglobalization,technologicalinnovationsanddemographicshiftshavebecomediverseintheireconomicprofiles.Thereisnoonepictureofruraleconomy.Infact,therearemultiple pictures of rural economy and each of these pose the challenge of defining the types oflivelihoods that will emerge in rural areas. The fast pace with which technological innovations aremoving,demandare-imaginationofruralspacesinordertoidentifyanddefinefutureofworkintheseeconomies.

Toenableruralareastoadapttothesetransformativeforcesrequiresanewperspective:aperspectiveof appreciation (as opposed to deficit). The appreciative inquirywill seek answers towhat exists (asopposed towhat lacks). Consequently, the programmatic interventionswill be designed to build onresourcesandopportunitiesthatexists inruralspaces.Thisperspectivewillallowprogrammestobediverse, flexible and widespread in content to keep pace with technological innovations which arecreatingtheirowneconomy.

11. Redefiningtheroleofcentralministry:entrustingthetaskaheadofSustainablelivelihoodstothestates

Intheruralsector,theprogramsunderCSShavebeenprescribedbytheDoRDforimplementationbythestategovernments.Stateshavebeenthecentrestageofallinnovations–processanddesign269.SchemessuchasMGNREGSarefocussedondecentralisedprogrammedeliverywhileotherssuchasDAY-NRLMallowforlocalisationoflivelihoodneeds.Goingforward,itiskeythatgreaterdecentralisationisensured.It is important to unravel the developmental phenomena as societies are cursed by ethnic, lingual,religious, and castepathologies, alongwith the ever-increasingproblemofpopulation. It is true that'publicadministration'ingeneralwillbeheldresponsibleinforgingaheadwiththisuphilltaskbutbeingpivotaltodevelopingnations,thisinstrumentshouldhelpbringaboutachangeaswellasdevelopment.Thus,thequalityandquantityofprogressdependslargelyonthepublicadministrationingeneral.Anantiquatedpoliticalstructureandleisurelyproceduresareinsufficienttorealisethegoalsofawelfare

269Basedoninnovationsininstitutionalapproachesinlivelihoodpromotion(SEWA,Gujarat,Care&DFID–ACCESS,BRLPS,andMPRLPetc.).

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state.Attentionneedstobegiventowardsevolvinganadministrativesetupandmodesoffunctioningtingedwithprofessionalism.

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ANNEX1:DETAILSOFKEYINFORMANTINTERVIEWS(KIIS)

S.No. NameofKI KIIPost/Occupation

KIILevel(National/State/District/Block/GP)

Scheme State District Block GP

1MrGIRIJASHANKAR/MrNISHANTHHussain/MrRamaRao

CommissionerRD State All6AndhraPradesh

NA NA NA

2MrRAJABABU/MrSUBBAREDDY/NishanthHussain

CEO State PMGSYAndhraPradesh

NA NA NA

3 MrsINDRAPRIYADARSHINI/RangaRao

NodalOfficer/AdditionalCommissionerRD

State SPMRMAndhraPradesh

NA NA NA

4MrAJAYJAIN/MrDhanumjayuduB/MrSRIRAMULLU

MD/ProjectDirector State PMAY-GAndhraPradesh

NA NA NA

5 MrKESHAVAKUMARDeputyGeneralManager

State DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh

NA NA NA

6MrGIRIJASHANKAR/MrGVenkataSuryanarayana

CommissionerRD State MGNREGSAndhraPradesh

NA NA NA

7 MrRAJABABU/MrPRAMARAO

Chiefexecutiveofficer

State NSAPAndhraPradesh

NA NA NA

8 MrShivaKumar Director District PMGSYAndhraPradesh

KRISHNA NA NA

9 MrAMdImtiaz./Venkateshwararao

DistrictMagistrate District All6AndhraPradesh

KRISHNA NA NA

10 MrGVenkataSuryanarayana

ProjectDirector District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh

KRISHNA NA NA

11 MrKESHAVAKUMAR Director District All6AndhraPradesh

KRISHNA NA NA

12 MrDhanumjayuduB ProjectDirector District PMAY-GAndhraPradesh

KRISHNA NA NA

137


13 MrSuryaPrakashChiefExecutiveofficer

District SPMRMAndhraPradesh

KRISHNA NA NA

14 MrSuresh ProjectDirector District DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh

KRISHNA NA NA

15 MrSudhkar Director District NSAPAndhraPradesh

KRISHNA NA NA

16 MrMaheshwariahProjectEngineeringOfficer

District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh

ANANTAPUR

NA NA

17

MrMaheshwaraihP,MrChandramouliReddy,MrNarasihmhaReddy&MrGandhamChandradu

DistrictMagistrate District All6AndhraPradesh

ANANTAPUR

NA NA

18 MrPrasadBabuDistrictProgramOfficer


ANANTAPUR

NA NA

19 MrNarasimhaReddy DRDAOfficer District All6AndhraPradesh

ANANTAPUR

NA NA

20 MrChandramoulidharReddy/

Director District PMAY-GAndhraPradesh

ANANTAPUR

NA NA

21 MrAdiNarayanaReddy AssistantEngineer District SPMRMAndhraPradesh

ANANTAPUR

NA NA

22 MrNarsaiah/MrMaheshwariah

AssistantEngineer District DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh

ANANTAPUR

NA NA

23 MrNazeerAhmed/NarasimhaReddy

AssistantEngineer District NSAPAndhraPradesh

ANANTAPUR

NA NA

24 MrHKurmarao ProjectDirector District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh

Srikakulam

NA NA

25 MrNIWAS/MrHKurmarao

DM/ProjectDirector District All6AndhraPradesh

Srikakulam

NA NA

26 MrHKurmarao ProjectDirector District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh

Srikakulam

NA NA

27 MrKalyanaChakaravarthi

ProjectDirector District All6AndhraPradesh

Srikakulam

NA NA

28 MrSrinivas ProjectDirector District PMAY-GAndhraPradesh

Srikakulam

NA NA

29 MrChakravarthiChiefExecutiveofficer

District SPMRMAndhraPradesh

Srikakulam

NA NA

138



District DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh

Srikakulam

NA NA


District NSAPAndhraPradesh

Srikakulam

NA NA

32 MrsMSUDHARANIMandalParishadDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)

Block All6ANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Ranastalam

NA

33 MrDayanandhKumar AO Block DAY-NRLMANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Ranastalam

NA

34 MrBGOPIKRISHNA SDO Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Ranastalam

NA

35 MrBPurnandhRao AE Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Ranastalam

NA

36 MrsSVASTHAKUMARIExtensionofficerPanchayatrajruraldevelopment

Block MGNREGSANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Ranastalam

NA

37 MrChandrashekar PS Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Ranastalam

NA

38 MrsBSAILAJA/ShivajiPanigrahi

MandalparishadDevelopmentOfficer/MandalRevenueOfficer


SRIKAKULAM

Sompeta

NA

39 MrPatnayakTirupatiAdministrativeOfficer

Block DAY-NRLMANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Sompeta

NA

40 MrKRAMESH AssistantEngineer Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Sompeta

NA

41 MrPSHIVARAMAKRISHNA

AssistantEngineer Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Sompeta

NA

42 MrGJyothishwarReddy

ExtensionOfficerPanchayatraj&RuralDevelopment


SRIKAKULAM

Sompeta

NA

43 MrMShanthiKumari PS Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH

SRIKAKULAM

Sompeta

NA

44 MrShivaReddyMandalParishadDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)


ANANTAPUR

Kambadur

NA

139


45 MrGovindappa/ShivaReddy

AdditionalProgramOfficer


ANANTAPUR

Kambadur

NA

46 MrSudhakarG SDO Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH

ANANTAPUR

Kambadur

NA

47 MrPrudhviRaj WorkInspector Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH

ANANTAPUR

Kambadur

NA

48 MrParandhamaiahExtensionofficerPanchayatrajruraldevelopment


ANANTAPUR

Kambadur

NA

49 MrShivaReddyMandalParishadDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)

Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH

ANANTAPUR

Kambadur

NA

50 MrKAZADMandalParishadDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)


ANANTAPUR

Nallamada

NA

51 MrSHAKEERVillageprogramCo-ordinator


ANANTAPUR

Nallamada

NA

52 MrHariPrakashReddy AE Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH

ANANTAPUR

Nallamada

NA

53 MrSuryaNarayana PPO Block MGNREGSANDHRAPRADESH

ANANTAPUR

Nallamada

NA

54 MrVenkateshwarReddy

BDO Block All6ANDHRAPRADESH

KRISHNAChandarlapadu

NA

55 MrKotiswararaoAdministrativeOfficer



NA

56 MrRameshPRAE(PanchayatRajAssistantEngineer)

Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH


NA

57 MrSridhar AssistantEngineer Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH


NA

58 MrVENKATESH TechnicalAssistant Block MGNREGSANDHRAPRADESH


NA

140


59 MrPrasad PanchayatSecretary Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH


NA

60 MrsBhargaviMandalParchiatDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)


KRISHNAAgiripalle

NA

61 MRRamaKrishnaAssistantProjectManager


KRISHNAAgiripalle

NA

62 MrSrinivasrao AssistantEngineer Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH

KRISHNAAgiripalle

NA

63 MrSharathBabuAdditionalProgramOfficer


KRISHNAAgiripalle

NA

64 MrBSRINIVASRAO SiteEngineering Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH

KRISHNAAgiripalle

NA

65 MrNSSinhaAsstExecutiveEngineer,SRDA,PWD

State PMGSY Assam NA NA NA

66 UtpalaSaikiaJointDirector,AssamCivilService

State DAY-NRLM Assam NA NA NA

67 RashulHussainSrStateProjectManager

State PMAY-G Assam NA NA NA

68 MrigankaChoudhury/DibyajotiBorah

JointDirector,AssamCivilService/ITManagerNSAP

State NSAP Assam NA NA NA

69 ArupPathakJointDirector,AssamCivilService

State SPMRM Assam NA NA NA

70 PadmanandaChoudhury

ExecutiveEnngineer District PMGSY Assam Goalpara NA NA

71 NavidAnjumulHaque DistMISManager District MGNREGS Assam Goalpara NA NA

72 ArupKumarSarmaCEOZilaParishad,ACS

District4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Assam Goalpara NA NA

73 KhalidMd.ChoudhuryAdditionalDistrictProgrammeManager

District PMAY-G Assam Goalpara NA NA

74 MusarafHussainChoudhury

DistProjectManager District DAY-NRLM Assam Goalpara NA NA

75 MrinalKantiSarkarAdditionalDistrictProgrammeManager

District NSAP Assam Goalpara NA NA

141


76 ManuranjanSaikiaExecutiveEngineer,PWD,DPIU

District PMGSY Assam Tinsukia NA NA

77 MonjitBorkakoty ADC,Development District4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Assam Tinsukia NA NA

78 SaptarshiPaulAssistantDistrictProgramManager

District MGNREGS Assam Tinsukia NA NA

79 MoidulIslam ADPM District PMAY-G Assam Tinsukia NA NA

80 KamalKantoGoala DPM District DAY-NRLM Assam Tinsukia NA NA

81 SubenduDutta DPM District NSAP Assam Tinsukia NA NA

82 BidurBorgiyariExecutiveEngineer(DPIU)

District PMGSY Assam Nagaon NA NA

83 NilamSarma/AshintaBaruah

AdditionalDistrictProgramManager/AsstEngineer

District MGNREGS Assam Nagaon NA NA

84 DebasishBaishya CEOZilaParishat District4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Assam Nagaon NA NA

85 ChandramohanBarkakaty

DistrictITofficer District PMAY-G Assam Nagaon NA NA

86 AbhijeetDeyDistrictFunctionalExpert

District DAY-NRLM Assam Nagaon NA NA

87 MrinalKumarNathDistrictProgrammeManger

District NSAP Assam Nagaon NA NA

88 RamchandraDeuri BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Assam TinsukiaMargherita

NA

89 OleePaul BPM Block DAY-NRLM Assam TinsukiaMargherita

NA

90 PulinSharma AEE Block PMGSY Assam TinsukiaMargherita

NA

91 PranjalRajkhowa JuniorAsst Block PMAY-G Assam TinsukiaMargherita

NA

92 ManojSharma ComputerAsst Block MGNREGS Assam TinsukiaMargherita

NA

93 MofidurRahman BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA

94 ManojKumarBorahBlockProgramManager

Block DAY-NRLM Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA

142


95 RahulAminAsstExecutiveEngineer,PWD

Block PMGSY Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA

96 TarunChandraGogoiSeniorAsstcumAccountant

Block PMAY-G Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA

97 RitrajitSarkar ComputerAssistant Block MGNREGS Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA

98 MuslimAli BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Assam Goalpara Matia NA

99BabyshreeDeka/LuitBorkalita/ParasharDeka

BlockProgramManager/Blockcoordinator/BlockCoordinator

Block DAY-NRLM Assam Goalpara Matia NA

100 BanajitAdhikary SDO Block PMGSY Assam Goalpara Matia NA

101AbdulHaseemMandal/MustafaGalibHussain/AbdurRazzak

NSC-ITComputerAsst/GPC

Block PMAY-G Assam Goalpara Matia NA

102 AchyutMadak/ArupKumarDas

Accountant/MISManager

Block MGNREGS Assam Goalpara Matia NA

103 MailnulHaqueChoudhury

BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Assam Nagaon Juria NA

104 KumudNath/ApurbaKataky

BlockProjectManager/BlockCoordinator

Block DAY-NRLM Assam Nagaon Juria NA

105 GirinHazarikaAssistantExecutiveEngineer

Block PMGSY Assam Nagaon Juria NA

106

ImamulHaque/RakibAlom/WahidurRahman/Ibrahimussain

ComputerAssistant/GPC/GPC/GRS

Block PMAY-G Assam Nagaon Juria NA

107ManojKumarSaikia/GautamSaikia/IqbalAhmed/JiaulHaque

ComputerAssistant/JE/GRS/GRS

Block MGNREGS Assam Nagaon Juria NA

108 MunindranathBhattacharjee


Assam NagaonKathiatoli

NA

109 KuldipLekharo/GopinathDas

BlockProgramManager/BlockCoordinator

Block DAY-NRLM Assam NagaonKathiatoli

NA

143


110 ManojSaikiaAssistantExecutiveEngineer

Block PMGSY Assam NagaonKathiatoli

NA

111 AbhijeetKumarDas/DilipKumarMedhi

ComputerAsst/SeniorAccountant

Block PMAY-G Assam NagaonKathiatoli

NA

112DebojitDekaBaruah/Assanullah/PoragjyotiKalita

Comp.Asst/GRS/AE Block MGNREGS Assam NagaonKathiatoli

NA

113 MahmudUlHassan InchargeBDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Assam GoalparaKharmuja

NA

114 AlfaruqueHussainBlockProgramManager

Block DAY-NRLM Assam GoalparaKharmuja

NA

115 AbhijeetRajkhuwaAsstExecutiveEngineer

Block PMGSY Assam GoalparaKharmuja

NA

116

SultanaParveenAhmeed/MansurRahman/MukiburRahman

ComuterAsst/GPC/AE

Block PMAY-G Assam GoalparaKharmuja

NA

117 SamimAhmedKhan InchargeAccount Block MGNREGS Assam GoalparaKharmuja

NA

118 VaishaliSolankiDPMU-PMAY-G-NodleOfficer

District PMAY-GDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DadraNagarHaveli

NA NA

119 Ms.SharmishtaDesaiSPMRM-DPMU-NodleOfficer

District SPMRMDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DadraNagarHaveli

NA NA

120 Ms.SharmishtaDesaiDAY-NRLM-NodleOfficer

District DAY-NRLMDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DadraNagarHaveli

NA NA

121 NileshShivajiPatelDRDA-NSAP-NodleOfficer

District NSAPDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DadraNagarHaveli

NA NA

122 Mr.SHITIZProjectOfficer,SPMRM

State SPMRM Haryana NA NA NA

123 VarunGupta ExecutiveEngineer State PMGSY Haryana NA NA NA

124 MS.SHEETALMALHOTRA

ResearchOfficer,PMAY-G

State PMAY-G Haryana NA NA NA

144


125 Mr.NaveenInfrastructureIncharge

State DAY-NRLM Haryana NA NA NA

126 Mr.Parveen FinanceManager State MGNREGS Haryana NA NA NA

127 KrishanLalAssistant-SuperintendentPension

State NSAP Haryana NA NA NA

128 NarenderKumar ADPO(HQ) DistrictMGNREGS&DAY-NRLM

Haryana Hisar NA NA

129 Dr.PriyankaSoni DM District All6 Haryana Hisar NA NA

130 Dr.RajkumarNarwalaProjectOfficer,DRDAHISAR

District MGNREGS Haryana Hisar NA NA

131 ManojKumar,HCS CEO,DRDAHisar DistrictMGNREGS,NRLM,&PMAY-G

Haryana Hisar NA NA

132 SureshKumar DistrictCoordinater District PMAY-G Haryana Hisar NA NA

133 VirenderSinghDistrictProgramManager

District DAY-NRLM Haryana Hisar NA NA

134 Dr.DalbirSinghSainiDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer

District NSAP Haryana Hisar NA NA

135 Mr.DarshanRathi DRDAOfficer District MGNREGS Haryana Rohtak NA NA

136 Sh.RSVerma,IAS DM District All6 Haryana Rohtak NA NA

137 RavinderKumar CO-MIS District MGNREGS Haryana Rohtak NA NA

138 Mr.BharhamPrakasha CEO District MGNREGS&PMAY-G Haryana Rohtak NA NA

139 Mr.Manjeet PO-MIS District PMAY-G Haryana Rohtak NA NA

140 Dr.VinodDhankarDistrictProgramManager

District DAY-NRLM Haryana Rohtak NA NA

141 Mr.RajeshMalik Assistant-DSWO District NSAP Haryana Rohtak NA NA

142 JaswinderSinghMalik ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY Haryana Ambala NA NA

143 GurudevSinghDistrictProgramOfficer

District MGNREGS Haryana Ambala NA NA

144 AshokKumar CEO District MGNREGS&PMAY-G Haryana Ambala NA NA

145 DalvinderKaurAdditionalProgramOfficer

District PMAY-G Haryana Ambala NA NA

146 GayatriDistrictProgramOfficer

District SPMRM Haryana Ambala NA NA

147 MamtaSharmaDistrictProgramOfficer

District DAY-NRLM Haryana Ambala NA NA

145


148 SurjeetKaurDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer

District NSAP Haryana Ambala NA NA

149 KanchanLata BDPOHansi BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS&DAY-NRLM

Haryana HisarHansi-Block

NA

150 AnilKumar DEO(NRLM) Block DAY-NRLM Haryana HisarHansi-Block

NA

151 VajirSingh SDO(PWD/BR) Block PMGSY Haryana HisarHansi-Block

NA

152 JitenderMalik ÁSSTTJRY Block PMAY-G Haryana HisarHansi-Block

NA

153 Mr.JabirHooda ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana HisarHansi-Block

NA

154 NarenderMalhotra BDPO BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS&DAY-NRLM

Haryana HisarBarwala-Block

NA

155 AnitaRani Assistant Block DAY-NRLM Haryana HisarBarwala-Block

NA

156 VajirSingh SDO(PWD/BR) Block PMGSY Haryana HisarBarwala-Block

NA

157 Rajkumar Assistant Block PMAY-G Haryana HisarBarwala-Block

NA

158 RajpalPoonia ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana HisarBarwala-Block

NA

159 RajPalChahal BDPO BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS&DAY-NRLM

Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA

NA

160 Robin BPM Block DAY-NRLM Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA

NA

161 ArunSingmar SDO-PWD Block PMGSY Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA

NA

146


162 ShreeMohinderSingh Assistant Block PMAY-G Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA

NA

163 DeepakKumar ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA

NA

164 RajKumarSharma BDPO BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS&DAY-NRLM

Haryana Rohtak

BLOCK-KALANAUR

NA

165 Sandeep BPM Block DAY-NRLM Haryana Rohtak

BLOCK-KALANAUR

NA

166 VijayDalalSub-divisionalOfficer-PWD

Block PMGSY Haryana Rohtak

BLOCK-KALANAUR

NA

167 SumanJi DO-MIS Block PMAY-G Haryana Rohtak

BLOCK-KALANAUR

NA

168 AmitDangi ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana Rohtak

BLOCK-KALANAUR

NA

169 DaljeetSingh BDPO Block PMAY-G,MGNREGS Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-Ambala-1

NA

170 Mr.Gourav BPM Block DAY-NRLM Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-Ambala-1

NA

171 SurenderSharmaAssistantSub-divisionalOfficer

Block PMGSY Haryana AmbalaBLOCK-

NA

147


Ambala-1

172 AvtarSingh Assistant Block PMAY-G Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-Ambala-1

NA

173 Balveer ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-Ambala-1

NA

174 Mr.RKChandna BDPO Block MGNREGS&PMAY-G Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-BARARA

NA

175 Niranjan BPM Block DAY-NRLM Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-BARARA

NA

176 Mr.Rajender SDO Block PMGSY Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-BARARA

NA

177 RakeshKumar BPO Block PMAY-G Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-BARARA

NA

178 Mr.Sukhvinder Assistant Block MGNREGS Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-BARARA

NA

179 GirishKumarRathi SDO Block SPMRM Haryana Ambala

BLOCK-BARARA

NA

180 Deepkumar-(Superintendent)

SPMU/STSA(StateProjectManagement

State PMAY-GHimachalPradesh

NA NA NA

148


Unit/StateTechnicalSupportAgency)

181 MinakshiStatenodalofficer-SPMRM

State SPMRMHimachalPradesh

NA NA NA

182 SandeepJishtuDirector-SEGCMGNREGS

State MGNREGSHimachalPradesh

NA NA NA

183 NeerajKapoorDPMU/Statisticalassistants

District PMAY-GHimachalPradesh

Chamba NA NA

184 ChainLalSharma DPO District MGNREGSHimachalPradesh

Chamba NA NA

185 AnitaNarulaDistrictmissionmanager

District DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh

Chamba NA NA

186 NarenderJarialDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer

District NSAPHimachalPradesh

Chamba NA NA

187 SanjayKumarComputeropratorreferbySuperintendDRDA

District MGNREGSHimachalPradesh

Sirmaur NA NA

188 MaheshKumarComputeropratorReferSuperintendDRDA


Sirmaur NA NA

189 RamaLadiesSocialEducationofficer


Sirmaur NA NA

190 VivekAroraDistrictWelfareofficerSirmaur


Sirmaur NA NA

191 SujeevKumarJuglaniDistrictProgramOfficer


Hamirpur

NA NA

192 KamalDevDeputyDirectorDRDA

District All6HimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

NA NA

193 TotuRamSeniorAssistantDRDA


Hamirpur

NA NA

194 KhushiRam TechnicalAssistant District DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

NA NA

195 SanjeevSharmaDistrictwelfareofficer


Hamirpur

NA NA

196 VijayKumarSocialeducation&BlockProgramofficer

Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh

ChambaSalooni

NA

149


197 VijayKumarSocialeducation&BlockProgramofficer

Block PMAY-GHimachalPradesh

ChambaSalooni

NA

198 YogalJoshiLeadManergainblocklevel

Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh

ChambaSalooni

NA

199 AnishRawat YoungProfessional Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh

ChambaBatiyaat

NA

200 AnishRawat YoungProfessional Block SPMRMHimachalPradesh

ChambaBatiyaat

NA

201 GauravDhiman BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh

SirmaurPontaSahib

NA

202 RenuThakur LSEO Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh

SirmaurPontaSahib

NA

203 DSTomar SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh

SirmaurPontaSahib

NA

204 RajeshNaegiSocialEducationBlockProgramOfficer


SirmaurPontaSahib

NA

205 RajeshNaegiSocialEducationBlockProgramOfficer


SirmaurPontaSahib

NA

206 AnujSharma BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh

Sirmaur Nahan NA

207 BabitaChauhan LSEO Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh

Sirmaur Nahan NA

208 DarshanLalSocialEducationPlainingofficer


Sirmaur Nahan NA

209 AnilSharma Superintend Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh

Sirmaur Nahan NA

210 DineshKumar BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

Bhijri NA

211 AnupankumarBlockMissionManager


Hamirpur

Bhijri NA

212 LalitKumar SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

Bhijri NA

213 DineshKumar BDO Block PMAY-GHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

Bhijri NA

150


214 AjayPathaniaBlockPanchayatofficer


Hamirpur

Bhijri NA

215 KedarNath BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

Bhoranj

NA

216 NeenaSoniBlockMissionManager


Hamirpur

Bhoranj

NA

217 SanjayGupta SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

Bhoranj

NA

218 KedarNath BDO Block PMAY-GHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

Bhoranj

NA

219 AshokKumar Programofficer Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

Bhoranj

NA

220 DeerendraPrasad ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

221 Abhik ADF District All6 JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

222 Dr.BhuwneshPrasadSingh

DistrictCollector District All6 JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

223 AnujaRana ProjectOfficer District MGNREGS JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

224 UmaManto DirectorDRDA DistrictMGNREGS,PMAY-G,SPMRM

JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

225 ShaluPrasadMehta ProjectEconomist District PMAY-G JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

226 AmitKumarRuralDelopmentExpert

District SPMRM JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

227 GauravJaiswal DPM District DAY-NRLM JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

228 NiyazAhmedAssistantDirectorSocialSecurity

District NSAP JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

229 Charvee ADF District All6 JharkhandHazaribagh

NA NA

230 Amrendrakumar PIA District PMGSY Jharkhand Gumla NA NA

231 SmaikshakMohanti ADFDGofDRDA DistrictPMAY-G,PMGSY,SPMRM,DAY-NRLM

Jharkhand Gumla NA NA

232 SashiRanjan DistrictCollector District All6 Jharkhand Gumla NA NA

151


233 RajniKant ADOPRDA District MGNREGS Jharkhand Gumla NA NA

234 HariPrashadKeshriDeputyDistrictCommissioner

DistrictMGNREGS,PMAY-G,SPMRM

Jharkhand Gumla NA NA

235 BikasKumar DistrictCordinator District PMAY-G Jharkhand Gumla NA NA

236 BebyKumari DPMU District SPMRM Jharkhand Gumla NA NA

237 ManishaSanchaDistrictProgramManager

District DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Gumla NA NA

238 BhagiratMahtoAssistantDirectorSocialSecurity

District NSAP Jharkhand Gumla NA NA

239 GautamKrThakur MIS District MGNREGS Jharkhand Godda NA NA

240 SantoshKumarSailInchargeCumDist.Coo.NityAAYOG

DistrictAspirationDist.Fellowshipall5section

Jharkhand Godda NA NA

241 SunilKumarDeputyDistrictCommissioner

District5schemesexcludingSPMRM


242 SunilKUMAR DDC-CUM-DPC District MGNREGS Jharkhand Godda NA NA

243 Nalinikant AcountantDRDA District5schemesexcludingSPMRM


244 Kr.Sanjiv DISTCoordinator District PMAY-G Jharkhand Godda NA NA

245 Sushilkrdas DPM District DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Godda NA NA

246 AnilTuduAssistantDirectorSocialSecurity

DistrictNSAPNodalOfficeratDist.


247 Smt.ArunaKumari B.D.O BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS,SPMRM,NSAP

JharkhandHazaribagh

Barhi NA

248 DeepakKumarBlockProgramManager

Block DAY-NRLM JharkhandHazaribagh

Barhi NA

249 AjayKumar BlockCo-ordinator Block PMAY-G JharkhandHazaribagh

Barhi NA

250 RajeshKumar B.P.O Block MGNREGS JharkhandHazaribagh

Barhi NA

251 Smt.KirtiBalaCakra B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-LD,DAY-NRLM,NSAP

JharkhandHazaribagh

Barkatha

NA

252 DharmendraKumarSoha

BlockAnchorPerson Block DAY-NRLM JharkhandHazaribagh

Barkatha

NA

253 SanjoyKr.Rana BlockCo-ordinator Block PMAY-G JharkhandHazaribagh

Barkatha

NA

254 EkramHussain B.P.O Block MGNREGS JharkhandHazaribagh

Barkatha

NA

152


255 RavindraKumarGupta B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-G,NSAP,DAY-NRLM

Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA

256 BindoKumarBPM(BlockProgrammeManager)

Block DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA

257 SurydevRam AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA

258 AlokKumarMishra Block-Co-ordinator Block PMAY-G Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA

259 BipinKumar B.P.O Block MGNREGS Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA

260 Sandhya B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-G,NSAP,DAY-NRLM,SPMRM

Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA

261 RanikantMishra B.M.M.U Block DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA

262 AnjaniKumar AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA

263 KamleshBarla Block-Co-ordinator Block PMAY-G Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA

264 BebyKumarI B.P.O,MGNREGS Block MGNREGS Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA

265 GeetaDevi SPMRM,CDMU Block SPMRM Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA

266 AshoakKumarChopra B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-G,BDO,PMGSY

Jharkhand Godda Godda NA

267 YogendraKuamar BPM Block DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Godda Godda NA

268 RamashishRam AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Jharkhand Godda Godda NA

269 KunalKishore BC Block PMAY-G Jharkhand Godda Godda NA

270 KamalKishoreDas B.P.O Block MGNREGS Jharkhand Godda Godda NA

271 DhirajPrakash B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-G,BDO,PMGSY

Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA

NA

272 PremPrakash BPM Block DAY-NRLM Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA

NA

273 RamjanamMandal AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA

NA

274 MithunKr.Singh BC Block PMAY-G Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA

NA

275 PurusottamKumar B.P.O Block MGNREGS Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA

NA

276 SiddharthTripathiAdditionalSecretary,SRRD

State All6 Jharkhand NA NA NA

153


277ManishKeshri.S.VermaSubodhPaswan

MISNodalofficer,SeniorEnigineer&AsssitantEngineer

State PMGSY Jharkhand NA NA NA

278

NaveenKishanSubarno,AbhishekKr.Dipak,RanjitKr.Singh,JayprakashKushwaha,MISOfficer

Commisioner,SPMRM,CivilEngineer,RURBAN&Convergenceexpert,RURBAN.

State SPMRM Jharkhand NA NA NA

279 YatindraPrasad,Mrs.Shyama,

AdditionalSecretary,PMAY-G&FinanceManager,PMAY-G

State PMAY-G Jharkhand NA NA NA

280BishnuCharanParida,AnilKumar,AjaySrivastava,

COO,DAY-NRLM,RSETI&Supportingperson,DAY-NRLM&M&E,JharkhandStateLivelihoodPromotionSociety

State DAY-NRLM Jharkhand NA NA NA

281 PankajRanaNodalOfficer,MGNREGS

State MGNREGS Jharkhand NA NA NA

282 JayaMinz AssitantDirector, State NSAP Jharkhand NA NA NA

283 IONARSANGMA,IASDirector,DirectorateofCommunity&RuralDevelopment

State All6 Meghalaya NA NA NA

284 TenesonGiniNennong

ChiefEngineer,PWD(StateRuralRoadsDevelopmentAgency)

State PMGSY Meghalaya NA NA NA

285 ROPLANGKHARMALKIProgramManager,SPMU

State PMAY-G Meghalaya NA NA NA

286 RONALDKYNTA

ChiefOperatingOfficer-Programme,MeghalayaStateRuralLivelihoodsSociety

State DAY-NRLM Meghalaya NA NA NA

154


287 MrJ.E.MassarOfficeronSpecialDuty(OSD)-SPMRM

State SPMRM Meghalaya NA NA NA

288 IARAPHUNLINDIENGDOH

JointMissionDirector(STATERURALEMPLOYMENTSOCIETY)

State MGNREGS Meghalaya NA NA NA

289 NERIUSSAWKMIE

SeniorRuralDevelopmentOfficerCommunity&RuralDevelopment(NSAP-Nodaldepartment)

State NSAP Meghalaya NA NA NA

290 TirotLalooDPIU,ExecutiveEngineer

District PMGSY Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA

291 D.P.Kharsati

AdditionalDeputyCommissionercumplanningofficerRiBhoi


Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA

292P.Marbaninang/S.Marbaniang

DPM/ADPM District MGNREGS Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA

293 BenteliangKharshandi

AdditionalDeputyCommissionercumProjectDirectotorDRDARibhoi


Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA

294 N.Mawlong/KrasNongsiej

IT/Accountsofficer District PMAY-G Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA

295 TKhongshi/AndreasMymrn

DMM/DistrictfunctionalSpecialistfinancialinclusion

District DAY-NRLM Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA

296 WNongkling Accountant District NSAP Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA

297 ParnelHynneiewta ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

NA NA

155


298 MissLajiedLangBasaiawmoit

DistrictProgramManager

District DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

NA NA

299 P.PaulSyiemiongDistrictProgramOfficer(MGNREGS)

District MGNREGS MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

NA NA

300 MrD.Hynniewta,MCSProjectDirectorDRDA&ADCEastKhasiHills


MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

NA NA

301 MrPakmaAssistantProjectOfficer-PMAY_G

District PMAY-G MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

NA NA

302 MrPakmaAssistantProjectOfficer-NSAP

District NSAP MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

NA NA

303 APhawa&AnuMandaExecutiveEngineer&AsstExecutiveEngineer

District PMGSY MeghalayaEastjayantiHills

NA NA

304 MT.D.SUJA,MCS ADC&PDDRDA District All6 MeghalayaEastjayantiHills

NA NA

305 MissSandalimSutnaDistrictProgramManager

District MGNREGS MeghalayaEastjayantiHills

NA NA

306 SMT.ERWAMAYANONGSIEJ

DistrictProgramManager

District DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastjayantiHills

NA NA

307 BaiaKmenlangSumerAdditionalProgrammeOfficer-PMYG

District PMAY-G MeghalayaEastjayantiHills

NA NA

308 JDianaDarmaiLowerDivisionAssistant-Nodalofficer

District NSAP MeghalayaEastjayantiHills

NA NA

309 RajaBrahma BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning

NA

310 WallamladSKharwanlang

CoordinatorBMMU Block DAY-NRLM Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning

NA

156


311 WerlisSumer/PynsukjaiHujon

SDO/JE Block PMGSY Meghalaya RibhoiUmling

NA

312 BantailangMarwein/EsterisusMarbeniang

TechnicalAsst(both)

Block PMAY-G Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning

NA

313MoralisaSwer/RebeccaKharbuli/RefermanLyngdoh

AdditionalProgOfficer/AdditionalProgOfficerCLIB/TechnicalAssistant

Block MGNREGS Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning

NA

314 RodrikNongrum BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Meghalaya RibhoiUmling

NA

315 ErlinaLyngdohManagerBlockMissionManagementUnit

Block DAY-NRLM Meghalaya RibhoiUmling

NA

316 RymphangKharkongor ExecutiveEngineer Block PMGSY Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning

NA

317 MeristelaSyiem DataEntryOperator Block PMAY-G Meghalaya RibhoiUmling

NA

318

OmitaSyiemlieh/BundorlinKharjana/MaryWLyngdoh/MargritaLyngdoh

APO/Rest3TechAsst

Block MGNREGS Meghalaya RibhoiUmling

NA

319 MrP.Khonglah BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

Pynursla

NA

320 WRLingdowAsstExecutiveEngineer-SDO-PMGSY

Block PMGSY MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

Pynursla

NA

321 FranCopperThapa TechnicalAssistant Block PMAY-G MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

Pynursla

NA

322 EvanpynhunLyngdohBlockProgramManager

Block MGNREGS MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

Pynursla

NA

323 MoonstarPyngropeClustercoordinator-BMMU-NRLM

Block DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

Pynursla

NA

157


324 MrMukhimBDO(BlockDevelopmentOfficer)

Block All6 MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

ShellaBholaganj

NA

325 BayahulamMakadoAsstExecutiveEngineer,PWD

Block PMGSY MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

ShellaBholaganj

NA

326 NickeyKharbuli JuniorEngineer Block PMAY-G MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

ShellaBholaganj

NA

327 PynlangShangplyangMISExecutiveNodalOfficer

Block MGNREGS MeghalayaEastKhasiHills

ShellaBholaganj

NA

328 S.MARWEIN,MCSBDO(BlockDevelopmentOfficer)

Block All6 MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Saipung

NA

329 KUNELANGIBHASYNNAH

AsstProgramOfficer Block DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Saipung

NA

330 JOHNTARIANGAsstExecutiveEngineer,PWD

Block PMGSY MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Saipung

NA

331SHRI.BISWAJITKHONGLAH&SHRI.OVERSEEMALANG

SectionAssistant&TechnicalAssistant

Block PMAY-G MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Saipung

NA

332 SMT.FELICITYSYNGKREM,

AsstionProgramofficer

Block MGNREGS MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Saipung

NA

333 S.MARWEIN,MCSBDO(BlockDevelopmentOfficer)

Block All6 MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Khleriat

NA

334 SMT.ERWAMAYANONGSIEJ

BPMcumDPM Block DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Khleriat

NA

335 JOHNTARIANGAsstExecutiveEngineer,PWD

Block PMGSY MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Khleriat

NA

158


336 MEDACHALLAM&SMT.A.NONGBRI

AssistantProgramofficer&OFFICEASST.

Block MGNREGS MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Khleriat

NA

337SHRI.BANJOPWARBAH,JE&SMT.RIMAYASAIOO,DEO

JuniorEngineer&DataEntryOperator

Block PMAY-G MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills

Khleriat

NA

338 SasmitaJenaMGNREGSCo-ordinator

District MGNREGS Odisha Bhadrak NA NA

339 SandipKumarMohanty ProgramOfficer District MGNREGS Odisha Bhadrak NA NA

340 MadhusudanDash PDDRDA District All6 Odisha Bhadrak NA NA

341 DebendraPandabAdditionalProgramDirector,RuralHousing

District PMAY-G Odisha Bhadrak NA NA

342 SanjayBarik DPM District DAY-NRLM Odisha Bhadrak NA NA

343 SaurendraKrBehuriDistrictSocialSecurityOfficer

District NSAP Odisha Bhadrak NA NA

344 SandhyaraniPattanaik MC,MGNREGS District MGNREGS Odisha Ganjam NA NA

345 AbhijitOfficeronSpecialDuty(OSD)

District MGNREGS Odisha Ganjam NA NA

346 B.KiranKumarComputerProgramer,

District MGNREGS Odisha Ganjam NA NA

347 SaumyaRanjanHotaAdditionalProgramDirector,RuralHousing

District PMAY-G Odisha Ganjam NA NA

348 NaveenKumarSenapati DPM District SPMRM Odisha Ganjam NA NA

349 NaveenKumarSenapati DPM-OLM District DAY-NRLM Odisha Ganjam NA NA

350 SubhranshuMaharana DSSO District NSAP Odisha Ganjam NA NA

351 SanjayKumarMishra ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY Odisha Bargarh NA NA

352 HimansuSekharPatra MC,MGNREGS District MGNREGS Odisha Bargarh NA NA

353 PrashantPriyadarshiniPanda

APD,RH District PMAY-G Odisha Bargarh NA NA

354 SankarChallan DPM District DAY-NRLM Odisha Bargarh NA NA

355 NavaSahu DSSO District NSAP Odisha Bargarh NA NA

356 ChittaranjanMonhantyAdditionalProjectDirector,Technical

District SPMRM Odisha Bargarh NA NA

159


357 ShyamsunderTudu BDO Block All6 Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar

NA

358 PitabasBiswal BPM,OLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar

NA

359 NarayanSahoo SDO Block PMGSY Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar

NA

360 PiyushaRanjanRout APO Block MGNREGS Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar

NA

361 AbinashBarik SDO Block PMGSY Odisha BhadrakChandbali

NA

362 SatyaNarayanSethi ABDO Block All6 Odisha BhadrakChandbali

NA

363 StalinNayak BPM,OLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha BhadrakChandbali

NA

364 ManojKumarPatra BPA Block PMAY-G Odisha BhadrakChandbali

NA

365 SantoshKumarNayak MGNREGSASST Block MGNREGS Odisha BhadrakChandbali

NA

366 BimalKumarRayguru BMMU Block DAY-NRLM Odisha GanjamKhallikote

NA

367 BipracharanBehera ExecutiveEngineer Block PMGSY Odisha GanjamKhallikote

NA

368 SukantaKumarPattanaik

BPC,RH Block PMAY-G Odisha GanjamKhallikote

NA

369 AnilKumarPani APO Block MGNREGS Odisha GanjamKhallikote

NA

370 DibyajyotiMohanty ProgramExecutive Block SPMRM Odisha GanjamKhallikote

NA

371 ArchitaPanigrahi APO Block MGNREGS Odisha GanjamChhatrapur

NA

372 UmeshkumarSabatBPC,RH,BPMU,PMAY

Block PMAY-G Odisha GanjamChhatrapur

NA

373 ManiniJena BPO,NRLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha GanjamChhatrapur

NA

374 PranatiBag BPM,OLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha BargarhAtabira

NA

160


375 GaganBihariMishra SDO Block PMGSY Odisha BargarhAtabira

NA

376 AmiyaCharanPradhan BPC,RH Block PMAY-G Odisha BargarhAtabira

NA

377 PuspanjaliMahakud APO Block MGNREGS Odisha BargarhAtabira

NA

378 PranabKumarChand BDO Block All6 Odisha BargarhAtabira

NA

379 SankarsanBehera BDO Block All6 Odisha BargarhPadampur

NA

380 BikramKeshariBarikBPC,RH,BPMU,PMAY

Block PMAY-G Odisha BargarhPadampur

NA

381 SureshBudhia APO,MNREGA Block MGNREGS Odisha BargarhPadampur

NA

382 SatyaKumbhar BPM,NRLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha BargarhPadampur

NA

383 HemaSharmaYoungProfessonal,RURBAN,CDMU

Block SPMRM Odisha BargarhPadampur

NA

384 LaxmanKumarSoren ExecutiveEngineer Block PMGSY Odisha BargarhPadampur

NA

385 SanjeevMathur ChiefEnginner State PMGSY Rajasthan NA NA NA

386 RameshKumar ProjectOfficer State SPMRM Rajasthan NA NA NA

387 JaypalSingh StateNodalOfficer State PMAY-G Rajasthan NA NA NA

388 Noordeen StateNodalOfficer State DAY-NRLM Rajasthan NA NA NA

389 ArbindSaksena StateNodalOfficer State MGNREGS Rajasthan NA NA NA

390 SureshGupta ProjectOfficer State NSAP Rajasthan NA NA NA

391 BalveerjiSuprintendentEngineer

District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Barmer NA NA

392 Anshudeep DM District All6 Rajasthan Barmer NA NA

393 NetSingh MISManager District MGNREGS Rajasthan Barmer NA NA

394 MohanDanRatnoo CircleOfficer District5schemesexcludingSPMRM

Rajasthan Barmer NA NA

395 RajendrasinghSupridentedEngineer

District PMAY-G Rajasthan Barmer NA NA

396 RajendrasinghSupridentedEngineer

District SPMRM Rajasthan Barmer NA NA

161


397 AnkitBhargawDistrictMissionDirector

District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Barmer NA NA

398 ManojPoorwaGola ExecutiveEngineer District MGNREGS Rajasthan Baran NA NA

399 PoonamSharmaAddItionalDistrictInformationOfficer

District ADS Rajasthan Baran NA NA

400 GendaLalGarge AssistantEngineer District MGNREGS Rajasthan Baran NA NA

401 BrajMohanBairwa CEO District5schemesexcludingSPMRM

Rajasthan Baran NA NA

402 GendaLalGarge AssistantEngineer District PMAY-G Rajasthan Baran NA NA

403 VishwarNagar DM District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Baran NA NA

404 ChandraShekharAdditionalTragryOfficer

District NSAP Rajasthan Baran NA NA

405 R.K.Jain ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY Rajasthan Baran NA NA

406 MahendraSinghSupridentedEngineer

District PMGSY Rajasthan Churu NA NA

407 MahendraSinghSuprintendentEngineer

District MGNREGS Rajasthan Churu NA NA

408 RamsaroopChauhan CEO District All6 Rajasthan Churu NA NA

409 AnupSharmaSupridentedEngineer

District PMAY-G Rajasthan Churu NA NA

410 SauravMehta DistrictManager District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Churu NA NA

411 Ramdhan NodalOfficer District NSAP Rajasthan Churu NA NA

412 SumerSingh BDO Block All6 Rajasthan BarmerSindhri

NA

413 Mahaveer Enginner Block PMGSY Rajasthan BarmerSindhri

NA

414 ParbhuSingh BPMU Block PMAY-G Rajasthan BarmerSindhri

NA

415 Ashok AreaManager Block DAY-NRLM RajasthanBalotra,Barmer

Sindhri

NA

416 JitendraChaudhary ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan BarmerSindhri

NA

417 Rajkumar BDO Block All6 Rajasthan BarmerBalotra

NA

418 Ashok AreaManager Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan BarmerBalotra

NA

162


419 JhunjaRamChaudhary Engineer Block PMGSY Rajasthan BarmerBalotra

NA

420 ShankarLal UnitHead Block PMAY-G Rajasthan BarmerBalotra

NA

421 SanjayKumarDubey ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan BarmerBalotra

NA

422 ChandraprakashMathur

Enginner Block SPMRM Rajasthan BarmerBalotra

NA

423 MazharImam BDO Block All6 Rajasthan Baran Anta NA

424 Hariom BPM Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Baran Anta NA

425 ArifaKhatoon AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Rajasthan Baran Anta NA

426 GobardanBairwa APO Block PMAY-G Rajasthan Baran Anta NA

427 SaukatAli ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan Baran Anta NA

428 ChhotanLalmeena BDO Block All6 Rajasthan BaranShahabad

NA

429 Hemraj BPM Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan BaranShahabad

NA

430 Mukesh AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Rajasthan BaranShahabad

NA

431 VimalKumarJain BPM Block PMAY-G Rajasthan BaranShahabad

NA

432 ManoharMeena ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan BaranShahabad

NA

433 SantKumarMeena BDO Block All6 Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar

NA

434 Sayar/RavindaKumawat

BPMU Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar

NA

435 OmprakashSharma Enginner Block PMGSY Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar

NA

436 PawanKumarparikh BPMU Block PMAY-G Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar

NA

437 Bhawanisingh ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar

NA

438 DineshMishra BDO Block All6 Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh

NA

439 ShivaniBhatnagar BPMU Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh

NA

163


440 RitikSakla Enginner Block PMGSY Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh

NA

441 LalChandra PO Block PMAYG Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh

NA

442 RajveerSingh ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh

NA

443 Rajesh AddDirector State PMGSYTAMILNADU

NA NA NA

444 Radha AddDirector State SPMRMTAMILNADU

NA NA NA

445 Razik AddDirector State PMAY-GTAMILNADU

NA NA NA

446 Veeranan AddDirector State DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

NA NA NA

447 Muthumeena AddDirector State MGNREGSTAMILNADU

NA NA NA

448 Subha AsstCommissioner State NSAPTAMILNADU

NA NA NA

449 Kavitha EE District PMGSYTAMILNADU

Theni NA NA

450 SankaranarayananAdditionalProgramOfficer

District MGNREGSTAMILNADU

Theni NA NA

451 Thilagavathy PD District All6TAMILNADU

Theni NA NA

452 DhandapaniAdditionalProgramDirector

District PMAY-GTAMILNADU

Theni NA NA

453 Kavitha EE District SPMRMTAMILNADU

Theni NA NA

454 Sivakumar PD District DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

Theni NA NA

455 Kavitha DeputyThasildar District NSAPTAMILNADU

Theni NA NA

456 AngusamyAdditionalProgramOfficer

District PMGSYTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

NA NA

457 PraveenNair DistrictCollector District All6TAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

NA NA

164


458 KumarAdditionalProgramOfficer


Nagapattinam

NA NA

459 Prasanth PD District All6TAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

NA NA

460 SelvamAdditionalProgramOfficer


Nagapattinam

NA NA

461 PANDIYANAdditionalProgramOfficer

District DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

NA NA

462 RAJAN DeputyCollector District NSAPTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

NA NA

463 Sadaiyappan EE District PMGSYTAMILNADU

Salem NA NA

464 RAMAN DistrictCollector District All6TAMILNADU

Salem NA NA

465 Susilarani/SrinivasanAdditionalProgramOfficer


Salem NA NA

466 ArulJothiarasan PD District All6TAMILNADU

Salem NA NA

467 PriyaAdditionalProgramOfficer


Salem NA NA

468 Selvakumar PD District DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

Salem NA NA

469 Baskaran SpDeputyCollector District NSAPTAMILNADU

Salem NA NA

470 Monikka BDO Block All6TAMILNADU

Theni Theni NA

471 Sasi DeputyBDO Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

Theni Theni NA

472 Karthik AE Block PMGSYTAMILNADU

Theni Theni NA

473 Balakrishnan DeputyBDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU

Theni Theni NA

474 PalaniRaj DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU

Theni Theni NA

475 Monikka BDO Block SPMRMTAMILNADU

Theni Theni NA

165


476 ThirupathiMuthu BDO Block All6TAMILNADU

TheniPeriyakulam

NA

477 Kalaivani DeputyBDO Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

TheniPeriyakulam

NA

478 Nagarajan AsstEngineer Block PMGSYTAMILNADU

TheniPeriyakulam

NA

479 Nagarajan AsstEngineer Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU

TheniPeriyakulam

NA

480 Chitra DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU

TheniPeriyakulam

NA

481 Thirumalaikannan BDO Block All6TAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

KILVELUR

NA

482 Rajagopal BMMU Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

KILVELUR

NA

483 Vetrivel JE Block PMGSYTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

KILVELUR

NA

484 Rajakumar DeputyBDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

KILVELUR

NA

485 Subramaniyan DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

KILVELUR

NA

486 Raju BDO Block All6TAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

VEDARANYAM

NA

487 Prema BMM Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

VEDARANYAM

NA

488 Manimaran/Thirunavukarasu

AE Block PMGSYTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

VEDARANYAM

NA

489 Rajakannan BDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

VEDARANYAM

NA

490 Tamilselvi DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU

Nagapattinam

VEDARANYAM

NA

491 Murugesan BDO Block All6TAMILNADU

SalemOMALUR

NA

166


492 Jothi BMMU Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

SalemOMALUR

NA

493 Sankar AE Block PMGSYTAMILNADU

SalemOMALUR

NA

494 Ayyandurai DeputyBDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU

SalemOMALUR

NA

495 Yamuna DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU

SalemOMALUR

NA

496 Sundarraj BDO Block All6TAMILNADU

SalemATTUR

NA

497 Saritha BMMU Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU

SalemATTUR

NA

498 Rajkumar/Prabhavathi

AssistantEngineer Block PMGSYTAMILNADU

SalemATTUR

NA

499 Periyasamy DeputyBDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU

SalemATTUR

NA

500 Madeswaran DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU

SalemATTUR

NA

501 SUJITKUMAR CEO State PMGSYUttarPradesh

NA NA NA

502 SUJITKUMAR MD State DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

NA NA NA

503 RAJESHKUMARGAUTAM

AE District PMGSYUttarPradesh

MAHAMAYANAGAR

NA NA

504 ASHWANIKUMARMISHRA

ProjectDirector District MGNREGSUttarPradesh

MAHAMAYANAGAR

NA NA


ProjectDirector District5schemesexcludingSPMRM

UttarPradesh

MAHAMAYANAGAR

NA NA


ProjectDirector District PMAY-GUttarPradesh

MAHAMAYANAGAR

NA NA

507 AWDHESHSINGHYADAV

DistrictMissionManager

District DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

MAHAMAYANAGAR

NA NA

167


508 SHIVKUMARDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer

District NSAPUttarPradesh

MAHAMAYANAGAR

NA NA

509 GoutamSinghYadav AEE District PMGSYUttarPradesh

Ballia NA NA

510 DevNandanDubey ProjectDirector District MGNREGS&PMAY-GUttarPradesh

Ballia NA NA

511 BadriNathSinghCommunityDevelopmentOfficer

District All6UttarPradesh

Ballia NA NA

512 DevkiNandanDubey ProjectDirector District PMAY-GUttarPradesh

Ballia NA NA

513 SashimolimishraDistrictDevelopmentOfficer


Ballia NA NA

514 VijayShankarDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer


Ballia NA NA

515 Pardeep EE-RED District PMGSYUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

NA NA

516 Dr.DayaRamYadavDeputyCommissionerLaborEmployment

District MGNREGSUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

NA NA

517 AnayMishraProjectDirector,DRDA

District All6UttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

NA NA


District PMAY-GUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

NA NA


District SPMRMUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

NA NA

520 RamUdrejYadavDeputyCommissionerSelfEmployment


Chitrakoot

NA NA

521 NeelamSinghDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer


Chitrakoot

NA NA

522 GarrimaKhare BDO Block5schemesexcludingSPMRM

UttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

SikandraRao

NA

523 RajivGautam ADO Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

SikandraRao

NA

524 SahibSingh AsstEng Block PMGSYUttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

SikandraRao

NA

168


525 AvnishBabu Accountent Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

SikandraRao

NA

526 MohdJameel APO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

SikandraRao

NA

527 ManojSharma BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

UttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

Hathras

NA

528 PramodKrSharma ADO Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

Hathras

NA

529 ChandraShekhar AsstEng Block PMGSYUttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

Hathras

NA

530 RamkumarGoswami APO Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

Hathras

NA

531 JitendraDixit APO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

Hathras

NA

532 RamAshish BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

UttarPradesh

Ballia Nagra NA

533 PramodKrPandey ADOISB Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

Ballia Nagra NA

534 MdShamshad Accountant Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh

Ballia Nagra NA

535 AmitSingh APO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh

Ballia Nagra NA

536 RajeshYadav BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

UttarPradesh

BalliaHanumanganj

NA

537 DharmendraYadav ADOISB Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

BalliaHanumanganj

NA

538 MajidAli Accountant Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh

BalliaHanumanganj

NA

539 GyanendraYadav APO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh

BalliaHanumanganj

NA

540 PankajSharmaBlockMissionManager

Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

Karwi NA

169


541 RameshSinghBlockProgramOfficer

Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

Karwi NA

542 RajendraChauhan ComputerOperator Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

Karwi NA

543 DKAgarwal BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

UttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

Manikpur

NA

544 MuneeshJogiBlockMissionManager

Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

Manikpur

NA

545 SuryaPrakash ComputerOperator Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

Manikpur

NA

546 BhuwalSingh(APO) BPPO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

Manikpur

NA

547 SushilMohan Addseceratery State DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

NA NA NA

548 MOHDASLAM Stateconsultant State MGNREGSUttarakhand

NA NA NA

549 VivekUpadhyay DeputyDirector State PMAY-GUttarakhand

NA NA NA

550 VinodGoswamiDirectorSocialwalfaredepartment

State NSAPUttarakhand

NA NA NA

551 RAVINDRASINGH DPO District MGNREGSUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

NA NA

552 DHANANJAYLINGWAL DDO District NSAPUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

NA NA

553 PrathvirajRawat AE-DMMU District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

NA NA

554 SHRIPRAKASHRAWAT PD-DRDA District PMAY-G,DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

NA NA

555 PramodGangariEE-PWDNodaldivision-PIA-PMGSY

District PMGSYUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

NA NA

556 PKPANDEY DDC District MGNREGSUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

NA NA

557 ARTISEMWALPROJECTECONIMICST

District PMAY-GUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

NA NA

558 RSBISHT ASSITENG District SPMRMUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

NA NA

170


559 MOBASIFDISTTTHEMETICEXPERT

District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

NA NA

560 HEMLATAPANDEY NODALOFFICER District NSAPUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

NA NA

561 HimanshuJoshi PD-DRDA DistrictPMAY_G,NRLMandSPMRM

Uttarakhand

USNAGAR

NA NA

562 MANGALCHANDRAJOSHI

DPO District MGNREGSUttarakhand

USNAGAR

NA NA

563 SHAILENDRASRIVASTAVA

DPMO District PMAY-GUttarakhand

USNAGAR

NA NA

564 PRAMONDKANDPAL DMMO District SPMRMUttarakhand

USNAGAR

NA NA

565 PRAMONDKANDPAL DMMO District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

USNAGAR

NA NA

566 KSRANA NODALOFFICER District NSAPUttarakhand

USNAGAR

NA NA

567 RSBARATWAL BDO Block All6Uttarakhand

CHAMOLI

KARANPRAYAG

NA

568 PRASHANTKUMAR BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

KARANPRAYAG

NA

569 ARUNKUMAR JET Block PMGSYUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

KARANPRAYAG

NA

570 KAILASH BPMU Block PMAY-GUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

KARANPRAYAG

NA

571 PANNILAL ASSITENG. Block PMGSYUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

GHAT NA

572 NCARYA ACCOUNTENT Block MGNREGSUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

KARANPRAYAG

NA

573 MANOJKUMAR ADO Block All6Uttarakhand

CHAMOLI

GHAT NA

574 SUMITRAKHANERA BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

GHAT NA

171


575 NANDANSINGHRANA ADO Block PMAY-GUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

GHAT NA

576 MOHANPRASAD DataEntryOperator Block MGNREGSUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

GHAT NA

577 SMTANITAPAWANR BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM

Uttarakhand

DEHRADUN

CHAKRATA

NA

578 ANKITRAWAT BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

CHAKRATA

NA

579 KULDEEPRANACOMPUTEROPPERATOR

Block PMAY-GUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

CHAKRATA

NA

580 Sandeepkaushik BPO-MGNREGS Block MGNREGSUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

CHAKRATA

NA

581 BHAGWANSINGH BDO Block5schemesexcludingPMGSY

Uttarakhand

DEHRADUN

DOIWALA

NA

582 SURAJCHAMOLI BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

DOIWALA

NA

583 KIRTANSINGHVillageDevelopmentOfficer

Block PMAY-GUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

DOIWALA

NA

584 NARENDRASINGHCHAUHAN

ADO Block MGNREGSUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

DOIWALA

NA

585 ANILSHARMAVillageDevelopmentOfficer

Block SPMRMUttarakhand

DEHRADUN

DOIWALA

NA

586 NAVINCHANDRAUPADHAYA

BDO Block5schemesexcludingPMGSY

Uttarakhand

USNAGAR

KHATIMA

NA

587 MDIQBAL BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

USNAGAR

KHATIMA

NA

588 SUNDERSINGH Accountant Block PMAY-GUttarakhand

USNAGAR

KHATIMA

NA

589 GRISHCHANDRAJOSHI BPO Block MGNREGSUttarakhand

USNAGAR

KHATIMA

NA

590 MDIQBAL CDMU Block SPMRMUttarakhand

USNAGAR

KHATIMA

NA

591 HARISHCHANDRAJOSHI


Uttarakhand

USNAGAR

SITARGANJ

NA

592 BHAWNA BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

USNAGAR

SITARGANJ

NA

172


593 GHANSHAYAMSINGH ACCOUNTENT Block PMAY-GUttarakhand

USNAGAR

SITARGANJ

NA

594 NEERAJJOSHI BPO Block MGNREGSUttarakhand

USNAGAR

SITARGANJ

NA

595 NirmlaDeviIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP WPSHimachalPradesh

ChambaBhattiyat

BALANA

596 SapnaDeviIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP WPSHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

Bhijri Bhijri

597 AmreshPatelIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DadraNagarHaveli

DadraNagarHaveli

RANDHA

598 SavitabenPatelIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP WPSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DadraNagarHaveli

DadraNagarHaveli

Dadra

599 GirdhariGopIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPS JharkhandHazaribagh

Barhi Karso

600 ChampamosamatIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP WPS Jharkhand Godda GoddaBariKalyani

601 JagatNathIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPS Assam Goalpara MatiaBakaitari

602 SurjyabanuBibiIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP WPS Assam NagaonKathiatoli

Bakulguri

603 WilfredKleinIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPS Meghalaya RiBhoiUmling

Belkuri

604 MrPenamChiatyandevIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPSAndhraPradesh

Srikakkulam

Sompeta

Korlam

605 MrGANGULLAPPAIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP IGNOAPSAndhraPradesh

ANANTAPUR

Nallamada

CHARUPALLI

606 RajammalIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP WPS TamilNadu THENI THENIPoomalaikundu

607 BaluIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPS TamilNadu SALEMOMALUR

MANGUPPAI

173


608 BalwanSinghIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPS Haryana HisarBarwala

BhaniBadshapur

609 SantoshIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP WPS Haryana RohtakSampla

Kharawad

610 RajkumarIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPS Rajasthan BarmerSindhri

AADEL

611 KanchanLalIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP IGNOAPS Rajasthan BaranShahabad

AAGAR

612 VIMALRAMIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP IGNOAPSUttarakhand

USNAGAR

Sitarganj

GOTHA

613 KhilafiRamIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPSUttarakhand

Chamoli Ghat BURA

614 SamuthiranIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP NSAP-Disability TamilNadu Theni TheniPoomalaikundu

615 MadhurjyaBorahDistrictMissionManager

District DAY-NRLM Assam Nagaon NA NA

616 BasheerKhan BDO Block BDOHimachalPradesh

ChambaBhattiyat

NA

617 YateshwarSingh Dataentryoperator Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh

ChambaBhattiyat

NA

618 SonuVillagelevelcoordinator


ChambaBhattiyat

NA

619 GautamSharmaDistrictNodalofficer(ADF)+DistrictProgramofficer

District

NotgivenresponsesforanyschemeandprovidedgeneralinformationaboutADFasitisrecentlyimplementedindistrict.

HimachalPradesh

Chamba NA NA

620 SitaRamIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP IGNOAPS Rajasthan Baran AntaAmlasera

621 SomaShekhar PIA District PMGSYAndhraPradesh

ANANTAPUR

NA NA

622 PrasantaKumarBarikBlockprogrammanager

Block PMAY-G Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar

NA

623 BhuralalMali DistrictManager District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Baran NA NA

174


624 ParmjeetIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP DPS Haryana Ambala BararaSubhri

625 UdayVeer ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY Haryana Rohtak NA NA

626 HereraKhatunIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP WPS Assam Nagaon JuriaMaharipur

627 DineshBharti TrageryOfficer District NSAP Rajasthan Barmer NA NA

628 Mrs.JeevaSanthi Beneficiary GP NSAP-FamilyBenefit TamilNadu Theni TheniPoomalaikundu

629 KamalKantoGoalaDistrictMissionManager

District DAY-NRLM ASSAM Tinsukia NA NA

630 SanjayBarikDistrictProgrammanager

District DAY-NRLM Odisha Bhadrak NA NA

631 GangaRamBaspota Beneficiary GP IGNOAPS Assam Tinsukia SADIANAGAON

632 Mr.ParveenDistrictFinancemanager

District DAY-NRLM Haryana Rohtak NA NA

633 KusumaMosriat Beneficiary GP WPS JharkhandHazaribagh

Barkatha

BarkanGango

634 MurtiramChandravanshi

Beneficiary GP IGNOAPS JharkhandHazaribagh

Barhi Karso

635 VulavalapudiDevasahayam

Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSAndhraPradesh

KrishnaChandralapadu

Konayapalem

636 PatapanchulaVeeramma

Beneficiary GP WPSAndhraPradesh

KrishnaAgiripalle

Bodannapalli

637 ManshaRam Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

Bhoranj

Aghar

638 SushmaDevi Beneficiary GP WPSHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

BhijriKalwal

639 BijayKumarDasRDExecutiveEngineer

District PMGSY Odisha Bhadrak NA NA

640 VikramSinghProjectDirectorDRDA

DistrictDAY-NRLM,PMAY-G,SPMRM

Uttarakhand

Dehradun

NA NA

175


641 SankarChallanDistrictProgrammanager

District NRLM Odisha Bargarh NA NA

642 NEENADASH Beneficiary GP NSAP-FamilyBenefit Odisha BargarhATTABIRA

Janged

643 SitaRamIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)

GP IGNOAPS Rajasthan Churu ChuruAjeetsar

644 JeetSinghThakur ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSYHimachalPradesh

Chamba NA NA

645 Babita Beneficiary GP WPS Haryana RohtakSampla

BhesriKurd

646 SarwanKumarAssistanceExecutiveEngineer

Block PMGSY JharkhandHazaribagh

Barhi NA

647 SarwanKumarAssistanceExecutiveEngineer

Block PMGSY JharkhandHazaribagh

Barkatha

NA

648 DAYARAMYADAVAssistantprojectdirector


CHITRAKOOT

NA NA

649 SauravMathey DistrictManager District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Churu NA NA

650 SalieshRana SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh

ChambaSalooni

NA

651 NavidAnjumulHaque DistrictMISManager District MGNREGS ASSAM Goalpara NA NA

652 MrVijayKumarPDistrictProgramOfficer

District DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh

Krishna NA NA

653 MrGururajaguptaAssistanceExecutiveEngineer

Block PMGSYAndhraPradesh

Anantapur

Nallamada

NA

654 NaveenKumarSenapati DPM-OLM District DAY-NRLM ODISHA Ganjam NA NA

655 VinodKumar ProjectEng District SPMRMHimachalPradesh

Chamba NA NA

656 RajeshKumarAPO+NodalofficerofMGNREGS


Hamirpur

NA NA

657 NabaKrushnaJena BDO Block All6 Odisha GanjamKhalikote

NA

658 DevliChaganRadiya Beneficiary GP WPSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DNH DNHRandha

659 AlekhNayak Beneficiary GP DPS ODISHA BhadrakChandabali

Bhatapada

176


660 BelindaSohkhlet Beneficiary GP WPSMEGHALAYA

EASTKHASIHILLS

SHELLABHOLAGANJ

MAWSMAI

661 KikubhaiBeliyabhaiPatel

Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DNH NA Dadra

662 ANNPURNAGARG JOINTMAGISTRATE District DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

Ballia NA NA

663 SHALIGRAMJOSHIAssistanceExecutiveEngineer

Block PMGSYUttarPradesh

CHITRAKOOT

KARWI

NA

664 KPBINDAssistanceExecutiveEngineer


CHITRAKOOT

MANIKPUR

NA

665 P.C.Kishan SpecialSecretary State All6 Rajasthan NA NA NA

666 MissLajiedLangBasaiawmoit

DistrictMissionManager

District DAY-NRLMMEGHALAYA

EASTKHASIHILLS

NA NA

667 NarinderChoudhary SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh

ChambaBhattiyat

NA

668 Smt.SandalinSutngaDistrictProgramManager

District MGNREGSMEGHALAYA

EASTJAYANTIAHIILS

NA NA

669 Thilagavathy ProjectDirector District MGNREGS TamilNadu Theni NA NA

670 Sivakumar ProjectDirector District DAY-NRLM TamilNadu Theni NA NA

671 M.PUSPA Beneficiary GP NSAP-FamilyBenefit Odisha GanjamChhatrapur

Aryapalli

672 ArunKumar ProjectEconomist State All6 Haryana NA NA NA

673 SUNILKRSINGH BDO Block All6UttarPradesh

CHITRAKOOT

KARWI

NA

674 LACHMANIYA Beneficiary GP WPSUttarPradesh

CHITRAKOOT

KARWI

Agarhunda

675 RUKIDEVI Beneficiary GP WPSUttarPradesh

CHITRAKOOT

KARWI

Bankat

676 SachikantaDas JEE,RD Block PMGSY ODISHA GanjamChhatrapur

NA

677 KhushiRamSood TechnicalAssistant District DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

NA NA

177


678 SujeevKumarJuglaniDistrictProgramOfficer


Hamirpur

NA NA

679 DalbirSinghRana ExecutiveEngineer Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh

Sirmaur Nahan NA

680 DolamaniBiswal Beneficiary GP IGNOAPS ODISHA BargarhPadmapur

Jamartala

681 PardeepSharmaAssistantExecutiveEngineer


BALIAHanumanganj

NA

682 ASWANIKUMARMISHRA

ProjectDirectorDRDA


MahamayaNagar

NA NA

683 ShriFederickMDopth,IAS

DistrictMagistrate District All6MEGHALAYA

EASTJAYANTIAHIILS

NA NA

684 MrChinnatathaiahDistrictprogramofficer


Krishna NA NA

685 PhoidaPaulSyiemiongDistrictProgramManager

District MGNREGSMEGHALAYA

EASTKHASIHILLS

NA NA

686 VIMLA/W/OTEJPAL Beneficiary GP WPSUttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

Hathras

Koka

687 PATWARI/PUNNE Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSUttarPradesh

HathrasSikandrarao

KhijarPur

688 KIRAN/TOTARAM Beneficiary GP WPSUttarPradesh

HathrasHathras

Koka

689 PURANSINGH Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSUttarakhand

Dehradun

Doiwala

Gadool

690 SHRIPRAKASHRAWAT PD-DRDA District PMAY-GUttarakhand

CHAMOLI

NA NA

691 BahLanongFinanceandAdminofficer

State DAY-NRLMMEGHALAYA

NA NA NA

692 KAMESHWARSINGH ADO-DRDA District MGNREGSUttarPradesh

BALIA NA NA

693 MrMukhim BDO Block DAY-NRLMMEGHALAYA

EASTKHASIHILLS

ShellaBholaganj

NA

178


694 KirDkhar Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSMEGHALAYA

EASTJAYANTIAHIILS

Saipung

Pala

695 JAIRAM ADD.DIRECTOR State NSAPUttarPradesh

NA NA NA

696 MrsEGSSyamala CFO STATE MGNREGSAndhraPradesh

NA NA NA

697 SUMITRADEVI Beneficiary GP DPSUttarakhand

USNAGAR

SITARGANJ

GOTHA

698 NARAINIDEVI Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSUttarakhand

USNAGAR

KHATIMA

FULAIYA

699 WinsanPhawa Beneficiary GP DPSMEGHALAYA

EASTJAYANTIAHIILS

Khleriat

Bataw

700 SmitaDeka Financeofficer State MGNREGS ASSAM NA NA NA

701 HarendraGOP Clusterhead Block SPMRMJHARKHAND

Hazaribagh

BarhiPanchmadhaw

702 RituGupta FinancialAdvisor State MGNREGS Rajasthan NA NA NA

703 SurinderSharmaSuperintendEngineerPMGSY

District PMGSYHimachalPradesh

Hamirpur

NA NA

704 RakeshThakurChairman,ZP-Hamirpur


Hamirpur

NA NA

705 MANGALCHANDRAJOSHI

DistrictProgramOfficer

District MGNREGSUttarakhand

UDHAMSINGHNAGAR

NA NA

706 PRAMONDKANDPAL DMMO District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

UDHAMSINGHNAGAR

NA NA

707 HimanshuJoshi ProjectDirector District All6Uttarakhand

UDHAMSINGHNAGAR

NA NA

708 RajneeshSharma BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh

ChambaSalooni

NA

709 PradeepBaranwalAssistantExecutiveEngineer


BALIANagara

NA

179


710 YogenderKumarDeputyDirectorCumprojectofficer


Chamba NA NA

711 ManasDebata AdditionalSecretary State MGNREGS Odisha NA NA NA

712 SudarsanParida Director State PMGSY Odisha NA NA NA

713 SanjayKumarComputeropratorreferbySuperintendDARDA


Sirmuar NA NA

714 SaravananStateProgramManager(Operations&Procurement)

State DAY-NRLM TamilNadu NA NA NA

715 KrutibasRout projectdirector District All6 Odisha Baragarh NA NA

716 MrSanjayExecutiveEngineerPMGSY

District PMGSYUttarakhand

Dehradun

NA NA

717 MrSanjayExecutiveEngineerPMGSY

Block PMGSYUttarakhand

Dehradun

Doiwala

NA

718 MrBCPantExecutiveEngineerPMGSY

Block PMGSYUttarakhand

Dehradun

Chakrata

NA

719 DeepakChauhanHeadofdepartmentSRLM

State DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh

NA NA NA

720 AKHILESHSINGHADDITIONALDIRECTOR-PMAYG

State PMAY-GUttarPradesh

NA NA NA

721 RamaLadiesSocialEducationofficer


Sirmuar NA NA

722 DKNagEnvironmentandSocialdevelopmentofficer,HPPWD

State PMGSYHimachalPradesh

NA NA NA

723 MrSrinivasRao MandalIn-charge Block PMAY-GAndhraPradesh

KrishnaAgiripalle

NA

724 JanmjayShuklaADDITIONALCOMMISSIONER

State All6UttarPradesh

NA NA NA

725 VikramSinghProjectDirector-Ruraldevolepment

District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

Dehradun

NA NA

726 NEERAJAGUPTDeputyCommissioner

State SPMRMUttarPradesh

NA NA NA

727 DrSivaShankarPrasadDeputyCommissioner

State MGNREGSAndhraPradesh

NA NA NA

180


728 JyoyiSnkarRay BDO Block All6 Odisha GanjamGanjam

NA

729 SoumyaRanjanHotaAdditionalprojectdirector

District All6 Odisha Ganjam NA NA

730 RashmiSinghSeniorAuditOfficerFinance)

State MGNREGSJHARKHAND

NA NA NA

731 JEFFREYKHARSYNTIEW

ProgrammeManager State MGNREGSMEGHALAYA

NA NA NA

732 KalyaniGuptaDeputyDirectorSirmaur(DRDA)


Sirmaur NA NA

733 IshaThakur Jointdirector State StateNodalOfficerHimachalPradesh

NA NA NA

734 MOHDASLAMStateConsultantMGNAREGA

State MGNREGSUttarakhand

NA NA NA

735 MOHDASLAMStateConsultantMGNAREGA

State MGNREGSUttarakhand

NA NA NA

736 DeepaRajkamal

CEO(TNVRC-TamilNaduStateonGovernmentalOrganizationsandVolunteersResourceCentre)

State DAY-NRLM TamilNadu NA NA NA

737 RAMUDRAJYADAVDeputycommissioner-SE

District DAYNRLMUttarPradesh

CHITRKOOT

NA NA

738 RANDHEERSINGH youngprofessional Block SPMRMUttarPradesh

CHITRAKOOT

KARWI

NA

739 AMLANAHMAD youngprofessional Block SPMRMUttarakhand

USNAGAR

KHATIMA

NA

740 PRABHAKERBEBNI DeputyDirector State SPMRMUttarakhand

NA NA NA

741 AwadeshSinghDistrictMissionManager


MahamayaNagar

Hatrash

NA

742 SmtMatsiewdorWarNongbri

DistrictMagistrate District All6MEGHALAYA

EASTKHASIHILLS

NA NA

743 MusarafHussainChoudhury

DistProjectManager District DAY-NRLM ASSAM Goalpara NA NA

181


744 MadanMohanBehera UnderSecretary State NSAP Odisha NA NA NA

745 Smt.SuprabhaRoy,ACS

AssistantDeputyCommissioner

District All6 ASSAM Goalpara NA NA

746 MrPranaySingh CDO District All6UttarPradesh

Saharanpur

NA NA

747 DevNandanDubey PD-RD District All6UttarPradesh

Ballia NA NA

748 PRAVEENKUMARLAKSHKAR

DM District All6UttarPradesh

MahamayaNagar

NA NA

749 DebiPrsadNayak CEO,MIS,MLE State DAY-NRLM ODISHA NA NA NA

750 SthitaprajnaSwainProjectManager,Communication

State DAY-NRLM ODISHA NA NA NA

751 AnilSharmaJD-StateRuralDevelopmentDepartment

State All6HimachalPradesh

NA NA NA

752

SEKuttalingamAbdulRazikRajeshRaghuramRadha

SuperintendentEngineerAdditionalDirectorExecutiveEngineerConsultantTNSRLMSeniorConsultant

State All6 TamilNadu NA NA NA

753 NanumalPaharia DM District All6 RajasthanSwaimadhopur

NA NA

754 ArvindSaxenaSuperintendentEngineer

State MGNREGS Rajasthan Jaipur Jaipur Jaipur

755 BalwantSinghIDINSAPbeneficiaries

GP NSAP-OldAgeUttarakhand

USNAGAR

SITARGANJ

GOTHA

756 KiranValand MGNREGS-Incharge District MGNREGSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DADRA&NAGARHAVELI

NA NA

757 KiranValand MGNREGS-Incharge District MGNREGSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DADRA&NAGARHAVELI

NA NA

758 SushilKumarSwain DeputyCEO,Finance State MGNREGS ODISHA NA NA NA

759 Ms.SharmishthaDesai NRLM-Incharge District DAY-NRLMDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DADRA&NAGARHAVELI

NA NA

182


760

NileshPatel,KiranValand,Ms.SharmishthaDesai,Ms.VaishaliSolanki

DistrictIncharges District All6DADRA&NAGARHAVELI

DADRA&NAGARHAVELI

NA NA

761 MuradAliTrainingProgrameofficer

State DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

NA NA NA

762 RKsingh ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSYUttarakhand

Paurigarhwal

NA NA

763 Ms.SarmishthaDesai KMUIncharge State NSAPDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

NA NA NA

764 Ms.SarmishthaDesai FMUIncharge State DAY-NRLMDADRA&NAGARHAVELI

NA NA NA

765 KCArya Executiveengineer Block PMGSYUttarakhand

AlmoraAlmora

NA

766 Mr.HMChavdaCEO,ProjectDirector,DistrictPanchayat

District All6DADRA&NAGARHAVELI

NA NA NA

767 Dr.RousyK.Baruah

StateProjectManager-SocialMobilisation,InstitutionBuildingandCapacityBuilding,ASRLMS

State DAY-NRLM ASSAM NA NA NA

768 YOGESHKUMARDeputyCommissioner

State MGNREGSUttarPradesh

NA NA NA

769 PremKumarStateprojectmanagementofficer-finanace

State DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh

NA NA NA

770 Tarandeep TrainingCoordinator State MGNREGS Haryana NA NA NA

771 Mr.ParveenFinanceManager-State

State MGNREGS Haryana NA NA NA

772 MrUpeshChDas DM District All6 ASSAM Nagaon NA NA

773 RitaGogoi CEO,ZilaParishad District All6 ASSAM Tinsukia NA NA

774 NathumalDidel DM District All6 RajasthanBharatpur

NA NA

183


775 SriJonashBasumatary LiaisonOfficer,DRDA District All6 ASSAM Udalguri NA NA

776 NeelamsinghChauhan Youngprofessional Block SPMRMUttarPradesh

Chitrakoot

MauMustaqil

NA

777 HargobindBhattDC-StateRuralDevelopmentDepartment

State All6Uttarakhand

NA NA NA

778 SanjeevKumar Financeofficer State MGNREGSHimachalPradesh

NA NA NA

779 AshishSinghaRuralDevelopmentSpecialist

State SPMRM Odisha NA NA NA

780 SunilKumar DMM District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand

Paurigarhwal

NA NA

781 KishanLalExecutiveEngineerPMGSY

District PMGSYHimachalPradesh

Sirmaur NA NA

782 MrPlaniProjectDirectorDRDA

District All6 TamilNaduThanjavur

NA NA

783 DileepChouhanChairmanZilaParishad


Sirmaur NA NA

784 DSPathaniaChairmanZilaParishad


Chamba NA NA

785 SmtiD.Pegu,ACSJointDirectorRURALDEVELOPMENTDEPERTMENT

State MGNREGS ASSAM NA NA NA

786 MadhusudanDash PD-DRDA District All6 ODISHA Bhadrak NA NA

787 HDPandey CDO District All6Uttarakhand

Chamoli NA NA

788 AtulSaxena ITcoordinator State PMGSYUttarakhand

NA NA NA

789 HemenDas,IAS

CommissionerofPanchayatandRuralDevelopment,Guwahati

State All6 Assam NA NA NA

790 SudhanshuMohanSamal

DM District All6 ODISHA Deograh NA NA

791 KulveerSingh CEO District All6 Haryana Gurgaon NA NA

184


792 SiddharthSankarSwainProjectDirectorDRDA

District All6 ODISHA Ganjam NA NA

793 VikramSingh PD-DRDA District All6Uttarakhand

Dehradun

NA NA

794 PranatiStateRuralHousingDept.

State PMAY-G ODISHA NA NA NA

795 MrLalitJainDirector-RuralDevelopmentDept

State MGNREGSHimachalPradesh

NA NA NA

796 PankajRana StateMISofficer State MGNREGS Jharkhand NA NA NA

797

AshishSingha,SrimantKumarSamal,MadanMohanBehera,SudarsanParida,DebiPrasadNayak

RDSpecialist/StateProgOfficer/UnderSecretary/Director/CEO,MIS-MLS

State All6 Odisha NA NA NA

798 RuralSkillsDivisionTeam

MoRD National DAY-NRLM National NA NA NA

799 ZinatNiaziVicePresident,DevelopmentAlternatives(DA)

National PMAY-G National

800 SmtAlkaUpadhyayaAdditionalSecretary,MoRD

National Sector National

801 Sh.GayaPrasadDirector-General,PMAY-G

National PMAY-G National

802 MsRoopAvtarKaur Director,SPMRM National SPMRM National

803 Dr.BiswajeetBanerjee

JointSecretary,Policy,Planning&Management(PPM),MoRD

National SPMRM&Sector National

804 Mr.RaminderSinghRekhi

ResourcePerson,NRLM

National DAY-NRLM National

805 Prof.K.Raju ExProfessor,IRMA National Sector+NRLM National

806 Mr.LibyJohnsonExecutiveDirector,GramVikas,Odisha

National Sector+NRLM National

807 Ms.LeenaJohriJointSecretary,RuralLivelihoods


808 Dr.N.SrinivasRao EconomicAdvisor National Sector National

809 Mr.NareshSaxena ExBureaucrat National Sector National

185


810 Mr.VijayMahajan Founder,BASIX National DAY-NRLM National

811 Sh.RohitKumarJointSecretary,MGNREGS

National MGNREGS National

812 Mr.VedAryaFounderSrijan,BuddhaFellowProgramme


813 MsMamtaKohliDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DRID)


814 AnishTransformingRuralIndiaFoundation(TRIF)


815 Mr.DarshanParikh

OperationsDirector,CEPTResearch&DevelopmentFoundation

National SPMRM National

816 Mr.VijayMahajan Founder,BASIX National DAY-NRLM National

817 Dr.SridharanDirector–SchoolofPlanningandArchitecture,Bhopal

National SPMRM National

818 Mr.NageshSingh Ex-Officer,PMGSY National PMGSY National

819 Prof.JyothisSatyapalanHead,CentreforWageEmployment,NIRD&PR

National MGNREGS National

820 Mrs.NitaKejriwal,JointSecretary-DAY-NRLM

National DAY-NRLM National

821 Dr.AshokKumarSarkar

DivisionalChairperson,Engineering

National PMGSY National

822 Mr.I.K.Pateriya

Director(Projects),NationalRuralInfrastructureDevelopmentAgency(NRIDA),NewDelhi

National PMGSY National

186


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