Upload
others
View
11
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
A Source Book on Solid and Liquid Waste Management for Rural
Areas
2015
Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation
Paryavaran Bhavan
CGO Complex, Lodhi Road
New Delhi
Ministry logo CEE logo
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan logo
Final Draft
2
Foreword – Minister
3
Preface – Secretary
4
Introduction to the Sourcebook – KVS
5
Acknowledgements
We wish to acknowledge and thank Mr. Vijay Mittal for awarding us this work and Ms. Pratima
Gupta, former Director of the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA), present Director Mr. Sujoy
Mojumdar, Sri Saraswati Prasad, Joint Secretary, NBA for guiding us and providing feedback.
We also acknowledge and thank the team of reviewers of the book, Dr. Dinesh Chand, Sri. G.
Balasubramaniam, Sri. Salim Haider, and Dr. Gangadhara Murugan for extensively reviewing the
book, providing us with relevant information, suggestions, feedback and advice for improving the
book and making it a valuable source book for helping to achieve effective solid and liquid waste
management in India.
We also acknowledge the contribution of Dr. (Ms.) Shyamala Mani, Professor, National Institute
of Urban Affairs (NIUA) for providing extensive inputs and expert review for the document and
providing the relevant photographs and illustrations to fulfil the requirement of the source book as
envisaged by Swachh Bharat Mission.
Centre for Environment Education
6
Credits
Development and Editing: Madhavi Joshi, Reema Banerjee, Ketki Gadre, Centre for
Environment Education
Reviewed by: Dr Shyamala Mani, Professor, National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, Dr.
Gangadhara Murugan, Consultant, Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS), New
Delhi
Illustrations and Photographs: Original photographs from projects implemented by CEE,
photographs from the sources as mentioned in respective reference sections and those provided
by experts.
Design and Production: Mahendra Dadhania,
7
Glossary
1) Acidogenic bacteria: Bacteria that convert water soluble substances into volatile
acids.
2) Amoebiasis: A gastronomical infection caused by the Entamoeba histolytica
amoeba.
3) Ascariasis: A disease which spreads through drinking water; it is mostly
asymptomatic but may cause fever and diarrhoea.
4) Ataxia: A neurological impairment which prevents voluntary coordination of
muscle movements.
5) Bagasse: The fibrous matter that remains after extraction of juice from sugarcane
stalk. It can be used as biofuel or for manufacturing pulp and other useful
products.
6) Benthic Community: Community of organisms that live at the bottom of the
ocean floor including worms, clams, crabs, lobsters and sponges.
7) Bioaccumulation: The accumulation of toxic substances such as pesticides or
heavy metals in an organism’s body over a period of time.
8) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The measure of availability of oxygen or
its depletion due to organic matter decomposition in the water body which in turn
indicates whether the water body can support life
9) Biomethanation: The process of production of methane by the action of bacteria
on organic matter under anaerobic conditions.
10) Black Water: Sewage or wastewater containing faecal matter and urine, which
cannot be reused without purification.
11) Botulism: A fatal disease which spreads through the entry of bacteria into a
wound, usually from a contaminated water source. Slow paralysis of the body
usually leads to death by respiratory failure.
12) Briquette: The act of compressing organic matter such as coal dust and charcoal
into bricks which can later be used as fuel or fodder.
13) Campylobacteriosis: A bacterial infection that spreads through drinking water
and causes dysentery.
14) Carcinogenic: Substances capable of causing cancer.
15) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The measure of availability or depletion of
oxygen due to chemical reactions in the water body, which in turn indicates the
ability of the water body for supporting life.
16) Coenurosis: A parasitic infection which spreads through drinking water.
17) Cyclosporiasis: An infection which spreads through faeces-contaminated water
and leads to nausea, fever and other similar symptoms.
18) Dracunculiasis: A water-borne disease which can cause allergic reactions,
diarrhoea, vomiting and even asthmatic attacks.
8
19) Echinococcosis: A disease caused by tapeworm through drinking water
contaminated with faeces containing eggs. It mostly affects the liver.
20) Enterobiasis: A human parasitic disease that spreads through water and causes
anal itching.
21) Fasciolopsiasis: A water-borne intestinal infection which affects the
gastrointestinal tract and the liver.
22) Fluff: Light and low-density waste such as rice husk or straw.
23) Furfural: A colourless, sweet-smelling and oily liquid made from cellulosic
wastes and used for manufacturing plastics and other products.
24) Giardiasis: A parasitic disease of the digestive tract, which may cause diarrhoea
and loss of appetite.
25) Greywater: Domestic wastewater with low organic loading, which can be reused
for some purposes without purification.
26) Helminthiasis: A parasitic worm infection which is transmitted mostly through
the soil.
27) Hydrolytic breakdown: The process of breaking down of complex polymers into
simpler units in the presence of water.
28) Hymenolepiasis: A disease caused through drinking water contaminated with
tapeworm eggs; symptoms include abdominal pain and anorexia.
29) Immuno-compromised: Possessing an immune system which has had its
functioning compromised, generally by a disease.
30) Interstitial Species: Organisms that live between the grains of sand, usually on
sandy shores.
31) Intracranial: Occurring within the cranium, which is the protective bony dome
protecting the brain.
32) Leachate: A liquid that extracts a component, such as suspended solids, from the
material it passes through. It may have environmentally harmful consequences.
33) Legionellosis: A water-borne bacterial disease which may lead to pneumonia,
anorexia and other symptoms in its severe form and Pontiac fever in its milder
form.
34) Leukoencephalopathy: Diseases that affect the white matter of the brain and are
fatal in nature.
35) Löffler's syndrome: An infection which causes the accumulation of a type of
white blood cells in the lungs.
36) Methanogenic bacteria: Anaerobic bacteria that mainly produce methane after
their respiration process.
37) Offal: The internal organs and entrails of a butchered animal
38) Pelleted: The act of compressing matter such as agricultural wastes into dense,
spherical bodies which can later be used as fuel or fodder.
9
39) Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP): Organic substances that do not easily
undergo environmental degradation and contribute towards bioaccumulation.
They are capable of harming human health and environment.
40) Pontiac fever: An acute upper respiratory infection with mild fever; it is the
milder form of Legionellosis.
41) Schistosomiasis: A parasitic disease of the urinary tract or intestines, caused by
contact with water containing worms of the Schistosoma type.
42) Septage Management: Processes designed for the treatment of the contaminated
wastewater known as septage.
43) Sullage: Silt or sediment deposited by flowing water.
44) Taeniasis: A parasitic disease caused by tapeworms; its symptoms includes
intestinal disturbances and loss of weight.
45) Trachoma: A bacterial infection which may cause a breakdown of the outer
cornea of the eye and may lead to blindness.
10
Contents
1. Introduction 1.1 What is waste? 1.2 Waste generation 1.3 Categorisation of waste 1.4 Characterisation of solid waste 1.5 Environmental and health impacts of waste 1.6 Waste: problem or resource 1.7 Importance of waste management 2. Environmental and health implications of improper waste management 2.1 Environmental hazards of improper management of solid and liquid waste 2.2 Health hazards of improper management of solid and liquid waste 3. 4Rs of waste management 3.1 Reduce (and prevention) 3.2 Reuse 3.3 Recycle 3.4 Recover 3.5 Easy steps to reduce, reuse, recycle and recover 4. Segregation, collection and transportation of waste 4.1 Separation at source
4.1.1 Waste utilization at source 4.2 Primary collection of waste 4.3 Transportation of collected waste 5. Treatment of biodegradable waste 5.1 Composting 5.1.1 Introduction to composting 5.1.2 Different methods of composting 5.1.3 Composting strategies for households 5.1.4 Composting strategies for community, farms and agricultural lands
5.1.5 Vermi-wash 5.2 Biogas generation 5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 The science of biogas generation 5.2.3 Fuel efficiency of biogas 5.2.4 Use of biogas technology for solid waste management 5.2.5 Feed materials for biogas plant 5.2.6 Types of designs of biogas plants 6. Treatment technologies for non-biodegradable waste 6.1 Waste recycling 6.2 Recycling of paper 6.3 Plastic bags and plastic waste recycling 6.4 Inert waste 6.5 Management of non-recyclables
11
6.6 Sanitary landfill 7. Wastewater management 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Types of wastewater 7.3 Sanitation beyond toilets 7.4 Factors affecting toilet use 7.5 Ecological and health issues related 8. Wastewater treatment and management 8.1 Treatment of wastewater 8.2 Benefits of wastewater recycling 8.3 Decentralised wastewater treatment facility 8.4 Technological options at household level 8.4.1 Twin pits 8.4.2 Septic tank 8.4.2 Ecosan toilet 8.4.3 Biodigester 8.5 Technological options at community level 8.5.1 Stabilization pond for wastewater treatment 8.5.2 Wastewater treatment using Duckweed technology 8.5.3 Root zone technology 8.5.4 DEWATS 8.6 Greywater and blackwater management 8.7 Use of treated wastewater 9. Participatory approach to effective waste management 9.1 Aim of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) campaign 9.2 Need for direct intervention and participation of community stakeholder 9.3 Public information, education and communication methods 9.4 Recommended method of participatory approach in implementation of effective waste
management system 9.5 Learnings
Case studies Case study 1 CEE-ERU (CEE Eco Recycling Unit) Coorg, Karnataka
Case study 2 Satyanagar’s Biogas-based Community Toilet, Bangalore, Karnataka
Case study 3 Converting Dhansura block of Sabarkantha district into a plastic-free zone,
Gujarat
Case study 4 Pammal’s Green Exnora, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Case study 5 Waste to wealth: Vermicomposting from solid waste by KGS, Kanpur, UP
Case study 6 Solid waste management and sanitation activities at Kihim, Maharashtra
Case study 7 Making night soil-based biogas plants viable in Maharashtra’s Pune
district
Case study 8 Rural waste management in a South Indian village
Case study 9 Greywater treatment plant in Kokawad ashram school,
12
Chapter 1
Introduction
Solid and liquid waste management are becoming issues of great concern in rural India.
The changes in consumption patterns including that of people living in rural areas have
an impact on the quantity and kind of wastes generated. “It is estimated that rural people
in India are generating liquid waste (greywater) of the order of 15,000 to 18,000 million
liters and solid waste (organic/recyclable) of the order of 0.3 to 0.4 million metric tons
per day respectively”1. While there is an increase in non-biodegradable components in
the waste generated in rural areas, a large part of the waste is biodegradable in nature.
This poses great health risks if not treated and managed in a sustainable way.
In the absence of proper treatment and disposal of solid and liquid waste (greywater and
blackwater), vector borne diseases such as diarrhea, malaria, polio, dengue, cholera,
typhoid, and other waterborne infections such as schistosomiasis are increasing. Close to
88 per cent of the total disease burden in rural India is due to lack of clean water and
sanitation and improper solid and liquid waste management, which exacerbate the
situation. For example:
• 5 of the 10 top killer diseases of children aged 1-14 in rural areas are related to water
and sanitation
• Almost 1500 children die every day from diarrheal diseases
• High rate of infant and under-5-children mortality. The rural Infant Mortality Rate
(IMR) is 62 as compared to urban which is 42
• The water and sanitation related diseases not only affect the nutritional status of
children but also impact their attendance in the school. Close to 50 per cent of school
going children in rural areas do not reach class V1.
The Government of India initiated the Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP) in
1986, primarily with the objective of improving the quality of life of people living in the
rural areas and to provide privacy and dignity to women. The concept of sanitation was
expanded to include personal hygiene, home sanitation, safe water, garbage disposal,
excreta disposal and wastewater disposal. With this broader concept of sanitation,CRSP
in 1999, adopted a “demand driven” approach with the name “Total Sanitation
Campaign” (TSC). The revised approach had a strong emphasis on Information,
Education and Communication (IEC), Human Resource Development, Capacity
Development activities to increase awareness among the rural people and generation of
demand for sanitary facilities. This enhanced people’s capacity to choose appropriate
options through alternate delivery mechanisms as per their financial capabilities. The
Programme was implemented with focus on community-led and people centered
initiatives. Financial incentives were provided to Below Poverty Line (BPL) households
for construction and use of individual household latrines (IHHL). Assistance was also
extended for construction of school toilet units, Anganwadi toilets and Community
Sanitary Complexes (CSC) apart from undertaking activities under Solid and Liquid
Waste Management (SLWM). To give a fillip to the TSC, Government of India also
launched the Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP) that sought to recognise the achievements and
13
efforts made in ensuring full sanitation coverage. Encouraged by the success of NGP, the
TSC was renamed as “Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan” (NBA) in 2003. The objective was to
accelerate sanitation coverage in the rural areas so as to comprehensively cover the rural
community through renewed strategies and saturation approach. In 2014, the Swachh
Bharat Mission announced aims to achieve not only toilet saturation but also total Solid
and Liquid Management along with total septage management by 2019.
This calls for creating awareness and understanding of the issue among various
stakeholders and hence this publication. The issue of solid waste will be dealt with first
followed by liquid waste.
1.1 What is waste?
Waste is any article that is unwanted and is discarded due to that article no longer being
useful to the possessor. Rural areas traditionally did not generate waste as we know it, as
whatever is produced eventually goes back to earth. The practice of a community dump
for agricultural waste and converting the same into compost to plough back into their
field is a part of village life in India. However, in the modern era, changes in technology
and access of rural community to many of them, connectivity to urban centres, adapting
to modern ways of living by the villagers and changing levels of living and literacy have
changed the way of life of the villagers. An obvious impact of the changing lifestyle of
people living in rural areas is the increasing problem of solid waste both in terms of
quantity and its characteristic.
Waste management is a complex process involving a number of methods, and
technologies, simple to complex in nature. To have a general idea, various terminologies
used in waste management are discussed.
1.2 Waste generation
About 960 million tonnes of solid waste is generated annually in India as by-products
during industrial, mining, municipal, agricultural and other processes. Of this, 350
million tonnes are organic wastes from agricultural sources; 290 million tonnes are
inorganic waste from industrial and mining sectors and 4.5 million tonnes are hazardous
in nature2. Although rural citizens in India produce half the quantum of waste compared
to their urban counterparts, the quality and characteristics of waste in rural areas is
changing and is a cause for concern.
There is global consensus to find a socio, techno-economic, environmentally friendly
solution to the ever-growing problem of solid waste in order to sustain a cleaner and
greener environment. An efficient and sound waste management system is possible if the
system addresses the heterogeneous nature of wastes and ways to treat them individually.
The issue is complex not just because of the quantum but also because of the varied
nature of components in the waste stream.
14
1.3 Categorisation of waste
Waste can be classified into different types depending on their composition, sources,
nature and properties.
Solid Waste Solid Waste can be broadly classified into the following categories depending on their
physical, chemical and biological properties. These are:
a) Biodegradable waste: Wastes which break up into simpler substances naturally, by
the action of microorganisms are called biodegradable waste, e.g. food waste, garden
waste, wet paper, cotton wool, rags, sweepings, agriculture waste etc.
b) Recyclable waste: Wastes which are complex in nature and cannot be broken down
into simpler substances by the action of microorganisms but stay in the environment
without changing their physical properties but can be reused or recycled or
manufactured into newer products are called as recyclable waste. They include
broken glass, plastic bottles and pouches, metal cans, pieces of metal, plastic
containers, synthetic cloth, packaging, broken toys etc. Paper, although degradable,
can also be recycled if it is not fused with plastic or foil. Many of such waste
components can emit extremely hazardous gases when burnt.
c) Soiled waste: This waste is infectious and if not treated separately and disinfected, it
can cause disease. Examples include diapers, sanitary napkins, bandages, infected
cotton, tubings, syringes etc.
d) Domestic Toxic Waste: Wastes generated from homes, commercial establishments
and institutions, which are potentially hazardous in nature and can cause harm to
human beings, animals, plants and the environment and need to be disposed with
special care are called domestic toxic waste, for e.g., unused expired medicines,
discarded cassettes and CDs, paints, light bulbs, Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs),
fluorescent tubes, pressurized spray cans, pesticide containers, used billets, batteries,
shoe polish etc.
e) Inerts: Construction and Demolition waste2, 3
, dirt, stones and debris fall under the
inert category of waste. They are generated in huge quantities and occupy large
amounts of space on land.
Special categories of solid waste in rural areas Solid wastes generated in rural areas, even those which are biodegradable consist of
materials with different physical and chemical characteristics. These come from various
sources such as agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, domestic, rural industries etc.,
which need defining and characterization.8
15
Agricultural waste: This comprises crop residues such as paddy straw, wheat straw,
straws and stalks of other cereals and millets, stalks of oil seeds, pulses and vegetables,
sugarcane bagasse, sugarcane trash, maize cobs, groundnut shell, banana pseudo stem,
jute sticks, potato haulm, stalks of cotton, husk of rice, oats, barley and sunflower seeds,
coconut shell and husk, cover of arecanuts, cover of cocoa pods, weeds, leaves of the
trees, fruits and vegetable wastes etc.4
Animal Husbandry: Wastes from the animal husbandry sector consists of dung and
droppings of domestic animals, their urine, leftover fodder, rotten thatching material used
for animal shelters, waste from fodder and forage crops or any other materials generated
as waste in and around animal husbandry practices. Other kinds of animal wastes include
slaughter wastes such as blood, clippings, non-edible portions of the animal carcass,
feather, bones, contents of the visceral organs, hoofs, horns etc.4
Rural industrial wastes: These are materials generated from agricultural processing units
such as rice and flour mills, vegetable oil extraction, shelling of pulses, polishing of rice
and pulses, sugar cane processing and vegetable and fruit processing and packaging units
set up in the villages.4
Waste from Trading Activities: Rural areas generate waste such as dry leaves, plastic,
ropes, coir etc from trading activities.
Liquid waste: These can be sewage, sullage or wastewater from small eateries, dairies,
cottage industries, small and medium industries and medical establishments.
Gaseous waste: Smoke from kitchens, fire places, brick kilns, cottage industries, small
and medium industries, garbage dumps and vehicles make up the gaseous waste in rural
areas.
1.4 Characterisation of solid waste
A good knowledge about the characteristics of rural waste is fundamental for the
development of appropriate waste management systems which involve separation of
various types of wastes, collection, processing and disposal depending on the type and
quantity of waste. The percentage of moisture content, the bulk density, the acidity or
alkalinity, compactability, viscosity, heating value, volatile matter, total ash, total organic
matter, total carbon etc. of the rural wastes are important parameters that are to be
considered in adopting a waste management technology. Table 1 enumerates the general
composition, physical and chemical parameters of the rural wastes.
16
Table 1 General composition, physical and chemical parameters for
characterization of rural waste4
Sl. No. Type of waste Description and Parameters
A. General composition
1 Plant waste Stalk, straw, pod shells, leaves, flowers, spikelets etc.
2 Animal waste Dung/dropping, urine, carcass, spoilt fodder etc.
3 Domestic waste Human excreta, house sweepings and kitchen waste,
sullage, etc.
4 Rural industrial waste Ash, broken earthenware, tannery effluent, leather
trimmings, rice husk and bran, bagasse, wood chips
and saw dust, cotton rags, plastic bags etc.
B. Physical parameters 1 Total wastes Size, shape, volume, weight, density, surface area,
compatibility, temperature, colour, odour, physical
state (total solids, liquids and gases etc.)
2 Solid wastes Percentages of soluble, combustible and volatile
substances, hardness, percentages of the components of
ash which are soluble
3 Particle characteristics Size distribution, shape, surface, porosity, adsorption,
density, aggregation etc.
4 Liquid wastes Turbidity, colour, odour, taste, temperature, viscosity
(specific gravity and stratification) etc.
5 Percentage of total
solids
Percentage of soluble, suspended and settleable solids;
dissolved oxygen, vapour pressure, effect of shear rate,
effect of temperature, gel formation etc.
6 Gaseous wastes Temperature, pressure, volume, density, the percentage
of particulate and liquid etc.
C. Chemical parameters
1 General PH, alkalinity, hardness (CaCO3), biochemical oxygen
demand, chemical oxygen demand, rate of availability
of phosphorus, crude fibre, percentage of organic
material etc.
2 Combustion
parameter
Heat content, oxygen requirement, flame temperature,
combustion products (including ash), flash point, gas-
fusion characterization, toxicity, biological stability
and attractiveness to vermin etc.
3 Inorganic and
elemental
Moisture content, carbon, hydrogen, phosphate etc.
4 Organic Percentage of soluble oxygen, protein nitrogen,
phosphorus, lipids, starches, sugars, hemicellulose,
17
lignite, phenols, benzene oil, alkyl benzene oil, alkyl
benzene sulphonate, carbon chloroform extract,
polychlorinated biphenyls, polynuclear hydrocarbons,
vitamins, insecticides, sulphur, toxic materials,
eutrophic material (nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus)
etc.
The different categories of waste generated take their own time to degenerate (as
illustrated in the table below)5
Table 2 - Type of waste generated and the approximate time it takes to degenerate
Type of waste Approximate times it takes to degenerate
Organic waste such as vegetable and fruit
peels, leftover foodstuff, etc.
A week or two weeks. Agricultural waste,
because of the hardiness and fibrous
content, would take about one month to
degrade.
Paper 10-30 days
Cotton cloth 2-5 months
Wood 10-15 years
Woolen items 1 year
Tin, aluminum and other metal items such
as cans
100-500 years
Plastic bags One million years
Glass bottles Undetermined
1.5 Environmental and health impacts of waste
Waste that is not properly managed, especially excreta and other liquid and solid waste
from households and the community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread of
infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other creatures
that in turn spread disease. Normally, it is the wet waste that decomposes and releases a
bad odour. This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise in health problems.
Plastic waste is another cause for ill health when burnt or recycled inefficiently. Waste
therefore needs to have an effective management system in place, beginning from the
source of generation.
Wastes that end up in water bodies affect all life forms existing in the water. They can
also cause harm to animals that drink from such polluted water. Hazardous chemicals that
get into the soil (contaminants) can harm plants when they absorb the contaminants. If
humans eat plants and animals that have been in contact with such polluted soils, there
can be negative impact on their health. For e.g., chemicals and sludge waste from leather
tanning contains heavy metals which when disposed in soil or water are absorbed by
plants. The bioaccumulation of these heavy metals in animals and in humans is known to
18
cause health impacts. Leachate from used batteries discarded in the environment also has
damaging impact upon exposure.
Water pollution due to dumping of waste in the water body
Air pollution owing to burning of wastes can cause respiratory problems and other
adverse health effects as contaminants are absorbed from the lungs into other parts of the
body. Leachate from unscientifically disposed waste on land forms a very harmful
mixture of chemicals that may result in hazardous substances entering surface water,
groundwater or soil.
The increasing amount of waste and lack of an adequate and efficient system of waste
management in villages contributes to the overall health and hygiene problems in these
areas. We are quite familiar with the frequent outbreak of diseases such as malaria,
diarrhea, dysentery, cholera etc. especially among young children. Therefore the most
urgent need for waste management comes from the point of view of health4.
From an environmental context, the large amount of agricultural waste is a resource that
can enrich the soil. But, if left unattended and mixed with other kinds of waste, this can
pollute the environment. Clean environment is essential for healthy living. The decaying
waste including dung can contaminate the soil, water and air causing nitrite pollution of
soil and water and release of methane and hydrogen sulphide into the atmosphere.
Depending on the type of waste whether chemical, physical or biological, the degree of
pollution will vary. Some of the pollutants may be poisonous or toxic and may affect the
lives of the people and animals. Some of the pollutants may be absorbed by the crop
19
plants and edible portions may become unfit for consumption while others may pollute
the air or water5.
1.6 Waste: problem or resource?
A large part of the rural wastes are valuable raw materials for the production of useful
things in our daily life provided they are recycled properly. Above all, most of these
waste materials can be processed or recycled to meet our energy deficit. For example,
from the rice bran we can extract rice bran oil, cattle feed, wax, rice husk board and rice
husk cement from rice husk, silica, black ash for bricks and use it along with other fluff
to burn in boilers to generate heat or electricity. From straw, we can produce straw board,
straw paper, straw bags, packing material etc. besides using excess straw, husk or saw
dust as bulk material for composting domestic wet waste as well as excreta in Ecosan and
other dry toilets.
Most of the agricultural wastes yield furfural which is a colorless, oily liquid having an
aromatic odour, used chiefly in the manufacture of plastics and as a solvent for refining
lubricating oils. The groundnut shells can provide vanillin, building board, adhesive
extender, activated charcoal and cellulose. Agricultural waste can also be briquetted or
pelleted for use as fuel and cattle feed. Agricultural wastes contain abundance of starch
material which can be fermented to produce alcohol and this can be a substitute for fossil
fuel4.
Similarly animal wastes such as blood, offal, slaughter house wastes are used in the
manufacture of high protein feeds for farm animals. The hooves and horns are used for
making buttons and handicrafts. The bones are used to prepare bone meal. We can
produce methane gas from human and animal faeces besides using the spent slurry of
biogas as manure. The methane gas can be used as a fuel to run generators to produce
electricity, to run water pumps, for cooking, and for lighting. The guts of cattle, buffaloes
and pigs are used as sausage casings. Animal hair is used to prepare brushes besides the
wool being used for making woolen clothes.4
Thus, most of the waste materials are of great economic value to us if they are processed
according to their physical and chemical characteristics. Hence a fairly good knowledge
about the characteristics of the rural wastes is essential for efficient and effective
processing, recycling and utilization of this wastes.6
Today waste is increasingly recognised as a resource by those involved in waste
management as strategies are being adopted to utilize waste across the world. This is
reflected in the shift away from disposal and towards recycling and recovery.
20
Wastes are misplaced resources
A few examples are given below:
(i) A large volume of organic matter is generated from agricultural activities,
dairy farms and animal shelters, agro based trading and manufacturing
activities in rural areas. This valuable resource can be utilised by composting/
transforming it into a value added end product called manure. The chief
objective of composting organic wastes should not be for the disposal of solid
organic wastes but to produce superior quality manure to feed our "nutrient-
organic-matter-hungry" soils.
(ii) Plastic waste recycling also has a great potential for resource conservation and
Green House Gas emissions reduction, such as producing diesel fuel from
plastic waste. This resource conservation goal is very important for most of
the national and local governments, where rapid industrialization and
economic development is putting a lot of pressure on natural resources.
(iii) The average person in our country generates about 300-400 gms of waste per
day. The good news is that we can reuse it to generate clean, renewable power
like biogas (methane). That's enough to power 650,000 homes every day. In
addition, this form of energy production has been recognized by the MNRE as
creating "less environmental impact than almost any other source of energy."
1.7 Importance of waste management
Safe disposal of waste can lead to:
• Health benefits from safe disposal of waste that would otherwise contaminate the
environment;
• Economic benefits and Environmental benefits through reuse/recycling of
products that would have been discarded as waste;
• Aesthetic benefits from a clean environment.
References:
1. India Sanitation Portal (2014) Guidelines Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan, July 2012.
[Online] Available from
[http://indiasanitationportal.org/sites/default/files/NBA%20Guidelines%20Fin
al_3.pdf ] accessed on Sept.19, 2014, 16:55 hours.
2. Asokan Pappu, Mohini Saxena, Shyam R. Asolekar (2007), Solid wastes
generation in India and their recycling potential in building
materials (Citations: 23) , Journal: Building and Environment - BLDG
ENVIRON , vol. 42, no. 6, pp
3. The Planning Commission of India. Waste to Energy, June 2014, Available
from http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_wte1205.pdf and
http://planningcommission.gov.in/reports/genrep/rep_energyvol2.pdf;
accessed on Sept. 19, 2014, 17:00 hours
21
4. Practice Green Health (2014) Waste Categories & Types [Online], Available
from https://practicegreenhealth.org/topics/waste/waste-categories-types,
5. Zhu, Da, Asnani, P. U., Zurbrugg, Christian, Anapolsky, Sebastian, Mani,
Shyamala K. (2007), Improving Municipal Solid Waste Management in India.
World Bank Institute.
6. Chandy, K. T. Basics of Rural Waste Management, Booklet No. 531, Ecology
and Environment: EES - 16, Agricultural & Environmental Education.
7. Edugreen. Types of Solid waste [Online], Available from
edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/solwaste/types.htm
8. Ernest Hester Ronald, Harrison Roy M. (2002), Environmental and health
impact of solid waste management.
22
Chapter 2
Environmental and health implications of improper waste management
The state of health of living organisms mostly depends on a healthy and clean
environment. Inefficient waste management practices pollute our natural resources such
as the land, water and air. The accumulating waste not only pollutes but can cause further
degradation of the soil and freshwater. . The main source of freshwater pollution can be
attributed to discharge of untreated waste, dumping of industrial effluents, and run-off
from agricultural fields1.
Waste that is not properly managed especially excreta and other liquid and solid waste
from households and the community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread of
infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other animals
that in turn can carry vectors which spread disease. Normally, it is the wet waste that after
decomposing leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise in health problems.
Plastic waste is another cause for ill health when burnt or recycled inefficiently. Thus
excessive solid waste that is generated should be controlled by taking preventive
measures
2.1 Environmental hazards of improper management of solid and liquid waste
Solid waste acts in many ways as a source of disease. It attracts disease vectors such as
flies, mosquitoes, birds, rodents and dogs, which scavenge on the waste piles, get infected
and spread the disease in human population. Often epidemics have caused death and
destruction in communities due to inefficient waste management.
Solid waste is also a huge source of many pollutants, which when left unattended will
leach into the underground aquifers or mix with the local water bodies due to run-off
during rainy season. Leachate from unscientifically disposed waste on land leads to
formation of a harmful mixture of chemicals that may result in hazardous substances
entering surface water, groundwater or soil. These substances include pesticides, toxins
like dioxins, phthalates, and organic compounds. Heavy metals like cadmium, arsenic,
chromium, mercury are also found in this leachate, which are highly toxic to humans as
well as to animals and plants.
Many volatile organic compounds are also released from the landfills which pollute the
surrounding region’s atmosphere causing respiratory diseases and other complications.
23
Open burning of solid waste causes air pollution
Air pollution owing to burning of wastes can cause respiratory problems and other
adverse health effects as contaminants are absorbed from the lungs into other parts of the
body. Domestic households also generate considerable amounts of air pollution, due to
various activities like burning of fuels for cooking (fuels such as Charcoal, firewood,
cow-dung cakes generate a lot of smoke and particulate matter), agricultural activities
and waste disposal. Kitchens, especially in rural and poor households generate enormous
amounts of smoke and particulate matter, which leads to pollution of indoor air, making it
unhealthy for the residents. Household insecticides, incense sprays and chemicals also
lead to air pollution although limited to a smaller area.
Agricultural activities like insecticide spraying, burning of agricultural waste also give
rise to local air pollution. Unhygienic disposal of waste is also an important source of
pollutants. The burning of domestic waste in an open manner results in the release of
toxic and carcinogenic pollutants into the air. Landfills and open dumps of waste also
play a part in air pollution by releasing gases of high greenhouse potential like carbon
dioxide and methane.
24
Domestic Sewage refers to wastewater from households that contain huge amounts of
suspended as well as dissolved solids in it. The major amount of these solid impurities
includes organic substances like food, market waste, sanitary waste, etc. which degrade
and produce foul smells. Domestic sewage also carries a lot of chemicals, detergents and
disease-causing microorganisms which are harmful to human health. Domestic sewage,
since it contains human wastes, also contains large numbers of microorganisms and some
of these can be pathogenic. Inorganic constituents include chlorides and sulphates,
various forms of nitrogen and phosphorous, as well as carbonates and bicarbonates.
Proteins and carbohydrates constitute about 90 per cent of the organic matter in domestic
sewage. These arise from the excreta, urine, food wastes, and wastewater from bathing,
washing, and laundering. Washing and laundering release soaps, detergents, and other
cleaning products, which are responsible for eutrophication of surface water bodies.
When excess of these chemicals such as phosphates and nitrates from detergents, and
organic matter enters a water source, it accelerates the growth of plants and algae. This
unprecedented growth of plant life in the water source leads to depletion of Oxygen (O2)
and leads to the death of most of the aquatic life. As the plants and algae later die due to
lack of nutrients, their detritus is decomposed by anaerobic microorganisms to start
releasing gases such as methane and hydrogen sulphide and other toxic aromatics. This
process is called Eutrophication which results in the death of the water body.
Most of the Indian rivers and their tributaries viz., Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna,
Sone, Cauvery, Damodar and Brahmaputra are reported to be grossly polluted due to
discharge of untreated sewage and industrial effluents directly into the rivers. Similarly,
many smaller rivers and rivulets in the country are also polluted because of untreated
sewage flowing into them. These wastes usually contain a wide variety of organic
Eutrophication in a water body
25
and inorganic pollutants including solvents, oils, grease, plastics, plasticizers, phenols,
heavy metals, pesticides and suspended solids. The indiscriminate dumping and release
of wastes containing the above mentioned hazardous substances into rivers might lead to
environmental disturbance which could be considered as a potential source of stress to
the biotic communities in these water bodies2.
In rivers, oceans and seas, water pollution affects the flora and fauna thriving in and
around them. Birds and animals that consume this contaminated food supply can perish.
Fertilizers and pesticide residues which runoff into streams and rivers contain nitrates and
phosphates which encourage the excessive growth of algae and other water plants, and
deplete oxygen supply in water. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may cause decline,
deformities and death of fish life. Too much sodium chloride (ordinary salt) in water may
kill animals. All these in turn affect human health as human beings consume fish from
rivers or milk and meat of animals, which can lead to accumulation of carcinogenic
substances in them.
Table 3 Environmental implications of discharged wastewater2
Sewage and Industrial effluents
S.N. Factor Principal
environmental
effect
Potential ecological
consequences
1. High Reduction in Elimination of sensitive species,
Polluted river
26
biochemical
oxygen
demand
(BOD) caused
by bacterial
breakdown of
organic matter
dissolved oxygen
(DO)
concentration
increase in some tolerant species;
change in the community
structure
2. Partial
biodegradation
of proteins and
other
nitrogenous
material
Elevated ammonia
concentration;
increased nitrite
and nitrate levels
Elimination of intolerant species,
reduction in sensitive species
3. Release of
suspended
solid matter
Increased
turbidity and
reduction of light
penetration
Reduced photosynthesis of
submerge plants; abrasion of
gills or interference with normal
feeding behavior
4. Deposition of
organic sludge
in slower
water
Release
of methane and
hydrogen sulphide
as matter
decomposes
anaerobically,
modification of
substratum by
blanket of sludge
Elimination of normal benthic
community, loss of interstitial
species; increase in the species
able to exploit increased food
source
Other poisons
1. Presence of
poisonous
chemical
substances
increasing its
COD
Change in water
quality
Water directly and acutely toxic
to some organisms, causing
change in community
composition; consequential
effect on pray- predator relation;
sub - lethal effects on some
species
Inert solids
1. Particles in
suspension
Increased
turbidity. Possibly
increased
abrasion
Reduced photosynthesis of
submerged plant. Impairing
feeding ability through reduced
vision or interference with
collecting mechanism of filter
feeders (e.g. reduction in
nutritive value of collected
27
material).Possible abrasion
2. Deposition of
material
Blanketing of
substratum and/or
substrate
instability
Change in benthic community,
reduction in diversity ( increased
number of a few species)
2.2 Health hazards of improper management of solid and liquid waste
When sewage and liquid wastes are discharged into the rivers, pollutants enter
groundwater, rivers, and other water bodies. Such water, which ultimately ends up in our
households, is often highly contaminated and can carry disease-causing microbes.
Untreated or improperly treated wastewater contains biological contaminants known to
cause disease. These contaminants are known as germs or pathogens. Pathogens fall into
five main categories: bacteria, viruses, protozoans, fungi and worms. Most of these
pathogens use the faecal/oral route to spread disease. Pathogens can also contaminate
water supplies when the wastewater is allowed to reach the water table before adequate
treatment occurs.
People with prolonged contact with wastewater face a greater risk of health and
environmental problems. This also leads to contamination of surface water and creates a
favourable environment for growth of mosquitoes and other disease causing vectors. Due
to these conditions, health risks such as transmission of intestinal helminth infections to
agricultural workers working in wastewater irrigated fields and transmission of faecal
bacterial diseases, like diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid and cholera, increase.
The lack of toilet facilities in rural areas also presents a major health risk. Open
defecation is rampant in most of the rural areas of India. Inadequate sanitation can cause
several diseases, which are transmitted from faeces to humans via contaminated hands,
soil, water, animals and insects. Sanitation and hygiene provides a barrier to faecal
diseases by isolating human excreta and removing traces of faecal material from hands,
after contact. It is estimated that globally, up to 5 million people die each year from
preventable waterborne diseases as a result of inadequate sanitation and hygiene
practices3. The effects of sanitation have also had a huge impact on society.
World over, one of the most significant diseases that arise from poor sanitation is
diarrhea. Deaths resulting around the world from diarrhea are estimated to be between 1.6
and 2.5 million every year. Young children below the ages of five are the most vulnerable
to the impact of this disease. About 19,000 children under the age of five – 13 each
minute – die every day in some part of the world, mainly from preventable causes. And
the bulk of the global under-five deaths are preventable. Two-thirds of the deaths occur
from infectious diseases. About 40 per cent of under-five deaths occurred within the first
month of life. During post-neonatal period, pneumonia, diarrhea and malaria are the main
killers of children. Many of the deaths occur in children already weakened by under-
28
nutrition; worldwide, more than a third of all under-five deaths are attributable to this
condition3. Other diseases caused by poor sanitation include schistosomiasis, trachoma,
and soil transmitted helminthiasis.
Waterborne diseases Waterborne diseases are any illness caused by drinking water contaminated by human or
animal faeces which contain pathogenic microorganism. Waterborne diseases are caused
by pathogenic microorganisms which are directly transmitted when contaminated fresh
water is consumed. Over the past decades, the picture of water-related human health
issues has become increasingly comprehensive, with the emergence of new water-related
infection diseases and the re-emergence of the ones already known.
Types of Waterborne Diseases due to Contamination with Solid and Liquid Waste Water is contaminated by various sources, and it is evident that the microbes present in
water are responsible for the outbreak of various diseases .Waterborne disease can be
caused by protozoa, viruses, or bacteria, many of which are intestinal parasites.
The major types of diseases include
● Protozoal Infections
● Parasitic Infections
● Bacterial Infections
● Viral Infections
Table 4 Types of diseases, sources of agent and symptoms
Protozoal Infections
Disease and
Transmission
Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in
Water Supply
General
Symptoms
Amoebiasis (hand-to-
mouth)
(Entamoeba
histolytica) (Cyst-like
appearance)
Sewage, non-treated
drinking water, flies
in water supply
Abdominal
discomfort,
fatigue, weight
loss, diarrhea,
bloating, fever
Cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora
cayetanensis)
Sewage, non-treated
drinking water
Cramps,
nausea,
vomiting,
muscle aches,
fever, and
fatigue
Giardiasis (oral-
faecal) (hand-to-
mouth)
(Giardia lamblia) Most
common intestinal
parasite
Untreated water, poor
disinfection, pipe
breaks, leaks,
groundwater
contamination, camp
grounds where
humans and wildlife
Diarrhea,
abdominal
discomfort,
bloating, and
flatulence
29
use same source of
water.
Parasitic Infections
Disease and
Transmission
Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in
Water Supply
General
Symptoms
Dracunculiasis
(Guinea Worm
Disease)
Dracunculus
medinensis
Stagnant water
containing larvae
Allergic
reaction,
urticarial rash,
nausea,
vomiting,
diarrhea,
asthmatic
attack.
Taeniasis Tapeworms of the
genus Taenia Drinking water
contaminated with
eggs
Intestinal
disturbances,
neurologic
manifestations,
loss of weight,
cysticercosis
Fasciolopsiasis Fasciolopsis buski Drinking water
contaminated with
encysted
metacercaria
Gastro
Intestinal Tract
(GIT)
disturbance,
diarrhea, liver
enlargement,
cholangitis,
cholecystitis,
obstructive
jaundice.
Hymenolepiasis
(Dwarf Tapeworm
Infection)
Hymenolepis nana Drinking water
contaminated with
eggs
Abdominal
pain, anorexia,
itching around
the anus,
nervous
manifestation
Echinococcosis
(Hyatid disease)
Echinococcus
granulosa
Drinking water
contaminated with
faeces (usually canid)
containing eggs
Liver
enlargement,
hyatid cysts
press on bile
duct and blood
vessels; if cysts
rupture they can
cause
anaphylactic
30
shock
Coenurosis Multiceps multiceps contaminated
drinking water with
eggs of worm
increases
intracranial
tension
Ascariasis
Ascaris lumbricoides Drinking water
contaminated with
faeces containing
eggs
Mostly, disease
is asymptomatic
or accompanied
by
inflammation,
fever, and
diarrhea. Severe
cases involve
Löffler's
syndrome in
lungs, nausea,
vomiting,
malnutrition,
and
underdevelopm
ent.
Enterobiasis
Enterobius
vermicularis Drinking water
contaminated with
worm eggs
Peri-anal itch,
nervous
irritability,
hyperactivity
and insomnia
Bacterial Infections
Disease and
Transmission
Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in
Water Supply
General
Symptoms
Botulism Clostridium botulinum Bacteria can enter a
wound from
contaminated water
sources. Can enter
the gastrointestinal
tract by consuming
contaminated
drinking water or
(more commonly)
food
Dry mouth,
blurred and/or
double vision,
difficulty
swallowing,
muscle
weakness,
difficulty
breathing,
slurred speech,
vomiting and
sometimes
diarrhea. Death
is caused by
respiratory
failure.
31
Campylobacteriosis Most commonly
caused by
Campylobacter jejuni
Drinking water
contaminated with
faeces
Produces
dysentery like
symptoms
along with a
high fever.
Usually lasts 2–
10 days.
Cholera
Spread by the
bacterium Vibrio
cholerae
Drinking water
contaminated with
the bacterium
In severe forms
it is known to
be one of the
most rapidly
fatal illnesses
known.
Symptoms
include very
watery
diarrhoea,
nausea, cramps,
nosebleed,
rapid pulse,
vomiting, and
hypovolemic
shock (in severe
cases), at which
point death can
occur in 12–18
hours.
E. coli Infection Certain strains of
Escherichia coli
(commonly E. coli)
Water contaminated
with the bacteria
Mostly
diarrhea. Can
cause death in
immuno-
compromised
individuals, the
very young, and
the elderly due
to dehydration
from prolonged
illness.
Dysentery Caused by a number of
species in the genera
Shigella and
Salmonella with the
most common being
Shigella dysenteriae
Water contaminated
with the bacterium
Frequent
passage of
faeces with
blood and/or
mucus and in
some cases
vomiting blood.
32
Legionellosis (two
distinct forms:
Legionnaires’ disease
and Pontiac fever)
Caused by bacteria
belonging to genus
Legionella (90% of
cases caused by
Legionella
pneumophila)
Contaminated water:
the organism thrives
in warm aquatic
environments
Pontiac fever
produces milder
symptoms
resembling
acute influenza
without
pneumonia.
Legionnaires’
disease has
severe
symptoms such
as fever, chills,
pneumonia
(with cough
that sometimes
produces
sputum), ataxia,
anorexia,
muscle aches,
malaise and
occasionally
diarrhea and
vomiting
Leptospirosis Caused by bacterium of
genus Leptospira
Water contaminated
by the animal urine
carrying the bacteria
Begins with flu-
like symptoms
then resolves.
The second
phase then
occurs
involving
meningitis,
liver damage
(causes
jaundice), and
renal failure
Salmonellosis Caused by many
bacteria of genus
Salmonella
Drinking water
contaminated with
the bacteria. More
common as a food
borne illness
Symptoms
include
diarrhea, fever,
vomiting, and
abdominal
cramps
Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi Ingestion of water
contaminated with
faeces of an infected
person
Characterized
by sustained
fever up to
40°C (104°F),
profuse
33
sweating,
diarrhea, less
commonly a
rash may occur.
Symptoms
progress to
delirium and
the spleen and
liver enlarge if
untreated. In
this case it can
last up to four
weeks and
cause death
Vibrio Illness Vibrio vulnificus,
Vibrio alginolyticus,
and Vibrio
parahaemolyticus
Can enter wounds
from contaminated
water. Also got by
drinking
contaminated water
or eating
undercooked oysters
Symptoms
include
explosive,
watery diarrhea,
nausea,
vomiting,
abdominal
cramps, and
occasionally
fever
Viral Infections
Disease and
Transmission
Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in
Water Supply
General
Symptoms
Adenovirus infection
Adenovirus
Manifests itself in
improperly treated
water
Symptoms
include
common cold
symptoms,
pneumonia,
croup, and
bronchitis
Gastroenteritis
Astrovirus,
Calicivirus, Enteric
Adenovirus, and
Parvovirus
Manifests itself in
improperly treated
water
Symptoms
include
diarrhea,
nausea,
vomiting, fever,
malaise, and
abdominal pain
SARS (Severe Acute
Respiratory
Syndrome)
Coronavirus Manifests itself in
improperly treated
water
Symptoms
include fever,
myalgia,
lethargy,
34
gastrointestinal
symptoms,
cough, and sore
throat
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A virus
(HAV)
Can manifest itself in
water (and food)
Symptoms are
only acute (no
chronic stage to
the virus) and
include Fatigue,
fever,
abdominal pain,
nausea,
diarrhea, weight
loss, itching,
jaundice and
depression.
Poliomyelitis (Polio) Poliovirus Enters water through
the faeces of infected
individuals
90-95% of
patients show
no symptoms,
4-8% have
minor
symptoms
(comparatively)
with delirium,
headache, fever,
and occasional
seizures, and
spastic
paralysis, 1%
have symptoms
of non-paralytic
aseptic
meningitis. The
rest have
serious
symptoms
resulting in
paralysis or
death
Polyomavirus
infection
Two of Polyomavirus:
JC virus and BK virus
Very widespread, can
manifest itself in
water, ~80% of the
population has
antibodies to
Polyomavirus
BK virus
produces a mild
respiratory
infection and
can infect the
kidneys of
immuno-
35
suppressed
transplant
patients. JC
virus infects the
respiratory
system, kidneys
or can cause
progressive
multifocal
leukoencephalo
pathy in the
brain (which is
fatal).
As evident from the tables in the earlier pages, chief causes of some critical diseases in
humans are related to the contamination of potable or drinking water. Enteric diseases are
transmitted mainly by intake of food or water contaminated with faeces. Typhoid fever,
dysentery (bacterial and amoebic), cholera and other enteric diseases are all associated
with consumption of contaminated water.
A child suffering from diarrhea
An emerging threat to water quality is due to the use of persistent organic pollutants
(POPs). These are chemicals that degrade very slowly and remain in the environment for
years. POPs bioaccumulate in the fat tissue of organisms once exposed, which means that
they are not excreted from the body. The POPs used widely in India are DDT, with an
annual consumption of 10,000 metric tonnes; polychlorinated biphenyls used widely in
capacitors and transformers and dioxins and furans used in the cement and pipe industry.
Ground water in some locations in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi
has reported levels of DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin and Heptachlor that are in excess of
prescribed standards4.
36
Table 5 Indian States affected by various water quality problems5,6,7
Parameter Maximum
permissibl
e limits
Affected States Health Impact
Fluoride 1.5 mg/l Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,
Haryana, Jharkhand,
Karnataka, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa,
Punjab, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu, Tripura,
Uttar Pradesh, West
Bengal
Immediate symptoms
include digestive disorders,
skin diseases, dental
fluorosis
Fluoride in larger
quantities (20-80 mg/day)
taken over a period of 10-
20 years results in crippling
and skeletal fluorosis
which is severe bone
damage
Arsenic 0.05 mg/l Assam, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Tripura,
West Bengal,
Uttar Pradesh
Immediate symptoms of
acute poisoning typically
include vomiting
oesophageal and abdominal
pain, and bloody ‘rice
water’ diarrhea.
Long-term exposure to
arsenic causes cancer of the
skin, lungs, urinary
bladder, and kidney.
There can also be skin
changes such as lesions,
pigmentation
changes and thickening
(hyperkeratosis)
Iron 1 mg/ l Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Jammu
and Kashmir,
Karnataka, Kerala,
Manipur, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Nagaland, Orissa,
Punjab, Rajasthan,
Sikkim, Tripura,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh, West
Bengal, A&N Islands,
A dose of 1500
mg/l has a poisoning effect
on a child as it can damage
blood
tissues
Digestive disorders, skin
diseases and
dental problems
37
Pondicherry
Nitrate 100mg/ l Bihar, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh
Causes
Methaemoglobinemia
(Blue Baby disease) where
the skin of infants becomes
blue due to decreased
efficiency of hemoglobin
to combine with oxygen. It
may also increase the risk
of cancer.
Salinity 2000 mg/l Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,
Haryana, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa,
Punjab, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh, West
Bengal, Pondicherry
Objectionable taste of
water.
May affect osmotic flow
and movement of fluids
Heavy
Metals
Cadmium
– 0.01 mg/
l
Zinc – 15
mg/ l
Mercury –
0.001 mg/
l
Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh, Delhi,
Haryana, Kerala
Damage to nervous
system, kidney, and other
metabolic disruptions
Persistent
Organic
Pollutants
None Delhi, Himachal
Pradesh, Jharkhand,
West Bengal,
High blood pressure,
hormonal dysfunction, and
growth retardation
Transmission of Waterborne Diseases Waterborne diseases are spread by contamination of drinking water systems with urine
and faeces of infected persons or animals. Runoff from landfills, septic fields, and sewer
pipes, residential or industrial developments also contaminate surface water. This has
been the cause of many dramatic outbreaks of faecal-oral diseases such as cholera and
typhoid. However, there are many other ways in which faecal material can reach the
mouth, for instance from the hands or through contaminated food. In general,
contaminated food is the single most common way in which people become infected.
38
The following picture shows the faecal-oral routes of disease transmission:
The only way to break the continued transmission is to improve the people’s hygiene
behaviour and to provide them with basic needs such as safe drinking water, washing and
bathing facilities and sanitation. Malaria mosquitoes, tropical black flies, and bilharzias
snails can all be controlled with efficient drainage because they all depend on water to
complete their life cycles.
Waterborne diseases can have a significant impact on the economy, locally as well as
(inter) nationally. People who are infected by a waterborne disease are usually confronted
with related costs and not seldom with a huge financial burden. This is especially the case
in less developed countries. The financial losses are mostly caused due to costs for
medical treatment and medication, costs for transport, special food, and by the loss of
work days for the person/s and the families. On an average, a family spends about 10 per
cent of the monthly household income in getting treatment for diseases caused due to
such infection. This can be avoided if adequate preventive measures are adopted.
In countries like India, direct wastewater use projects are normally centered near large
metropolitan areas. The direct wastewater use project refers reusing treated wastewater
for beneficial purposes such as agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial processes,
toilet flushing, and replenishing a ground water basin (referred to as ground water
recharge). Water recycling offers resource and financial savings. These schemes often
use a small percentage of the wastewater generated. The result is that indirect use of
wastewater prevails in other parts of the country. Indirect use occurs when treated,
partially treated or untreated wastewater is discharged to reservoirs, rivers and canals that
supply irrigation water to agriculture. Indirect use of wastewater poses the same health
39
risks as planned projects, but may have a higher potential of health problems as the water
user is unaware of the presence of wastewater. Where indirect use occurs, the primary
objective must also be to ensure that it is in a manner that minimizes or eliminates
potential health risks. The introduction of wastewater reuse for agriculture depends on
amount of nutrients in it. Most health authorities prohibit the irrigation of vegetables,
garden, berries or fruits with partially treated or untreated sewage. Only nursery stock
vegetables raised exclusively for seed purposes, cotton and field crops such as hay, grain,
rice, alfalfa etc. can be allowed to be watered with sewage. In India, to grow leafy
vegetables on lands irrigated with sewage water is a very old practice. This is also due to
the fact that there are no guidelines for such use of wastewater. Soils on which the
effluents are applied should be studied periodically from the viewpoint of physico-
chemical characteristics, to ensure that they are not damaged and ground water is not
polluted. Hydraulic loading rates depend upon the land available and are different for
different types of soil.
The existing wastewater treatment facilities in India are inadequate. India neither has
enough water to flush out city effluents, nor does it have enough sewage treatment plants.
The remaining water makes its way into streams and rivers inducing major problem-
water pollution. Polluted water is also breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes,
carriers of diseases like Malaria and Dengue fever are responsible for another 300,000
deaths in our country annually.8
References
1. Edugreen, (Health impacts of water pollution[Online], Available from
http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/water/health.htm
2. EOEarth(2009 ), Indian river systems and pollution [Online], Available from
http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/153800
3. UNICEF (2003) Common water and sanitation-related diseases [Online],
Available from www.unicef.org/wash/index_wes_related.html.
4. Drinking Water Quality in India (2004), SDE workshop.
5. Compiled from: BIS Standards: IS 10500(991)., 6. DDWS (2007) [Online], Available from http://www.ddws.nic.in/popups/submissionfunds-
200607-195.pdf 7. CSE India (2006) [Online], Available from
www.cseindia.org/programme/health/pdf/conf2006/a69industrydelhi.pdf 8. Youth Ki Awaaz (2011), Urgent Need For Sanitation In India: A Step Towards
Better Health Care [Online], Available from
http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/02/sanitation-in-india/
40
Chapter 3
4 Rs of waste management
The collection, transport and safe disposal of waste material are termed as waste
management. The phrase refers to materials produced by human action and the process of
monitoring and management is generally undertaken to reduce their impact on health and
environment. Waste management accounts for all types of wastes such as solid, liquid,
gaseous or radioactive.
Various studies reveal that about 90 per cent of waste is disposed off unscientifically
creating problems to public health and the environment1. The overall waste amount is
expected to increase significantly in the near future as the country strives to attain an
industrialized nation status by the year 20201. Keeping our environment safe demands
that we all need to reduce the amount of natural resources that we consume and
ultimately throw away as waste. Therefore, every citizen/human being has to be very
cautious and responsible while disposing the waste in their surroundings.
The waste hierarchy has taken many forms over the past decade but the basic concept has
remained the cornerstone of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste
hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the
minimum amount of waste.
Some waste management experts have recently incorporated an additional R: "Re-think",
with the implied meaning that the present system may have fundamental flaws, and that a
thoroughly effective system of waste management may need an entirely new way of
looking at waste.
Source reduction involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other materials by
modifying industrial production. Source reduction methods involve changes in
manufacturing technology, raw material inputs, and product formulation. At times, the
term "pollution prevention" may refer to source reduction.
41
In waste management, the four ‘R’s refer to reduce, reuse, recycle and recover. This helps
remind us of the actions that we can employ to prevent and minimize waste. A brief
description of the 4 Rs is provided in the paragraphs that follow.
3.1 Reduce (and Prevention)
Source reduction is the most effective step of 4Rs because it encourages people to think
about their consumption. The following principle should always be borne in mind: the
easiest waste to manage is waste that is not generated in the first place.
Reducing the amount of products means that fewer resources are consumed and fewer
resources are required to recycle what is discarded. Reducing consumption reduces the
amount of solid waste that litters the land and occupies space in community landfills or
water bodies. It also cuts down on the amount of transportation that is required to deliver
the goods to the communities and for recyclables to be shipped elsewhere to be
transformed.
While consumptive behavior is still largely an urban phenomenon, as mentioned earlier
in this publication, it is on the increase in rural areas as well. Therefore it would be useful
to mention a few practices that can be exercised in day to day life to reduce and prevent
generation of waste. These may be as follows:
• Before buying something, ask yourself if you need it
• Carry your own bag when you go shopping
• Try to avoid buying items that have a lot of packaging. Select products with
no packaging or with compostable, reusable or recyclable packaging
• Buy in bulk or economy-sized packages and refill your containers when
possible
• Avoid disposable and single-use products (cups, cutlery, dishes, napkins,
batteries, etc.)
• Avoid single serving-sized products (for eg. small single use pouches)
• Buy durable goods, and repair them when possible
• Avoid buying products that contain toxic materials
3.2 Reuse
Reusing things before they are recycled or disposed off is the next best way to decrease the
amount of consumption of resources and the amount of waste produced. Reusing offers similar
benefits as reducing—we use less new materials, we transport less and we waste
less. Traditionally, there is a lot of reuse of material in Indian families. Some things we can do to
revive the tradition of reusing old material and reducing waste: ● Reuse jars, bottles or yogurt containers for storage containers, planters or
lanterns
● Use old newspapers for making paper bags, lining shelves etc.
● Give away or sell items not useful
● Use rechargeable batteries
42
3.3 Recycle
When an item is recycled, it is broken down and physically or chemically altered in order
to make a new item. The new item could be the same as the original form or it might be
an entirely different product. Recycling, unlike reducing or reusing, is not considered as
waste prevention, since it still creates waste. Recycling a material requires resources to
transport it and transform it into a new material. The manufacturer then turns it into a
new product, and sends it to consumers. This can add up to a lot of transportation costs
when you consider remote locations. Making products from recycled materials is better
than making them from virgin materials, but when possible, it is best not to create any
waste at all. When a product is recycled into something of greater quality than its original
form, it is called ‘up cycling’. Conversely, when a product is recycled into something of
lower quality than its original form, it is called ‘down cycling’. A plastic bottle that is
recycled into a fleece sweater would be an example of up cycling, while that same plastic
bottle mixed with other plastics to make a lower quality plastic would be an example of
down cycling.
Few ways to promote recycling are:
• Try to buy products that are made with materials that can be recycled
• Buy recycled products—it is important to close the loop and create more
demand for goods made of recycled materials
• Find out how and where you can recycle your old cell phones and
rechargeable batteries
• Get creative and recycle at home
• Use old materials for art and craft projects – newspapers and magazines
can be rolled or woven to make frames or baskets; make your own paper
out of old paper
Table 6 Recycling facts
Aluminium Recycling one kilogram of aluminium
saves up to 8 kilograms of bauxite, four
kilograms of chemical products and 14
kilowatt hours of electricity.
It takes 20 times more energy
to make aluminium from
bauxite ore than using recycled
aluminium.
Glass For every ton of recycled glass used,
approx 315 kilos of Carbon dioxide and
1.2 tons of raw materials are spared.
A 20% reduction in emissions
from glass furnaces and up to
32% reduction in energy
usage.
Paper One ton of paper from recycled material
conserves about 7,000 gallons of water,
17-31 trees, 60 lb of air pollutants and
4,000 KWh of electricity.
Milling paper from recycled
paper uses 20% less energy.
3.4 Recover
After reduction, reuse and recycling all the products and materials, the waste that remains
ends up in either land or water resources. This is where ‘Recovery’ comes in—it is still
43
possible to recover some of these materials from the said resources. Using a variety of
processes, we can transform waste into energy. For example, by capturing and
combusting gases emitted by the decomposition of organic materials in a landfill, we can
produce electricity.
Cradle to Cradle (C2C) Approach2
In this approach, all materials used in industrial or commercial processes such as
metals, fibres and dyes are either ‘technical’ or ‘biological’. Technical materials or
nutrients are those that are non-toxic and cause no harm to the environment. They can
be used in continuous cycles as the same product without losing quality or integrity.
These materials can be used without being down cycled into lesser products and
ultimately become waste.
Biological nutrients are those made from organic materials and can be disposed in any
natural environment and will decompose in the soil, become food for smaller life forms
without affecting the natural environment of a particular geographic location. The
two types of materials each follow their own cycle in the regenerative economy
envisioned by Keunen and Huizing.
Currently, many human beings come into contact or consume, directly or indirectly,
many harmful materials and chemicals daily. In addition, countless other forms of plant
and animal life are also exposed. C2C seeks to remove dangerous technical nutrients
(synthetic materials such as mutagenic materials, heavy metals and other dangerous
chemicals) from current life cycles. If the materials we come into contact with and are
exposed to on a daily basis are not toxic and do not have long term health effects, then
the health of the overall system can be better maintained. For example, a fabric factory
can eliminate all harmful technical nutrients by carefully reconsidering what chemicals
they use in their dyes to achieve the colours they need and attempt to do so with fewer
base chemicals.
How Panchayats/Municipalities can use C2C approach: Sewage sludge processing plants are facilities that create fertiliser from sewage sludge.
This approach is green retrofit for the current (inefficient) system of organic waste
disposal; as composting toilets are a better approach in the long run.
An example of C2C design is a disposable cup, bottle, or wrapper made entirely out of
biological materials. When the user is finished with the item, it can be disposed of and
returned to the natural environment; the cost of disposal of waste such as landfill and
recycling is eliminated. The user could also potentially return the item for a refund so it
can be used again. We can also avoid toxicity through C2C. For instance, today a
computer housing made of polystyrene with all toxic brominated flame retardants is
made into flimsy coffee/tea cups and we poison ourselves drinking from it and then
throw it into the environment where it poisons the ecosystem and poison comes back to
us again from food, fish or water. We also put it into landfill poisoning land or burn it
and pollute air.
44
3.5 Easy steps to Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
The points mentioned will help to a great extent in reducing, recycling and reusing of
waste. Every citizen needs to be much more concerned about the surrounding
environment and should take necessary steps to protect it. Furthermore, the minimization
of waste generation in the day to day life will be useful. In addition to the individual
responsibilities, the community level organizations should be active in handling the
wastes. For recycling, it is very much essential to separate the waste at source,. Later,
they can be treated as per the characteristics of the waste viz. recyclable, non-recyclable,
biodegradable and non-biodegradable etc.
Just to recapitulate:
● Segregate recyclables like waste papers, plastics, glass, metals, etc as much as
possible from waste at your end.
● Adopt a community recycling program.
● Encourage friends and family to get involved in recycling at home, at school and
in the workplace.
● Purchase recycled products and green labelled products.
Ideal solid waste management strategy
Solid waste
Segregate at source
Biodegradable
Domestic waste
Compost
/Vermicompost
Community level
Non Biodegradables
Paper
Cloth
Plastic
Glass
Metal
Recycle at
village level
To central
recycling
chain through
scrap dealers
45
References
1. Sharholy Mufeed, Ahmad Kafeel, Mahmood Gauhar and Trivedi R.C. (2008),
Municipal solid waste management in Indian cities – A review, Available from Waste
Management. Pg 459–467.
2. Wikipedia, Cradle-to-cradle Design, Available from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle-to-cradle_design
46
Chapter 4
Segeregation, collection and transportation of waste
The approach to waste management in villages of India has been rather marginal –
concentrating on certain aspects of waste management, e.g. collection or disposal.
However, the Solid and Liquid Waste management forms an important component of the
Government of India’s Total Sanitation Campaign which along with the Nirmal Gram
Puraskar, provide an impetus to this issue in our villages. Experience of dealing with
solid waste in cities can help find solutions towards integrated waste management
looking at waste as a resource.
There is a clear need for strategies to redesign conventional waste generation systems in
such a way that they can effectively and efficiently handle growing amounts of waste
with diversified waste streams. Integrated solid waste management (ISWM) proposes to
promote an integrated approach to solid waste management, which will enable authorities
to reduce the overall amount of waste generated and to recover valuable materials for
recycling and for the generation of energy. This has the potential to augment the revenue
of waste management activities, which could, in turn, help to compensate the
expenditures for solid waste management.
4.1 Segregation: separation at source
As discussed earlier, different wastes have varying characteristics and these need to be
treated differently for the purpose of disposal. It is therefore important to separate wastes
at source. This helps in keeping biodegradable and recyclable wastes separate. Ideally it
would be good to also keep a separate bag/container for toxic wastes such as medicines,
batteries, dried paint, old bulbs, and dried shoe polish. It is now becoming more and more
essential to look for ways by which the load of waste on land can be reduced.
47
Segregation of waste at source helps in allowing less waste going to the landfill.
4.1.1 Waste utilization at source In rural areas, there is a huge scope of utilizing most of the waste segregated at source
within the homestead. For instance, biodegradable waste comprising kitchen and food
waste are generally fed to domestic animals like cows, goats, pigs, chicken and aquatic
animals like fish, frog and ducks. Furthermore, rotting food, bones, shells etc., are often
composted within the compound in heaps or pits. Introduction of pipe composting and
drum composting which can be installed and managed within the compound helps in
maintaining cleanliness while giving the residents good quality compost for their plants.
Those who have household biogas plants benefit by getting biogas for cooking and
heating after adding the macerated waste and cow urine into the plant. Non-
biodegradable waste can be accumulated and stored and those items which cannot be
reused at all, can be given away or sold to waste recyclers who can be made to visit
households once a month.
4.2 Primary collection of waste
Collection of household solid waste when utilization at source is not possible happens
mainly in the following ways-
Stage-I Collection from Point Source This stage includes door-to-door collection of waste. The vehicle used in this stage for
collection, is small and simple and varies from place to place. It may be two-wheeled cart
pulled by an individual or bell ringing vehicles (ghanta gadi).
Collection of waste in Rural Areas In those villages where all the waste cannot be managed at household level, segregated
and non-managed household waste needs to be transported either to the community bins
at the village level or to the treatment plant sites at community level where household
level biodegradable waste can be treated by community treatment plant and recyclable
and non-biodegradable waste can be sorted out and sold to the kabadiwalas by gram
panchayats. Waste which cannot be composted, reused or recycled may be disposed at
community level at the landfill sites (this option should be resorted to as the last
preference) following appropriate procedure.
48
Self Help Groups (SHGs) or group of unemployed persons in the village may be
identified for collection and transportation of household waste to community
storage/treatment site.
Collection of segregated waste in tricycles by women
SHG members may be given suitable number of carts or tricycles for collection and
transportation of waste to community storage bins. The number of tricycles may be
decided based on the size of the village and the density of population. Normally one
tricycle for 100-200 households should suffice the requirement.1
There should be at least two-three spare tricycles so that the collection system is
sustainable even in the case of breakdown of few tricycles.1
Shop-owners in the 'sabzi mandi' (market places) should be directed to directly place their
waste in the nearest dumper container. In addition, sweepers employed by the private
party shall pick up any waste littered and place it in the common dumper container.
The village panchayat should ban open burning/ dumping of waste. Burning of waste
causes hazardous/toxic gaseous pollutants and must be avoided.
As it has been recommended to practice door-to-door collection of waste from residential
areas, litter bins need to be provided only in public areas, tourist places and market areas.
4.3 Transportation of collected waste from household/markets
The transport vehicles should be closed and the transfer of waste from garbage dumps to
the vehicles should be done with safety devices. Generally in most of the places, no
safety gear is used and manual handling is observed.
49
Transportation of waste
Waste collected through door to door collection system should be placed in dumper
container. These dumper containers should be transported by dumper placer vehicles to
the waste processing and disposal site.
In order to make the transport effective, following actions are to be strictly followed.
• Transportation of waste from waste storage depots except construction and
demolition waste (in urbanized villages) should be directly to waste processing plant.
• The waste has to be transported to the waste processing and disposal facility by
closed vehicles.
• There should not be any littering of solid wastes during the transportation.
• As far as possible the transportation route should not be circuitous.
50
Transportation of waste to the dumpsite
These do’s and don’ts are in accordance with the best practices for Solid Waste Handling
and Management in the country.
References:
1. UNICEF, GOI. (2012), Solid and Liquid waste management in Rural Areas.
51
Chapter 5
Treatment technologies for biodegradable waste
Of all functional elements involved in solid waste management, treatment is the most
important element as it includes planning, administrative set up, finance, technology
support and their interdisciplinary relationships. The crucial aspect of this stage is the
selection of proper treatment technology.
One of the important methods of waste treatment is composting. There is, however, no
single technique which is suitable in all situations.
5.1 Composting
5.1.1 Introduction to composting
Composting, often described as nature’s way of recycling, is the biological process of
breaking up of organic waste such as food waste, vegetable and fruit
peels, manure, leaves, grass trimmings, etc., into an extremely useful humus-like
substance by various microorganisms including bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes in the
presence of oxygen.
Actinomycetes are similar to fungus in the way they grow and spread, but its
distinguishing elements are the types of materials they are efficient at decomposing. The
active nature in this microscopic bacteria and the sheer number present (about 10 million
per 1 gram of soil), make them highly effective at breaking down materials like tree
bark, newspaper, and other hard organic material.
Today, the use of composting to turn organic wastes into a valuable resource is
expanding rapidly, as landfill space becomes scarce and expensive, and as people become
more aware of the impact they have on the environment.
5.1.2 Different methods of composting
Composting can be of different types based on the materials and the equipments used.
Generally three types composting methods are used. These are aerobic composting,
anaerobic composting and vermicomposting.
52
Aerobic composting: This means to compost in the presence of air. High nitrogen waste
(like grass clippings or other green material) will aid the growth of bacteria that will
create high temperatures (up to 160 degrees). In this process, organic waste breaks down
quickly and is not prone to smell.
This type of composting is high maintenance, since it will need to be turned every few
days to keep air in the system and the temperatures maintained. It is also likely to require
accurate moisture monitoring. This type of composting process is good for large volumes
of organic waste. It generally requires 20-30 days to get well-composted manure.
Anaerobic composting: This method is composting without the presence of air.
Anaerobic composting is low maintenance since organic waste is collected in a pile and
allowed to rest for compost to form. If the waste is collected in a pile, it will generally
compact to a point where there is no available air for beneficial organisms to live.
Instead one gets a very slow working bacteria growing that does not require air. The
compost may take years to break down (this is what happens when food waste is thrown
in the waste that goes to the landfill). Anaerobic composts create the awful smell most
people associate with composting. The bacteria break down the organic materials into
harmful compounds like ammonia and methane.
Vermicomposting: This is most beneficial for composting food waste. Garden variety
earthworms cannot be used for vermicomposting. Red wriggler earthworms or red
worms along with bacteria, fungi, insects, and other bugs are used for this process. They
are also called tiger worms. These worms often hide in mature compost heaps or manure
piles. Red worms eat the bacteria, fungi, and the food waste, and then deposit their
castings. Oxygen and moisture are required to keep this compost healthy. Worms don’t
have big appetites so they feed on little food at a time. Feeding them with large quantities
of food at one time will end up with rotting waste and dead worms.
Converting organic waste into manure by composting
53
The earthworms feed on vegetable wastes and other kitchen scraps like fruit peels,
shredded paper, cooked leftovers, coffee grounds etc. They transform this waste material
into highly fertile manure. The worms can be housed in used boxes, plastic bins or crates.
Vegetables and similar kitchen scraps come with a lot of moisture so it is important to
make sure that the worm bins have adequate drainage. If moisture collects, the worms can
drown. This is medium maintenance compost since it is necessary to feed the red worms
and monitor conditions regularly. The worm bin must be kept insulated, maintaining a
50-77 ºF temperature. These are the ranges where the worms are at their decomposing
peak. It generally takes 15-20 days to yield good compost.
5.1.3 Composting strategies for households1, 2, 3
At each household, two manure pits can be dug. The size of the pit will depend upon the
quantity of refuse to be disposed of per day. Each day the household waste, cattle dung,
straw, plant and agriculture wastes are dumped into the manure pit. When one pit is
closed the other one is used. In 5 to 6 months time, the refuse is converted into manure,
which can be used in the fields. This is a simple method of disposal of waste for the rural
households. Cow dung can also be disposed of easily by this method. Mixing of cow
dung slurry with the garbage will help greatly in converting the waste into compost and
get good manure.
Household level composting pits may be constructed by adopting either lined or unlined
pits as described below:
Simple technologies with costing, maintenance and operation
These are:
i) Underground, unlined manure pit or garbage pit and
ii) Underground brick lined manure pit or garbage pit
Vermicomposting with the help of earthworms
54
These pits are applicable in areas with low rainfall and the houses where the pits are
being dug, should have an open space of about seven square metre. The house owner can
make this pit with very little technical knowhow. The house may or may not have cattle.
In the underground unlined manure pit or waste pit, two pits of 1m x1m x 1m dimension
have to be dug and then lined with a single layer of broken bricks at the bottom and ridge
made with the help of mud at the periphery of the pit and compacted by light ramming.
The cost of the pit is Manual labour (2 person days) to dig the pit.
In underground brick lined manure pit or waste pit, two pits with 1m x 1m x 1m
dimension have to be dug, and a circular pit having an inner diameter of 1m, in honey
comb 100mm thick brick masonry with pit height of 100m above ground has to be
constructed. The top layer of the pit has to be plastered and the bottom is not to be
cemented. Approximately 200 bricks, 1/3 bag cement, 3 cft sand, one person day of
unskilled and half a person day of skilled labour are required to make such a pit.
Approximate cost is Rs. 2000 per pit.
Use and maintenance of the both the pits
• Keep adding the householde biodegradable waste over the layer of bricks
• When the waste material in the pit attains a height of about 150mm, add dung
slurry, mix it with the waste and level it. Spread a very thin layer of soil over it
(once a week) to avoid odour and fly nuisance.
Digging composting pits
55
• Continue to add waste every day. Follow this procedure and repeat the layers till
the pit is full.
• It is recommended to fill the pit up to about 300 mm above ground level.
• After 3-4 days, the waste material above ground settles down.
• Plaster it with soil. Leave the pit as it is for 3-6 months for maturation.
• After 3-6 months take out the compost and use it. Till the manure in the pit
matures, use another pit of the same dimensions, dug at a minimum distance of
1m from the first pit.
Limitations
Not suitable for heavy rainfall areas and rocky terrain.
Over ground heap can be built in rural areas with high rainfall and rocky terrain and
houses having an open space of about seven square metres. It does not require much
technical knowhow. And the household does not need to have any cattle. It is built on a
raised platform of 1m x 1m dimension at a suitable site by ramming the soil or by paving
with bricks. The cost of the pit is manual labour (2 person days) to construct the platform.
Use and maintenance of the heap • Keep adding the household biodegradable waste over the platform
• When the heap attains a height of about 150mm, add dung slurry, and mix
• Spread a very thin layer of soil over it (once a week) to avoid odour and fly
nuisance
• Continue to add waste everyday
• Follow the above procedure and repeat the layers till the heap attains the height of
1m
• After 3-4 days the waste above the ground settles down
• Plaster it with soil
• Leave the heap as it is for 3-6 months for maturation
• After 3-6 months, take out the compost and use it
• Till the manure in the heap matures, make another heap of the same dimensions at
a minimum distance of 1m from the first heap.
Over ground brick-lined compost tank can be done in rural areas with high rainfall and
rocky terrain. These houses should have an open space of about seven square metres.
This method needs very little technical knowhow. This is done in two compost pits of 1m
x 1m x 1m dimension tanks. A circular/square tank having an inner dimension of 1 m, in
honey comb 225mm thick brick masonry with 0.8m height above the ground has to be
constructed and the top layer of the tank has to be plastered. The cost of the tank is
approximately 400 bricks, 1/2 bag cement, 5 cft sand, and one person-day unskilled and
1/2 person-day skilled labour.
Use and maintenance of the tank • Keep adding household biodegradable waste into the tank
• When the waste material in the tank attains a height of about 150mm, add dung
slurry and mix
56
• Spread a very thin layer of soil over it (once a week) to avoid odour and fly
nuisance
• Continue to add waste everyday
• Follow the above procedure and repeat the layers till the heap attains the height of
1m
• After 3-4 days the garbage above ground settles down
• Plaster it with soil
• Leave the heap as it is for 3-6 months for maturation
• After 3-6 months take out the compost and use it
• Till the manure in the tank matures, make another tank of the same dimensions at
a minimum distance of 1m from the first tank.
5.1.4 Composting strategies for community level farms and agricultural land1, 2, 3
In agriculture, windrow composting is used. It is the production of compost by piling
organic matter or biodegradable waste, such as animal manure and crop residues, in long
rows (windrows). This method is suited to producing large volumes of compost.
The material in the windrows is generally turned to improve porosity and oxygen content,
mix in or remove moisture, and redistribute cooler and hotter portions of the pile.
Windrow composting is a commonly used farm scale composting method.
Community level composting may be resorted to when management of solid waste at
household level is not possible. For community level composting, community/ Panchayat
should select a suitable site as Compost Yard for the village. Site should be selected
taking into consideration wind flow direction, so that the inhabited areas don’t get any
foul odour. The site should be easily accessible for transportation of waste and manure. It
should not be a low lying area to avoid water logging.
Size of the pit of the pit should not be more than 1 meter and width should not exceed 1.5 meter. Length
of the pit may go up to 3 meter. In the pit, waste takes about 4-6 months to compost.
Hence, adequate number of pits will be required. Distance between two pits should be
more than 1.5 meter. While digging pits, care should be taken to ensure that there is
adequate facility to transport the garbage and store the manure.
Construction of the pit The construction of composting pit or heap is very simple and user friendly. Gram
Panchayat (GP) can easily construct compost pit with some technical support..
Underground unlined manure pit or garbage pit
It is applicable for rural areas with low rainfall. Adequate number of pits of not more than
1m (depth) x 1.5m (width) x 3m (length) dimension depending upon quantum of garbage
generated has to be dug. A ridge made of soil by compacting it needs to be made at the
periphery of the pit. Follow the same process of maintenance and use as provided in the
earlier descriptions. The cost will be about the same as indicated earlier.
57
Underground brick-lined manure pit or garbage pit
Applicable in rural areas with low rainfall. Dig adequate number of pits of not more than
1m (depth) x 1.5m (width) x 3m (length) dimension depending upon quantum of garbage
generated. Rectangular pits having inner dimensions of 1m x 1.5m x 3m in honey comb
225mm thick brick masonry have to be constructed. The height of the pit should be
100mm above ground with the top layer plastered and bottom of the pit cemented. Follow
the same process of maintenance and use as provided in the earlier descriptions. The cost
will be about the same as indicated earlier.
Heap
Applicable in rural areas with high rainfall and rocky terrain and villages having lack of
space for household composting. Make a raised platform of 1.5 m x 3m dimension at a
suitable site by ramming the soil or by paving with bricks. Use, maintenance and cost are
same as given above.
Vermicomposting at Community Level
The steps to be followed for vermicomposting at community level are:
Initial steps • Appropriate site selection: the site should be protected from direct sunlight and
should not be in low lying areas.
• Vermiculture site preparation; Proper ramming of soil or preparation of platform
is required before preparation of vermicompost beds.
Beds for vermicomposting
58
Construction of appropriate shed
The shed could be thatched roof/tin sheds on bamboo/metal poles with proper slope to
drain rain water, and proper ventilation.
The biodegradable waste should be pre-digested in a separate bed before transferring to
the treatment beds.
Vermiculture bed preparation steps • Make a basic bed of size 24 cft (Length 8ft, Breadth 3ft,Height 1ft) with one brick
(9 inch x 4 inch x 3 inch) size containment all round the bed
• Alternatively, brick tanks of same dimensions having 2 feet height may be
constructed. With this worms will not escape to the surroundings. The worms are
also protected from natural enemies. The tank may be easily covered with a wire
mesh
• Apply a layer of cow dung slurry on the base
• Put one inch sand on the cow dung slurry plastered bed
• Followed by putting 2 inch thick organic waste
• Put 9 inch thick feeding material (cow dung/biodegradable organic matter such as
leaves, kitchen waste) for earthworms in 1:5 ratio of raw cow dung and organic
waste.
Process • Transfer the pre-digested material in heaps to the vermicompost beds.
• Add about 100 gm of earthworms for every square feet of surface area of the
compost bed.
• Cover the entire bed immediately with gunny bags to reduce light penetration and
create a dark environment, and to maintain required moisture content in the feed
bed for better performance of the earthworms for digestion of the feed material.
• To maintain moisture, sprinkle water on alternate day/every day in summer and at
3 to 4 days intervals/twice a week in winter.
• After 1 month of introducing the earthworms, remove the gunny bags and keep
the heaps open to air for a day, collect the top 2 inch layer of earthworm compost
by slow and smooth scraping of the top layer of the compost bed till you observe
the earthworms. When you see earthworms, stop scraping; this is done to send the
earthworms down into feeding materials in the feed bed.
• Screen the harvested vermicompost through an appropriate sieve and reintroduce
the course material as well as separated earthworms to the empty treatment beds.
• Again add the pre-digested material in the bed and repeat the process.
Precautions to be taken • Proper covering of feed bed (local available materials such as coconut leaves etc.
may be used for covering of the vermicompost pit)
• Avoid excess water (only sprinkling)
• Protect the shed area and the beds from red ants, cockroaches etc. by using haldi
(turmeric) sprinkling atta (flour) all around the perimeter of the shed and the bed
59
• Keep the feed beds away from birds/chicken/ducks/rodents from eating the
worms.
Vermitank at Community Level
Vermitank is a specialized unit constructed in brick masonry, capable of converting
biodegradable solid waste into high quality organic manure in a short period. It is very
easy to operate and maintain.
Salient features of vermitank
• Fast process: It takes only 40-45 days for the conversion of organic waste as
compared to the conventional methods which require about 4-6 months.
• Zero pollution: Vermicompost made in closed vermitanks is completely free of
pollution of air, water and soil.
• Freedom from foul odour: The process does not emit any foul odour; hence the
vermitanks can be constructed in the vicinity of homes.
• Protection from natural enemies: Vermitank is designed to render full protection
to earthworms from natural enemies like rodents and big ants.
• No pre-decomposition of garbage: Vermitanks have 2 - 4 compartments, hence,
no decomposition of waste is required as in case of vermibeds.
• Organic manure: The process converts waste into rich organic manure ready for
use and sale.
• Economic potential: 1kg of biodegradable waste can produce about 0.40kg of
vermicompost.
Operation of Vermitank
A vermitank has four pits, which are interconnected by partition walls constructed in
honeycomb masonry. The four pits are to be used one by one in a cyclic manner. Each pit
has a capacity to accommodate waste for 15 days. Thus the total duration of one cycle is
nearly 60 days. When the fourth pit is full, the vermicompost in the first one is ready for
harvesting.
Feeding material
• Quantity: 25 to 30 kg per day
• Nature of waste: Agro-waste, garden waste, floral waste (from temples), kitchen
waste
• Additional feeding material required: cow dung: minimum 15 to 20kg per week
• Earthworms required: 1kg (1000 to 1200 live worms) for initial commissioning
only
• Species of earthworms recommended: 1. Eisenia foetida and 2. Eudrilus euginiae.
Movement of earthworms This is a special feature of the vermitank. The earthworms from pit number 1
automatically move to pit no.2 and further to no. 3 and 4 in search of food, when the
60
contents from the respective pit are fully consumed i.e. converted into manure. This
makes the maintenance of vermitank easy since it is not necessary to handle the worms.
Limitations • Lack of organized marketing
• Lack of awareness on agro-farming concepts with regard to benefits of efficient
waste management
• Resistance of farming community to a new process
• Lack of demand of vermicompost (manure) from farmers
• Seasonal variation of composting process and production due to temperature and
moisture differences
• Lack of institutional arrangements for dissemination of information for vermin
composting technology.
Over ground brick lined compost tank
Make adequate number of compost tanks of dimension 0.8m height, 1.5m width and 3m
length in honey comb 225mm thick brick masonry and plaster the top layer of the tank.
All the other details regarding applicability, use, maintenance and is same as specified
above. The tank would approximately require 1200 bricks, 3 bags of cement, 20 cft sand,
3 person-days of unskilled and 2 person-days of skilled labour. The approximate cost is
Rs. 4000 - 5000 per pit.
5.1.5 Vermi-wash4
Description
Vermi-wash is a foliar spray based on the nutrients of vermi-compost. It has a similar
composition and similar benefits as vermi-compost, but has some additional advantages.
Vermi-wash makes more efficient use of the excrements and the body secretion of the
worms. This provides additional growth stimulating hormones and nutrients to the
fertilizer. Because the vermi-wash is liquid, it can be applied frequently and whenever
needed.
Details
Vermi-wash units can be set up in barrels, in buckets or even in small earthen pots. The
procedure explained here is for setting up a 200 litre barrel.
An empty barrel open on one side is taken. On the other side, a hole is made to
accommodate the vertical limb of a ‘T’ jointed tube in a way that about 0.5 to 1 inch of
the tube projects into the barrel. A tap is attached to one end of the horizontal limb. The
other end is kept closed to serve as an emergency opening to clean the ‘T’ jointed tube if
it gets clogged. The entire unit is set up on a low pedestal made of a few bricks to
facilitate the easy collection of vermin-wash.
Keeping the tap open, a 25 cm layer of broken bricks or pebbles is placed. A 25 cm layer
of coarse sand follows the layer of bricks. Water is then made to flow through these
61
layers to enable the setting up of the basic filter unit. On top of this layer, a 30 to 45 cm
layer of loamy soil is placed. After moistening this layer, about ½ kg surface (epigeic)
and sub-surface (anecic) earthworms are introduced. Cattle (preferably cow) dung-cakes
and hay is placed on top of the soil layer. On top of this again a 5 cm layer of soil is
placed and gently moistened. The water tap is kept open for the next 15 days. Water is
added every day to keep the unit moist.
On the 16th
day, the tap is closed and on top of the unit a metal container or mud pot
perforated at the base as a sprinkler is suspended. 5 litres of water (the volume of water
taken in this container is one fiftieth of the size of the main container) is poured into this
container and allowed to gradually sprinkle on the barrel overnight. This water percolates
through the compost and the burrows of the earthworms, and gets collected at the base.
The tap of the unit is opened the next morning and the vermi-wash is collected. The tap is
then closed and the suspended pot is refilled with 5 litres of water in the evening to allow
collection again the following morning. Dung-cake and hay may be replaced periodically
depending on the need. The entire set-up may be emptied and reset after 10 to 12 months
of use.
Before spraying, the vermi-wash should be diluted with water: 1 litre vermi-wash with 9
litres of water. If needed, vermi-wash may be mixed with cow urine and water (1 litre of
vermi-wash, 1 litre of cow urine and 8 litres of water) and sprayed on plants to function
as an effective foliar spray and pesticide. The cost of setting up a vermi-wash unit,
including the tank and dripper is approximately Rs. 700.
Benefits
• It make the plants stronger and increase the resistance of the plants against pests
and diseases
• It enhances the growth and the health of the crop
• A decrease in immature flowers and fruits
• Vermi-wash has no adverse impact on human health and can be used safely
Cross section on a vermi-wash tank
62
5.2 Biogas generation1, 2, 3
5.2.1 Introduction
Biogas technology provides an alternate source of energy in rural India. The anaerobic
technology uses local resources, such as cattle dung and other organic wastes, to obtain
fuel and manure. Realization of this potential and the fact that India supports the largest
cattle wealth led to the promotion of National Biogas Programme in a major way in the
late 1970s as an answer to the growing fuel crisis. Biogas is produced from organic
wastes by concerted action of various groups of anaerobic bacteria. When biodegradable
organic solid waste is subjected to anaerobic decomposition, a gaseous mixture of
Methane (CH4) and Carbon-dioxide (C02) known as Biogas is produced under favourable
conditions.
The decomposition of the waste involves a series of reactions by several kinds of
anaerobic bacteria feeding on the raw organic matter. Microbial conversion of organic
matter to methane is a method of not only waste treatment and resource recovery but also
financially viable.
5.2.2 The science of biogas generation
The anaerobic digestion of the organic waste matter occurs in three different stages:
Hydrolysis
Organic waste which is subjected to the process of bio-methanation contain
macromolecules like cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which are insoluble in water.
During digestion, these macromolecules are subjected to breakdown into micro-
molecules with the help of some enzymes which are secreted by the bacteria. In the initial
step, oxygen in the feed materials is used up by oxygen loving bacteria and large amounts
of carbon-dioxide (CO2) are released and the major end product of this process is
glucose.
Acid Formation
The components released during the hydrolytic breakdown become the substrate for the
acid forming bacteria. The acid forming bacteria convert the water soluble substances
into volatile acids. The major component of the volatile acid is acetic acid. Beside this,
some other acids like butric acid, propionic acid etc. and gases like CO2 and H2 are also
produced. The acid forming bacteria during the conversion process utilize the amount of
oxygen remaining in the medium and make the environment anaerobic.
Methane Formation
This is the last stage of the biogas generation. In this stage, the methanogenic bacteria
convert the volatile acids formed in the second step by the acidogenic to methane and carbon dioxide. Some excess CO2 in the medium is also converted to methane gas by
reacting with the hydrogen present in the environment.
63
The end products of biogas are:
• Biogas: a mixture of Methane (55-65%), Carbon dioxide (35-45%), and trace
amounts of Hydrogen, Hydrogen Sulphide and Ammonia. It is a combustible gas and
can be used for heating, lighting, powering irrigation pump, generating electric power
and for local use for cooking purpose. The gas is smokeless, environment friendly
and efficient fuel.
• Left over slurry: Environmentally friendly manure which can be used as organic
fertilizer for gardening and in agriculture. It can be used to enrich the soil. It can also
be combined with a vermicomposting process to enrich mineral value of compost
resulting at the end.
5.2.3 Fuel efficiency of Biogas
The fuel efficiency of cattle dung is 11 per cent and that of biogas from same dung is 60
per cent. The biogas technology has potential to contribute to the overall energy security
needs especially in rural areas besides conserving forest and preventing soil erosion.
Normally, a 3 cubic meter capacity biogas plant is considered sufficient to meet the
heating and lighting needs of a family of 6 to 9 persons.
5.2.4 Use of Biogas technology for solid waste management
The biogas technology can be used for management of biodegradable solid waste
generated from:
a) Household Level
Kitchen waste, cattle dung, garden waste, leaves of trees can be digested and digested
product reused at household level.
b) Community Level
Community biodegradable waste such as cattle dung of stray and from Gaushalas, garden
waste, leaves of roadside trees, human excreta from individual/community toilet etc, can
be digested in community biogas plant and end products can be reused.
c) Commercial Establishment
Commercial biodegradable waste generated from hotels, parks and gardens, subzi mandis
(vegetable markets) and roadside tree leaves etc. can be digested in a commercial biogas
plant and the end products can be utilized commercially in applications such as a gas
engine, CNG production, lifting water for irrigation purposes etc.
The gas production varies from 0.29 cum per kg of volatile solids added per day to 0.19
cum 0.16 cum per kg added per day in different seasons. The volatile solids destruction
ranges from 40 to 55 per cent. The sludge has good manure value of Nitrogen,
Phosphorous, and Potassium (NPK ratio is 1.6: 0.85: 0.93). The process gives a good
performance at a retention time of 30 to 55 days which may vary as per season.
64
5.2.5 Feed materials for biogas plant
Organic materials are used as feed materials for Biogas plant. Generally, the following
organic materials are used:
• Cattle dung (gobar) (any model)
• Human excreta (floating dome type with water jacket and fixed dome type)
• Kitchen/Vegetable waste (Floating dome model).
5.2.6 Types of designs of biogas plants
There are many designs and models of biogas plants in operation with each having some
special characteristics. Different types of biogas plant recognised by MNES (Ministry of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources). After Gate, 1999.
• Floating-drum plant with a cylinder digester (KVIC model)
• Fixed-dome plant with a brick reinforced, moulded dome (Janata model)
• Floating-drum plant with a hemisphere digester (Pragati model)
• Fixed-dome plant with a hemisphere digester (Deenabandhu model)
• Floating-drum plant made of angular steel and plastic foil (Ganesh model)
• Floating-drum plant made of pre-fabricated reinforced concrete compound units
• Floating-drum plant made of fiberglass reinforced polyester
Classification of Biogas Plants Based on Nature of Feeding
Based on nature of feeding, the biogas plant may be broadly divided into three types:
• Batch Type
• Semi-continuous Type
• Continuous Type
Of the above three types, it is semi-continuous type that is more popular for field
application.
Community level biogas plant suggestion:
a) Floating drum plant
This design was developed in India and is usually made of masonry. It runs on a
continuous basis and uses mainly cattle dung as input material. The gasholder is usually
made of steel although new materials such as ferro-cement and bamboo-cement have
already been introduced. The original version of this floating gasholder plant was a
vertical cylinder provided with partition wall except for the small sizes of 2 and 3 m3 of
gas per day. The main characteristic of this type is the need for steel sheets and welding
skill. The mode of functioning of these plants is depicted in the following drawing:
65
KVIC Model
Biogas plants in India were experimentally introduced in the 1930's, and research was
principally focused around the Sewage Purification Station at Dadar in Bombay,
undertaken by S.V. Desai and N.V. Joshi of the Soil Chemistry Division, Indian
Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi. The early plants developed were very
expensive and were not cost effective in terms of the gas output; indeed the early models
were not producing enough gas to supply a small family (KVIC, 1993). Some of the early
models were also prone to burst, so overall, the technology was not viable for
dissemination.
Over the next twenty years, Jashbhai Patel designed and made several small-scale biogas
digesters, envisaging farm labourers as the user. Although other individuals and
institutions were also designing biogas plants, in 1961 the Khadi and Village Industry
Commission chose to promote Patel's design, which, although more costly than other
models, was more productive, had a longer life, and required minimal maintenance
(KVIC, 1993).The basic plant, which came to be known as the KVIC model, consists of a
deep well, and a floating drum, usually made of mild steel. The system collects the gas,
which is kept at a relatively constant pressure. As more gas is produced, the drum gas
holder consequently rises. As the gas is consumed, the drum then falls. The biomass
slurry moves through the system, as the inlet is higher than the outlet tank, creating
hydrostatic pressure. Only completely digested material can flow up a partition wall,
which prevents fresh material from 'short-circuiting' the system, before flowing into the
outlet tank. Dimensions of the plants depend upon the energy requirements of the user
(Lichtman, 1983). The basic system can be seen in figure. By the early1980's, there were
thought to be about 80,000 systems built by KVIC.
KVIC Model (Floating drum plant)
66
Research into anaerobic digesters continued around the country, and the Planning
Research and Action Division (PRAD) based in Uttar Pradesh, northern India developed
the 'Janata' fixed-dome plant, based on a modified design widely used in China. Key
features of the Janata model, is the fixed-dome, in contrast to the floating dome of the
KVIC model. With this design, the inlet and outlet tank volumes are calculated for
minimum and maximum gas pressures based on the volumes displaced by the variation of
gas and slurry within the system. The Janata system is about 30 per cent cheaper to
construct than a KVIC model of the same capacity with added advantages that there are
no moving parts, making local construction possible and maintenance easy. Lichtman
(1983) notes that savings may diminish with scale and hence Janata model may be more
appropriate for small-scale users. One disadvantage with the fixed-dome design is that
gradual accumulation of sludge is likely within the system, making periodic cleaning
necessary. (Lichtman, 1983).
Anaerobic digester design has continued to evolve over the years, but systems are
generally variations around the theme of the floating-dome and the fixed-dome design.
Often construction materials vary, or loading positions differ. Table below shows some of
the most common biogas plants that are recognised by the government.
Selection of Site for Biogas Plant
• An even surface. Marshy land to be avoided and ground water level should be
below 6-7 m
• At a higher elevation than the surrounding so that there are no chances of water
logging in rainy season
• As near as possible to the source of feed materials (animal waste-cattle dung,
human waste-excreta and urine, kitchen/food wastes
• As near as possible to the points of utilization of biogas, say kitchen, in rural
homes/hostels/food establishments/mandis
• Located such that there is enough open space to build the biogas plant and to store
digested slurry for management by its side
• A place fully exposed to sunlight
• Away from drinking water well or similar source of water
• Such that there are no big trees in its vicinity, as they may prevent the sun’s rays
falling on the biogas plant and roots may cause damage to the digester.
Design Criterion for a Biogas Plant
• Volume of digester – which is dependent on quality or quantity of feed and its
hydraulic retention time
• Storage capacity of the gas holder – which is dependent on the requirement of gas
and the intervals at which substantial quantity of gas is required
• Delivery pressure of the gas
• Volume of the mixing tank which is dependent on the quantity of daily feeding and
proportion of water to be mixed
• Arrangement of heating and insulation
67
• The unit should be strong to have a long life, using local raw materials and labour
for construction/installation and it should be leak proof for liquid and gas.
• Another very important aspect is that the cost should be as low as possible.
Applying the above design criterion, appropriate model of biogas plant should be
selected.
Proper size (capacity) of the plant should be fixed based on the number of cattle and
waste produced in the community. Proper site should be selected for the installation of
biogas. Construction of biogas plants requires trained and skilled masons for proper
installation. It is advisable that local resource institutions having proven expertise in
setting up biogas plants should be engaged for training and supervision of the
construction work.
Applicability
It can be used by households, communities and commercial establishments. The
community biogas plant can also be linked to rural schools, where waste from the mid
day meal preparation can also be included and can lead to more feed for the plant.
Advantages
• Release of gas is at constant pressure
• Construction of digester is known to masons but fabrication of gas holder requires
workshop facility
• Location of defects in the gas holder and repairing are easy
• Requires relatively less excavation work
• In areas having a high water table, horizontal plants could be installed
Limitations
• High cost for the lower middle and low income group in rural areas
• Lack of availability of required technical infrastructure in rural areas.
b) Fixed dome plant
This plant runs on a continuous or batch basis. Accordingly, it can digest plant waste as
well as human and animal waste. It is usually built below ground level hence it is easier
to insulate in a cold climate. The plant can be built from several materials, e.g. bricks,
concrete, lime concrete and lime clay. This facilitates the introduction and use of local
materials and manpower. The available pressure inside the plant doesn’t cause any
problems in the use of the gas.
Deenbandhu model
The Deenabandhu model consists of segments of two spheres of different diameters
joined at their base, where this model requires lower costs in comparison to KVIC model.
The Pragati model is a combination of Deenabandhu and KVIC designs, where the lower
68
part of the digester is semi spherical with conical bottom and the floating drum acting as
storage for gas.
The Deenbandhu model biogas plant has been developed by making use of the principles
of structural engineering as well as the long experience of AFPRO (Action for Food
Production) of working with fixed-dome biogas plants. The advent of Deenbandhu
biogas plant is mainly to reduce the initial cost of installation as well as the subsequent
maintenance cost. The design essentially consists of segments of two spheres of different
diameters joined at their bases. The structure thus formed acts as the digester and the gas
storage chamber, and also provides for empty sphere over the contents of the digester.
The higher compressive strength of the brick masonry and concrete makes it preferable to
go in for a structure which could be always kept under compression. A spherical structure
loaded form the convex side will be under compression and, therefore, the internal load
will not have any residual effect on the structure.
During the initial filling, fill the plant with slurry up to second step level of the outlet
(bottom of the gas chamber). The regular loading of the plant should be commenced only
after automatic ejection of the slurry through the outlet opening. Proper loading of the
plant will avoid the scum formation because of the slurry movement. The entire biogas
plant should be covered with soil to a minimum thickness of 15 cm.
The different sections of Deenbandhu biogas plant are as given below:
• Foundation
• Digester cum fixed dome
• Inlet cum mixing tank
• Outlet slurry chamber
• Biogas outlet pipe
Deenbandhu plant (fixed dome model)
69
Advantages
• Capital investment in the corresponding size of biogas unit is low
• Steel gas holder is not required
• As there is no moving part, the maintenance cost is minimized
• Life span of the unit is expected to be comparatively more
• As the unit is an underground structure, the space above the plant can be used for
other purposes
• Effect of low temperature will be less
• It can be easily adapted / modified for use of other materials along with dung
slurry
c) Night Soil Based Biogas Plant
Human excreta have been experimented with as an alternative feed material to biogas
plant. At present, human excreta treatment is a major sanitation problem in the country.
Human excreta management in a biogas plant has three benefits-health, energy and
organic manure. However for generating one cubic meter biogas per day in a toilet linked
biogas plant, excreta of 25-30 persons per day is required. For community toilets, where
the number of users per day is more, this has proved to be a viable method for generation
of biogas from human excreta. For individual family toilets, for about 5-10 users per day,
biogas generation proves to be inadequate for any practical use.
General parameters for design In the initial stages, the design which was found to be suitable for cattle dung was used
for human excreta without any change in the design. Excreta have physical, chemical and
microbial characteristics which markedly differ from those of cattle dung. Therefore, the
parameters, design criteria etc. fixed for cattle dung biogas plants were found not valid
for human excreta based biogas plants. Owing to associated hygiene and socio-cultural
considerations, the following precautions become necessary:
• There should not be any direct handling of human excreta. Undigested excreta
should not get exposed to surroundings and should be inaccessible to insects and
animals
• Aesthetically there should be freedom from odour
• There should not be any contamination of subsoil or surface water
• Maintenance of the treatment process should be easy to manage
• The recycling should give maximum possible advantages
• The social and behavioral aspects need to be tackled by educational process.
Specific Parameters for Design
• Quantity of human excreta: 200 to 300 grams/person/day
• Quantity of gas generated from the night soil produced by one person is about 30
to 40 litres per day
• For optimum digestion, expected water use per person per day: 2.2 litres
70
• Optimum temperature range for effective digestion and optimum economic
viability: 25 to 30 degree centigrade
• Solid content for optimum biogas generation: 5 per cent
• Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT): 45 days for destruction of all pathogen.
It was reported that while developing the design, consideration of the relevant hygiene
factors along with parameters for biomethanation of human excreta had been taken into
account. The relevant social factors and convenient latrine use were also considered.
Special Consideration
For the use of human excreta as feed material and efficient functioning of such plant, the
parameters and the design criteria with respect to the procedures for the feeding and
handling of the feed, the physical and chemical characteristics of the feed, the movement
of slurry, odour, aesthetics, etc. need to be considered so as to create optimum conditions
for the use of human night soil.
Further, from health point of view, it will be necessary to see that the raw excreta are not
exposed to environment, insects, animals etc. and are not manually handled. During the
digestion process, it should not be exposed to environment. The most important
parameter from health point of view will be the extent of pathogen killed or pathogen
inactivation achieved, during the process so that the effluent is not pathogenic.
Cost of the biogas plant
The cost of a biogas plant varies according to which area it is constructed in (for
example, it would differ from hilly areas to plains). On an average, the cost might vary
from Rs.10,000 - 18,000/- per household.
Having examined the possibilities of generating resources from biodegradable waste, we
now move on to the management of non-biodegradable waste.
References:
1. India Sanitation Portal (2007). Solid and Liquid Waste Management in Rural
Area. [Online] Available from
http://indiasanitationportal.org/sites/default/files/SLWM_20-08-07.pdf
2. Chandrasekar, A. (2006). Demonstration of Hydrogen Production from Dairy
Manure Derived Biogas, Proceedings of 2006 ASABE Annual International
Meeting, Biogas plant Construction Guidelines, Published by Vivekananda
Kendra, Natural Resources Development Project, Technology Resource Center,
Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu.
3. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (2003). A Practical Hand Book for
Biogas Managers. Published by Regional Centre for Biogas Development,
Chemical Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur. 4. Centre for Environment Education (2006). Small Steps Big Leap, A Handbook on
Livelihoods for Sustainable Development.
71
Chapter 6
Treatment technologies for non-biodegradable waste
Waste which cannot be decomposed by biological process is known as Non-
biodegradable waste. Most of the inorganic waste is non-biodegradable. Non-
biodegradable wastes which can be recycled are known as Recyclable waste and those
which cannot be recycled are known as non-recyclable waste. Non-recyclable wastes are
those, which at present do not have economic value e.g. carbon paper, Styrofoam etc.
Households may be encouraged to keep such waste separately and sell them to the rag
pickers and kabadiwalas (itinerant waste pickers) and keep the non-recyclable products
for subsequent transportation for community level management. There are many
technologies available now which help separate the lamination from paper and hence
make recycling of such paper possible. Similarly, feedstock recycling of plastics and
polymers is helping in converting some non-recyclable plastics like Styrofoam to fuel oil.
More items which were earlier thought to be non-recyclable are being recycled today
because of improved technologies. The following is a list of recyclable and non-
recyclable wastes.
Recyclable Non-recyclable
Paper
Newsprint, Office paper, Computer paper,
Phone Books, Paper Grocery Bags, Paper
egg cartons
Soiled paper, Wax or Plastic coated papers;
Paper laminated with Foil or Plastic; Used
paper towels, Napkins, Tissues and Plates;
Cardboard
Corrugated (packing boxes), Single wall
cartons (cereal boxes)
Waxed Cardboard, Waxed milk cartons,
Soiled Pizza or Frozen food boxes
Glass
Bottles (clear, green or brown) Light bulbs, window panes, glassware
(cups, glasses, plates etc.), Mirror
Metal
Aluminum cans (soda pop cans), scrap
metal, Tin cans.
Bottle and jar lids with plastic liners, Cans
used for chemical or paint, Aerosol spray
cans
Petroleum products
Antifreeze, oil contaminated with solvents
Plastics
Plastic soda and juice bottles, milk jugs,
some detergents, oil and antifreeze bottles.
Grocery bags and plastic bags, Styrofoam
(cups, plates, packing materials)
Batteries
Wet cell auto batteries, dry cell household
72
batteries
Others
Clothes, concrete, building materials, wood
waste
Varnish, paint, oil,
6.1 Waste recycling
As discussed in the earlier chapters, recycling of waste helps reduce the amount that goes
to the landfill. It also helps save resources that would otherwise have been used for
making new material.
6.2 Recycling of paper
In India only about 20 per cent waste paper is being currently recovered annually. Low
recovery is on account of alternate use of paper in wrapping, packing, etc. Lack of source
segregation results in waste paper getting contaminated and becoming unusable.1
A ton of paper from recycled material conserves about 7,000 gallons of water, 17-31
trees, 60 lb of air pollutants and 4,000 KWh of electricity. 50 per cent of the industry's
requirement of waste paper is met through import which is on the increase. India lacks
collection, sorting and grading system of waste paper for proper utilization.
The increase in demand for waste paper by the expanding number of mills using it as raw
material in their production processes, has almost doubled the cost of waste paper, within
a year. Waste paper costs around Rs 10 a kg, almost double of what it used to cost a year
ago. Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute (CPPRI) in its report stated that by 2010
about half of the global amount of fibers used in papermaking will be recycled fibers. 1
In the early 70’s, the share of waste paper used as raw material was only 7 per cent,
whereas now it constitutes the major raw material base for paper industry with 47 per
cent share in total production. As of date, about 550 mills in India use waste paper as
primary fibre source for paper, paperboard and newsprint production. This waste paper is
sourced indigenously as well as through imports.2
Paper can be easily recycled; however its quality deteriorates with each cycle. The quality
can be replenished if cotton rags having long fibres can be recycled along with the waste
paper. Paper or cardboard from recycled paper requires less energy to produce. It is also
possible to convert waste paper into useful recyclable products. Making pulp from waste
paper is an old art which has now been refined as new technologies come in. Besides
making paper out of recycled paper, various articles including showpieces can be made
using the pulp. The articles are so sturdy that they can be an alternative to wood in some
cases.
Advantages of recycling paper
• reduction of garbage by recycling of waste paper in a decentralized manner
• generation of income out of waste
73
• prevention of burning of waste paper and reduction in pollutants being released in
the air leading to a clean environment
• saving on wood articles since some of the pulp articles can be used in place of
wood e.g. serving trays, fruit baskets etc.
• some articles made of paper or papier-mâché can be alternatives to plastic articles
6.3 Plastic bags and plastic waste recycling
According to studies by the Plastic Development Council under the Department of
Chemicals and Petrochemicals, India will emerge as the third biggest consumer of
plastics in the world by 2013. Over one million plastic bags are being used every minute
and their indiscriminate disposal is damaging to our environment. Research says that
India's plastics consumption is one of the highest in the world. Yet, much remains to be
done to recycle, reuse and dispose of plastic waste. Plastic bags are difficult and costly to
recycle and most end up in landfill sites where they take years to photo degrade. They
break down into tiny toxic particles that contaminate the soil and waterways and enter the
food chain when animals accidentally ingest them. But the problems surrounding waste
plastic bags start long before they photo degrade. Plastic bags and plastic waste are also
the biggest contributors of environmental pollution in India
Plastics have become a major cause of concern due to the very characteristic of non-
biodegradability and durability that makes them so widely used in almost all activities of
our life. Inefficient and indiscriminate disposal of plastic bags causes blocked drains and
sewerage lines. Random burning of such waste causes air pollution. Absence of a
collection and disposal system renders them unmanageable.
Waste plastic can be reused productively in the construction of roads. Various studies
conducted in this regard suggested that waste plastic when added to hot aggregate will
form a fine coat of plastic over the aggregate. Such aggregate when mixed with the
binder is found to give higher strength, higher resistance to water and better performance
over a period of time. Research carried out by Professor Vasudevan of Thiagarajar
College of Engineering (TCE), Madurai, Professor Justo and Professor Veeraragavan of
Bangalore University and the scientists at Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), New
Delhi has proved that roads constructed using waste plastic popularly known as Plastic
Roads2
have a longer life than those without the use of plastics. The plastic roads are
found to perform better when compared to those constructed with conventional
technology.
An alternative mode to mere disposal for used polybags is a sustainable method of
reusing discarded polybags in the form of woven products, which are more durable, and
eco friendly. This prevents the poly bags from polluting our environment. This concept
has been popularized by CEE through its network of offices and various training
programmes using polylooms (a handloom slightly modified to weave plastic strips with
cotton threads) at a zero-waste facility called CEE-ERU3. The polybags are washed,
dried, cut into strips and woven in handlooms to make mats which are fabricated into
attractive bags, mats, folders, pencil cases, wall charts, curtains for windows and doors
etc. This process, which helps in diverting the plastics away from the landfill, prevents
74
environmental degradation and leads to employment opportunities, is the basis of the
CEE-ERU movement. The product is also environmentally safe and can be used for over
five years. It can be made easily in any location and helps in removing lakhs of such
unwanted plastic carry bags from our environment. This leads to cleaner and greener
environment.
The complete process can be depicted pictorially as below3:
Cleaning and Disinfecting Plastic Waste
Some plastic carry bags may have been picked up from roadsides and unclean surroundings.
Hence it is important to first clean them with detergent and water and soak them in 0.5%
hypochlorite solution for half an hour before drying them out in the sun. This will ensure
75
destruction of all pathogens (including Ebola – see Box) and make it safe for weaving and also
for using the products made from such an activity.
Example 1 – Using Liquid Bleach
Chlorine in liquid bleach comes in different concentrations. Any concentration can be
used to make a dilute chlorine solution by applying the following formula:
Example: To make a 0.5% chlorine solution from 3.5%§ bleach:
It is required to add 1 part 3.5% bleach to 6 parts water for each part bleach.
*“Parts” can be used for any unit of measure (e.g. ounce, litre or gallon) or any container
used for measuring, such as a pitcher.
§ In countries where French products are available, the amount of active chlorine is
usually expressed in degrees chlorum. One degree chlorum is equivalent to 0.3% active
chlorine.
Example 2 – Using Bleach Powder
If using bleach powder*, calculate the amount of bleach to be mixed with each litre of
water by using the following formula.
Example: To make 0.5% chlorine solution from calcium hypochlorite (bleach) powder
containing 35% active chlorine:
Bleach: A Trusted Ally
In the rapidly unfolding saga of the West African Ebola outbreak, the critical role of
surface disinfection is highlighted repeatedly by public health professionals along with
public education, isolation and quarantine, contact tracing, good hygiene and personal
responsibility. From sanitizing healthcare environments used for Ebola patient care, to
airplanes used for international travel, to homes formerly inhabited by Ebola patients,
chlorine bleach proves time and again to be a trusted ally in the raging battle against
Ebola.
76
It is required to dissolve 14.3 grams of calcium hypochlorite (bleach) powder in each litre
of water used to make a 0.5% chlorine solution.
*When bleach powder is used; the resulting chlorine solution is likely to be cloudy
(milky).
6.4 Inert waste
Inert waste is waste which is not chemically or biologically reactive and will not
decompose. Some examples of this type of waste include sand, bricks, ceramics concrete
etc. from construction waste. The characteristics of inert waste according to the landfill
regulations, is the waste that will:
• not undergo any significant physical, chemical or biological transformations
• not dissolve or burn
• not physically or chemically react and not biodegrade
• not adversely affect other matter with which it comes into contact in a way likely
to give rise to environmental pollution or harm to human health
• has insignificant total leachability and pollutant content
• produces a leachate with an ecotoxicity that is insignificant
6.5 Management of non-recyclable inert waste
The non-recyclable wastes should be separated from the point of its origin. Out of the
entire solid waste generated, only 5-10 per cent of the same are Inerts or non-recyclables
i.e. for which till date the treatment technology is not specified. For such kind of waste,
the construction of a common regional landfilling option is suggested. A common
regional landfilling depicts a scientifically developed landfill, where two or three gram
panchayats can together dispose their inert waste collected from the households/ markets/
institutions of respective villages. The Gram panchayats can also make use of the village
Youth group members/ Women’s Self Help Groups to maintain the landfill site. The
system being labour intensive primarily requires earthwork for disposal of non-recyclable
solid waste. The size of the landfill will depend upon the quantity of non-recyclable solid
waste to be disposed off into the pit daily4.
A landfill site (rubbish dump or dumping ground) is a site for the disposal
of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment. Historically,
landfills have been the most common methods of organized waste disposal and remain so
in many places around the world. Some landfills are also used for waste management
purposes, such as the temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for processing of
waste material (sorting, treatment, or recycling).
77
6.6 Sanitary Landfills
Sanitary landfills (SLFs) are built to isolate wastes from the environment and render them
innocuous through the biological, chemical and physical processes of nature. It has the
following functions:
• receiving and depositing solid waste • controlling disease vector (pest) populations • managing/monitoring landfill gas production, leachate, and storm water
Landfills do have drawbacks, such as the fact that they eventually leak and can cause
environmental hazards and public nuisance (e.g., odours and pests). Successful
maintenance and landfill operation requires continuous budgeting for leak repair and
general upkeep, and for eventual closure. The gas generated from landfill consists of
about 50 per cent methane (CH4), the primary component of natural gas, about 50 per
cent carbon dioxide (CO2), and a small amount of non-methane organic compounds.
Instead of allowing landfill gas to escape into the air, it can be captured, converted, and
used as an energy source. Using landfill gas helps to reduce odors and other hazards
associated with these gas emissions, and it helps prevent methane from migrating into the
atmosphere and contributing to local smog and global climate change.
Having examined the management and handling and reuse of non-biodegradable waste,
we now move on to examining the type, nature and solutions for management of liquid
waste.
78
References 1. IPMA, Recycling of Waste Paper (Online), Available from
http://www.ipma.co.in/recycle.asp. 2. Discussion paper on collection and recycling of waste paper in India, Available from
http://www.ipma.co.in/other/Discussion_Paper_on_Collection_and_Recycling_of
Waste_Paper_in_India.pdf. Sourced on 22nd January, 2015 3. [Online], Available from pmgsy.nic.in/WM_RR. 4. Zhu, Da, Asnani, P. U., Zurbrugg, Christian, Anapolsky, Sebastian, Mani, Shyamala K. (2007),
Improving Municipal Solid Waste Management in India. World Bank Institute.
5. Government of India.,Solid and liquid Waste Management in Rural Areas, A
Technical Note,
79
Chapter 7
Waste water management
7.1 Introduction
In the early part of the 20th century and even at the time of independence, India had
negligible sanitation coverage. Underground sewerage was almost absent in rural areas,
with only some percentage of some cities having underground sewerage systems. People
in the rural areas preferred to go to the open fields for defecation. It is estimated that
people in rural India are generating 0.3 to 0.4 million metric tons of organic/recyclable
solid waste per day and that 88 per cent of the total disease burden is due to lack of clean
water, sanitation and improper solid waste management1
. The term "wastewater" is a
broad term which includes liquids and waterborne solids from domestic, industrial or
commercial uses as well as other waters that have been soiled owing to human activities,
whose quality has been degraded, and which are discharged to a sewage system. The
term "sewage" however has been used for many years and generally refers to waters
containing only faecal matter and sanitary wastes.
7.2 Types of wastewater
Wastewater is generally categorized into: industrial wastewaters and domestic
wastewaters. Industrial wastewaters, originate from manufacturing processes, are usually
of a variable character, and are generally difficult to treat. Domestic wastewaters
originate from household activities and include discharged waters from homes,
commercial complexes, hotels and educational institutions. It also includes storm water
runoff. Domestic wastewaters are usually of a predictable quality and can be further
divided into 2 types:
a) Sewage (black water): Water that has been polluted due to toilet flushing, in
households, commercial complexes and institutes. It can be further classified into
domestic (household) sewage, which is almost completely excreta from human and
animal source and industrial sewage. Industrial sewage is obtained from industrial and
commercial areas which may contain organic compounds mixed with chemicals and
heavy metals.
b) Sullage (grey water): Water that has been polluted by washing of utensils and clothes
excluding toilet flushing. Sullage is collected and conveyed separately in closed or open
gutters, which makes them unhygienic. Since sullage contains both liquid and semi-liquid
mass, the solid mass tends to settle down, causing the flow to slow down. It requires
regular maintaining by sweepers as the solid mass needs to be removed regularly.
Sewage includes sullage, discharge from latrines as well as industrial waste at most
times. Sewage is liable to decay which produces large quantity of foul smelling gases and
also contains disease producing bacteria. In Indian villages the outlet of sullage is
80
generally on the street. This leads to stagnation of water at one place ultimately leading in
the formation of breeding place for mosquitoes. Unavailability of gutters is due
inadequate supply of water.
Types of liquid waste in rural area
7.3 Sanitation beyond toilets
Sanitation crisis would be a real thing in the coming years. A current study says about 65
per cent of population does not have proper toilet facilities in rural India. A holistic
definition of sanitation includes safe water; liquid and solid waste management,
environmental cleanliness and personal hygiene. Failing to ensure any one of these can
have direct implications on the individual/family/community health which directly has an
effect on environment and economy. It is also a public health issue because diarrhea is
one of the major killers of children under five years of age in developing countries.
Improved sanitation and hygienic behavior prevents water sources from contamination.2
7.4 Factors affecting toilet use
A number of factors have been found to play an important role in determining toilet use.
Toilet-using habit depends on construction aspects such as a good and well maintained,
user friendly structure that protects privacy, has availability of water and where the
owners are aware of the benefits of good sanitation3.
Experiences on the use of public toilets in urban areas of the country have also identified
that a number of factors have found to lead to poor use of toilets. These include:
Non-maintenance of toilets in terms of cleanliness
Lack of checks on water leakages, blockages or presence of taps
Lack of water in the overhead tanks
Poor consideration of gender-based factors such as security concerns, no separate
entrance for women, etc. have further led to reduced use of toilets among women.
81
Sometimes the public toilets are present at a long distance which also deters
people to go all the way to use it.
Operational aspects such as well-defined institutional roles and mechanisms, appropriate
plans for management of funds, coordination between the departments to deal with all the
aspects of sanitation, empowerment and capacity building of people within these
institutions and use of improved and appropriate technologies have also been found to be
important determinants for improving sanitation outcomes. Current evidence indicates
that there is a gap between the number of toilets provided and the actual existing toilets4.
Evidence also suggests that there cannot be blanket centralized solutions for all the parts
of the country. There are significant differences among urban and rural populations in
terms of the attitudes, perceptions, and resources available, local needs as well as by
states as well as geographical areas, which need to be taken into consideration while
meeting the sanitation needs of the people. It has now been realized that there is a need to
focus on what can be called as software or addressing a range of factors that affect
demand generation of toilets among people, which is as important as the hardware or in
other words, social engineering as much as conventional construction.
7.5 Ecological and health issues related
Ecological issues:
Untreated sewage if discharged into river bodies increases the Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) load and depletes the dissolved oxygen. This majorly affects all
aquatic life present in the water body. Furthermore, to treat water which is
contaminated with sewage, more quantities (40 to 50 times) of clean water are
required, instead of which if the septage is treated at source, both wastage of
water and negative impacts of sewage contamination on water and other resources
can be avoided.
Mosquito breeding is a problem leading to various health problems it is famous
for if the sewage is not properly collected, pumped and treated in sewage
treatment plants.
Some gases like methane, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, etc. are formed in
sewage and escape into atmosphere causing air pollution and accelerating global
warming by green house gases.
Health issues:
A child dies every minute in India because of simple, avoidable illnesses caused by lack
of basic sanitation facilities. This is how it happens:
82
Transmission of diseases
References:
1. Planning Commission (2013), Evaluation study on Total Sanitation Campaign,
Planning Commission, Government of India
2. WHO/UNICEF. 2008. Report of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring
Programme on water Supply and Sanitation. New York, Geneva, United Nations
Children’s Fund and the World Health Organization.
3. Srinath, Pavan (2013), Toilets and access
[http://catalyst.nationalinterest.in/tag/total-sanitation-campaign/]
4. Khambate, Aarti (2013), The sanitation crisis in India - An urgent need to look
beyond toilet provision [http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/sanitation-crisis-
india-urgent-need-look-beyond-toilet-provision]
83
Chapter 8
Wastewater treatment and management
8.1 Treatment of wastewater
Unlike urban wastewater treatment which involves a combination of physical, chemical,
and biological processes and operations to remove solids, organic matter, and sometimes,
nutrients from wastewater, in the rural scenario, households can take measures to reduce
the volume and load of wastewater by using an appropriate technology. Ideally, a
comprehensive wastewater management should include the following:
• design, installation and use of a particular technology according to local context
and need
• periodic inspection and desludging of muck/debris
• transportation of debris to a proper place for use or disposal
• self monitoring of technology by keeping a track record
Apart from this, households should take all possible measures to reduce the volume and
load of wastewater.
8.2 Benefits of wastewater recycling
• Recycling is extremely important as drinking water can be conserved.
• Water transportation cost is reduced in case it needs to be brought from remote
locations and helps maintain water in groundwater table.
• It helps reduce and prevent pollution by decreasing the wastewater discharged
into the environment.
• It is beneficial to plants, wildlife, and aquatic life because less fresh water is
removed from streams, rivers and other bodies of water.
• Sustainability of wetlands and related ecosystems can be greatly enhanced
through the practice of recycling and reusing wastewater.
8.3 Decentralized wastewater treatment facility
For wastewater treatment in rural areas, the operation of a technology should be decided
based on the type of liquid (grey or black), quantity generated, geography and/or geology
of the area and the available finance. Under normal circumstances, designing and
implementation of technology should be done at village or Gram Panchayat level.
Decentralized wastewater treatment can be an option for treatment at village level. It can
be defined as the collection, treatment, and reuse of wastewater at or near the point of
generation. The system operates without mechanical means and sewage flows by gravity
through different components of the system. The scale of operation can be decided based
on different technology available. For example a sullage stabilization pond or duckweed
treatment ponds utilize a lot of space but can serve multiple villages in the vicinity.
84
8.4 Technological options at household level
8.4.1 Twin Pit
Twin-pits for pour-flush toilets are two underground leaching pits linked to one single
pour-flush toilet by a Y-junction. The two pits are used alternately. Blackwater (i.e.
excreta, flushing water and anal cleansing water) is directed into one of the pits. The pits
are lined either with a porous material or holes in the walls allowing the liquid to
infiltrate into the surrounding soil. During soil infiltration, most of the pathogens are
filtered or die-off with time and distance - but in densely populated areas, it can still lead
to the pollution of ground water. Solids accumulate on the bottom of the pit and start to
decompose by a combination of composting and anaerobic digestion processes. When
one pit is full, it is sealed and left aside for complete decomposition of solids, while the
other is brought in use. When the decomposition of solids is completed (in general after
two years), the end product is sanitized but still contains organic matter and nutrients that
can be reused on-site, much like compost, to improve soil fertility and fertilizer crops.
The construction of twin pits is generally 1.5 times the cost of normal pit latrines.
However, once the twin pits have been installed, they can virtually be used without end.
8.4.2 Septic tank
Septic tank was one of the earliest treatment devices developed for domestic waste
disposal. It is the most widely used method which consists of a series of influent tank,
settling tank, dosing tank and adsorption field.
A septic tank works simply by acting as a settling tank for household sewage. The wastes
pass from the house to the tank by the force of gravity. The waste products settle to the
Twin pit toilet system
85
bottom and the clarified liquid remains near the top. The clear effluent leaving the tank is
directed to an adsorption field for further degradation and final disposal.
A septic tank for a family of four-five persons would require an investment of Rs.
15,000-17,000.
8.4.3 ECOSAN Toilet
ECOSON is short for ‘Ecological Sanitation’. This type of toilet has two pits with holes
which are to be used alternatively. The pan is made such that the urine and faeces are
separated. The bottom of the toilet is lined with cement so that the excreta don’t come in
contact with the soil. After defecation the user sprinkles ash/ sawdust etc. over excreta so
that there will not be any fly or mosquito menace. He/she then closes the drop hole with a
lid. Care should be taken that the toilet seat is at least 1.3 m above the ground so as to
avoid flooding of the compost chamber.
A medium family consisting of four or five members can use this pit for about eight to
nine months. Once it is full it is sealed with by cement from top. It will turn into compost
after five to six months. A detachable concrete slab at the rear portion of the ECOSAN
Compost Chamber enables the easy removal of the compost. When the first chamber is
sealed the family uses the second chamber. An Ecosan toilet for a family of four-five
persons would require an investment of Rs. 20,000-25,000. If the labour is donated by the
family, then the cost can be further reduced to Rs.15,000.
A typical septic tank system
86
8.4.4 Biodigester Biogas systems use bacteria to break down wet
organic matter like animal dung, human sewage or food waste. This produces biogas,
which is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide, and also a semi-solid residue. The
biogas is used as a fuel for cooking, lighting or generating electricity. Using biogas can
save the labour of gathering and using wood for cooking, minimise harmful smoke in
homes, and reduce deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions, considerably. Biogas
plants can also improve sanitation, and the residue is useful as a fertilizer. Capturing
biogas is beneficial because the anaerobic digestion generates odours and hence in a
closed biogas chamber, the odors are controlled. This technology helps in areas that are
close to residential housing complexes. A household biodigester for a family of four-five
persons would require an investment of Rs. 10,000-15,000.
Ecosan toilet for family
Institutional level biogas plant
87
8.5 Technological options at community level
8.5.1 Stabilization pond system for wastewater treatment
Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) are a low-cost, low-energy, low-maintenance and,
above all, a sustainable method of wastewater treatment. Waste stabilization ponds are an
extremely appropriate method of wastewater treatment in the rural areas of India as the
climate is favourable for the efficient operation. Waste stabilization ponds (WSP) are
shallow man-made basin into which wastewater flows and from which, after a retention
time of few days a well-treated effluent is discharged. WSP systems comprise of a series
of ponds – anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds in series. All these ponds have
different functions. The advantages of WSP systems, are simplicity, low cost and high
efficiency, but require large land area. Hence only if sufficient land area is available one
can recommend.
8.5.2 Wastewater Treatment through Duckweed
Duckweed based wastewater treatment technology is a completely indigenous and
biological method having direct economic return in terms of pisciculture and employment
avenue in rural areas with least recurring expenditure on operation and maintenance of
the system. Duckweed is a group name belonging to botanical family Lamnaceae that
consists of four genera namely Spirodela, Lemna, Wolffia and Wolfiella; first 3 genera
are commonly found in India. It is cosmopolitan and found everywhere in organic
nutrients rich stagnant water. It has very high growth rate; at optimum nutrient
environment it doubles within 2-3 days. The most important feature with this plant is that
it contains up to 30 per cent edible protein, vitamins A and C. It is a complete feed for
Stabilization pond
88
certain species of fish like Grass carp, Silver carp, Common carp, Rehu and Mrigal. High
yield of fish has a direct linkage with economic return and thus extremely important.
8.5.3 Root zone technology
The Root Zone Treatment System (RZTS) has been used widely for treatment of
wastewater through nutrient removal. In spite of having its more adaptability in tropical
regions, its use to treat wastewater has not been exploited on large scale in India. Root
zone Treatment Systems (RZTS) use natural processes to effectively treat domestic
effluents. They are eco-friendly and also have low operational costs, producing high
water quality (up to bathing water standards), suitable for reuse and reliable in both the
short and long term. The technology requires simple construction and is free of energy
and chemical inputs. It can handle large variety of pollutants and is O&M free.
A duckweed system
89
RZTS are based on filtration mechanism; therefore, they are sensitive against clogging.
Overloading of RZTS with organic matter can also cause clogging. These problems can
be avoided by appropriate pretreatment of wastewater, proper design of the filter bed and
proper operation of the system. Land requirement of RTZS is more than the stabilization
and other technologies.
8.5.4 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System (DEWATS)
This approach is an effective, efficient and affordable wastewater treatment solution for
rural households. It consists of a settler, anaerobic baffled septic tank, filter bed of gravel,
sand, plantation-beds and a pond. The open pond or the polishing tank stores the
remedied water and keeps it available for reuse. The system can operate in individual
households which are not connected to sewage lines. The recycled water is used for
irrigation or for growing plants and is absolutely safe for human use.
DEWATS system
Root zone wastewater treatment
90
8.6 Greywater and blackwater management
The water from washing clothes, utensils and bathing can be categorized as greywater. It
is not water that has come into contact with faeces, either from the toilet. However
greywater may contain traces of dirt, food, grease, hair, and certain household cleaning
products. Aesthetically greywater is not appealing to use but is a safe source for farming.
If released into water sources around the village like lake, pond or river, the nutrients in
greywater become pollutants, but to plants, they are valuable fertilizer. Reusing of
greywater has obvious in savings in terms of finances but reusing greywater keeps it out
of the sewer or septic system, thereby reducing the chance that it will pollute local water
bodies.
The easiest way to use greywater is to pipe it directly outside and use it to water farms or kitchen
gardens. Greywater can be used directly on vegetables as long as it doesn't touch edible parts of
the plants. In any greywater system, it is essential to put nothing toxic down the drain--no bleach,
no dye, no bath salts, no cleanser, no shampoo with unpronounceable ingredients, and no
products containing boron, which is toxic to plants. It is crucial to use natural, biodegradable
soaps whose ingredients do not harm plants. Most powdered detergent, and some liquid
detergents are sodium based. Sodium can prevent seeds from sprouting while they also destroy
the structure of clayey soils.
Greywater can be directly diverted from the shower or bathroom sink for toilet flushing as long as
it is used immediately and not stored for more than 24 hours before reuse or disposal to sewer. It
requires coarse filtration. A greywater treatment and disinfection system must be installed to
reuse greywater indoors for toilet flushing and clothes washing, in case stored beyond 24 hours.
The greywater treatment plants employ treatment techniques such as screening, equalization,
settling, filtration and aeration.
Blackwater requires treatment by chemical or biological agents and disinfection.
Blackwater is not suitable for use indoors after any treatment, hence needs to be sent to a
sewage treatment plant where it is treated. In the rural area it can be treated using
Anaerobic and DEWATS system as mentioned earlier.
8.7 Use of treated wastewater
a. Community Parks
Technology has really evolved even when it comes to effluent treatment. The treated
effluent is well suited for the direct reuse for recreational purposes such as contact water
sports, park watering, establishment of ponds for boating and recreation, maintenance of
wildlife ponds, etc.
For recreational reuse, wastewater should be treated to meet the standards set by the
health authorities. For recreational boating, the wastewater used should be settled,
chemically precipitated or should be treated with a biological treatment process.
Sometimes, aeration, heavy chlorination or addition of diluting waters is needed.2
91
b. Agricultural Farms
Irrigation of vegetables, garden, berries or fruits with partially treated or untreated
sewage is prohibited under law. Watering of areas where fruit lie on ground is also not
advisable. Only nursery stock vegetables grown exclusively for seed purposes, cotton and
field crops such as hay, grain, rice, alfalfa, etc. can be allowed to be watered with sewage.
Also, milk cows and goats are not permitted to be pastured on irrigated land moist with
sewage and must be kept away from irrigation ditches. Whenever the produce from
sewage irrigated areas is to be cooked, irrigation with sewage must be stopped at least a
month prior to harvest.3
c. Community Fisheries
Wastewater reuse for aquaculture has been practiced in many countries for a considerable
period of time. Community fisheries or aquaculture has been developed so as to use the
nutrients present in wastewater rather than its treatment. In most aquaculture systems,
wastewater is not reused directly and the nutrients contained in the wastewater are used
as fertilizer to produce natural food such as plankton for fish. These nutrients, mainly
nitrogen and phosphorus, are also taken up directly by large aquatic plants such as
duckweed which is cultivated for animal feed, and aquatic vegetables such as water
spinach and water mimosa cultivated for human food.3
d. Orchards and Lawns
For health and aesthetic reasons, reuse of treated sewage effluent is presently limited to
non-potable applications such as irrigation of non-food crops and provision of industrial
cooling water. Wastewater reuse is a technology that has had limited use, primarily in
small-scale projects in the region, owing to concerns about potential public health
hazards. The treatment recommended in order to use wastewater for orchards and lawns
is secondary disinfection after treatment wherein the fecal coli form count should be
200/100 mL and residual chlorine to be 1mg/L.3
References:
1. Singh, R. N. (2006), Municipal water and wastewater treatment, TERI press
2. Environmentally Sound Technologies in Wastewater Treatment for
Implementation of UNEP Global Programme of Action (GPA), Chapter 6.
3. Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin
America and the Caribbean, UNEP - International Environmental Technology
Centre
92
Chapter 9
Participatory approach to effective waste management
Public participation is a key to effective and sustained practice of successfully managing
waste. As it is a complex activity having many people involved from generation to the
collection and final disposal of the waste, technical and systems solutions have to be
planned together with a robust information, education and communication strategy. Long
term and effective waste management requires behavior change and this requires a
concerted effort at education aimed at facilitating change in mindsets, building capacity
at various levels and strengthening systems for sustaining positive change.
The Supreme Court had directed every concerned authority responsible for collection,
segregation, transportation, processing and disposal of solid waste in all parts of the
country to implement the provisions laid down in Municipal Solid Waste (Management
& Handling) Rules 2000, by December 31, 2003. These Rules aim at facilitating
sustainable waste management practices in the cities and villages of our country by the
active participation of citizens, munipalities, community-based organizations, NGOs and
private sector entrepreneurs1.
The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) launched by the
Government of India aims to achieve Swachh Bharat by 2019. This means improving the
levels of cleanliness in rural areas through Solid and Liquid Waste management activities
and making Gram Panchayats Open Defecation Free (ODF), clean and sanitized. The
SBM guidelines give as two of their objectives, the focus on awareness and education
and importance of community managed sanitation systems1.
The Panchayati Raj Institutions have a key role in solid and liquid waste management in
villages. Therefore, awareness and education campaigns should target Panchayat
officials, the elected Representatives, schools, NGOs working in the villages, the shop
keepers, families and the public at large. To economically and efficiently manage solid
and liquid waste, the strategy to be adopted would need significant cooperation from the
generators of waste, that is, the community. Public involvement is necessary in waste
management and disposal. The following sections explain the methods and media of
communication and education using the example of solid waste.
9.1 Aim of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) campaign
The overall aim should be to reduce the load of waste being dumped or put into landfill
by requesting citizens to segregate their garbage at source, educating the Panchayat
officials and their employees not to burn or merely dump mixed waste but ensure door to
door segregated collection, composting and recycling.
• The role of an IEC campaign is to make citizens and the local panchayat understand that to
keep the village clean, it is important to generate awareness among the general public and
motivate them to become responsible citizens and ensure community participation. Such
campaigns also help in encouraging citizens and visitors in keeping the village/rural area
clean by not littering, defecating and urinating in public places.
93
• Before initiating an IEC campaign, it is important to find appropriate solutions to the major
issues regarding waste management in the concerned area, so that the messages that need to
be given through the campaign reflect clearly what needs to be done and who should do it.
• One of the main objectives of an IEC campaign is also to promote optimum utilization of the
wasted resources to make the village clean and green and to this end educate and make the
community implement the best practices of waste management such as following the four Rs
of waste management - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recover.
• It is essential for local panchayats to involve NGOs, CBOs, other stakeholders and
community leaders for achieving better waste management and sanitation, better community
health in the village and also generate employment and revenue through waste management. • Active participation of school children, nearby college students and others in the
academia for environmental awareness programs is an essential part of an effective
IEC campaign.
• Rural areas should promote entrepreneurship in waste management and hence proper
and effective guidance to the existing NGOs, CBOs and other citizen groups towards
establishing environmentally and economically sustainable waste management
systems should be provided.
It is equally important to motivate tourists, pilgrims and others who come for tourism or
social visits to keep the village clean in a similar way.
9.2 Need for direct intervention and participation of community stakeholder
Despite strong democratic traditions, introduction of democratic processes in keeping the
village/city clean has not been a priority issue in India. Therefore, almost by default,
SWM is assigned a low priority because of other pressing issues, which cannot wait.
Although it is evident that many diseases are caused by improper management of solid
waste, the Surat plague episode in 1994 is the only concrete example in recent years
where it has been possible to relate poor management of solid waste to health hazards.
We need to learn and understand the following:
• Garbage if left unattended even for 24 hours has direct impact on the health of the
people coming in contact with it and/or residing nearby.
• A number of diseases like Typhoid, Cholera, Hepatitis A, Leptospirosis, Filariasis,
Malaria, Dengue, Chickengunia and several others are easily spread due to
mismanagement of garbage
• Subsequent stagnation of water either on the surface or in drainage and sewerage can
also spread of diseases through vectors breeding in them.
However, due to lack of feasible and manageable strategies, there seems to be no
concrete and permanent action to alleviate the problem.
Although citizens have been ignorant or apathetic in the past, it would not be appropriate
to completely blame them for being responsible for mismanagement of solid waste. In the
last few years, due to increased concern for health and environment, citizens have
become highly sensitized and are willing to give some of their time for appropriate solid
waste management. The village panchayat officials therefore, need to change their
94
mindset and improve their approach and methods for involving citizens in day-to-day
governance of their villages, especially to manage solid and liquid waste.
Involving the community can bring in innovativeness and entrepreneurship in managing
of waste. Scientific management of waste lies in providing space and powers within the
governance structure where a rag picker, a destitute woman, rural dwellers, small and
medium entrepreneurs can work alongside the Health officers, Engineers, Commissioners
and the educated, employed citizens of both urban and rural areas.
As mentioned in the earlier part of this chapter, solid waste management unlike other
highly centralized services requires a decentralized approach, which needs active citizen
participation rather than mere representation. Citizens are required to actively participate
at all stages of waste management from the point of generation to its final disposal.
Waste Management aspects where community participation is essential to back the
scientific management by a gram panchayat: • In achieving the principles of Reduce, Reuse and Recycling and Recovery from
waste.
• In reducing littering of the waste on the streets, into drains, open spaces, water bodies,
etc.
• Storage of waste at source, segregated as biodegradable and non-biodegradable
(keeping hazardous and infected waste separately).
• Making arrangements for primary collection of waste through /Self help
groups/NGOs or individual waste collectors by paying for the services provided.
• Encouraging and assisting local composting and recycling initiatives.
• Reducing open defecation, improve sanitation and sound management of liquid waste
9.3 Public information, education and communication methods
Door-to-door Motivation
Door to door motivation by the Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI) officials/volunteers,
gives every household a chance to clear their doubts and ask questions regarding the
waste management system being proposed2. Printed educational material such as posters,
brochures and pamphlets could be given to each house or shop and the entire concept of
segregation of waste could be explained using these materials. Volunteers need to be
trained to go from door to door interacting with all the residents especially the women of
the households and the shops to not only consult them on various issues related to solid
waste using detailed questionnaires developed but also to orient them towards the best
practices of waste management available as options for addressing the issues delineated
by them. This lends certain continuity to a phase of intense mobilization or campaigning.
IEC Material is very useful while door to door awareness programmes are being
conducted. The IEC materials on solid waste management may include posters, leaflets
and handouts which can be distributed amongst the householders, shop owners and be
displayed at prominent locations in the village, for example, at the Panchayat office, in
95
the school, or a community meeting place2. The information and the message in these
materials should be focused and clear.
Stickers for bins
Survey and Analysis To make the whole project effective, it has been shown that it is important to identify
indicators and code the questionnaires whether it is for the households and commercial
establishments’ surveys or for the ward surveyors. This helps to document the baseline,
monitor the progress periodically and highlight achievements. Hence the survey and
analysis of the status of the cleanliness parameters worked out after careful and detailed
deliberations should be done before and after implementation and is repeated
periodically.
Organizing, training of Rag pickers, Waste collectors and Kabadiwallahs In case of bigger villages or in rural areas on the fringes of cities, informal waste
collectors exist. The local body should mobilize NGOs or co-operatives to take up the
work of organizing rag-pickers and turning them into door step "waste collectors" by
motivating them to stop picking soiled and contaminated solid waste from the streets,
bins or disposal sites and instead collect recyclable clean material from the doorstep at
regular intervals of time1. The local bodies should pay for the cost of transportation of
such waste; even consider extending financial help to NGOs and co-operatives in
providing some tools and equipment to the waste collectors for efficient performance.
Health concerns of the waste retrievers are of prime importance, as they are constantly
handling different types of waste. Also there is a need to evaluate occupational hazards if
any, in door-to-door waste picking and sorting. Training on the right method of
segregation and collection of waste should be imparted. They should also be provided an
orientation on time management and taking a planned approach for routing, good
behavior with the residents and congenial working with their partners.
Training and Motivating the Self Help Groups Training and motivating entrepreneurship in waste management especially recycling of
waste products (sale of compost, paper and plastic recycling) involving the self help
groups (SHGs) and women of the community is an important aspect. The SHGs can
benefit from the economic gains they can get from recycling of waste products. The
96
training should introduce them to a variety of possible value addition product
development from waste including establishing paper or plastic recycling units and
selling the same in the local markets. They can also be trained for marketing of compost
and recycled products in the local markets. Local NGOs can do the training for the SHGs
and involve them in various activities.
Community participation is the key to sustainable waste management
Celebration Important Days and Occasions Waste management and sanitation can be integrated into awareness and education
activities conducted during festivals and celebration of environmental days such as the
World Environment day, Earth day or Health day. These activities can be conducted by
the community to build a sense of responsibility and the importance of the issue.
Rallies Organizing rallies on various occasions creates an excitement among the onlookers and
have propelled the rally doers to motivate the society.
97
Street Plays As a tool for building awareness about waste management and motivating the non-
participating residents, street plays are very useful tools. Street plays can help motivate
and provide understanding about the importance of segregation and disposal of household
waste, keeping streets and the environment litter free, importance of recycling of waste,
discouraging use of plastic bags in daily life, importance of hand washing and keeping
the toilets and surroundings clean for a healthy life.
Youth spreading the message
98
Clean-up Drives
Organizing regular clean up drives involving the local community and the District
Administration is very useful in ensuring community participation and for building a
sense of ownership. Clean-up drives have always made the community realize the
advantages of cleanliness.
Signature Campaigns Signature campaigns for community can be used for getting the opinion of various
stakeholders on topics like ban of plastics, temple waste management, segregation of
waste, sanitation, etc.
Open Forums Organizing open forums in a locality helps to collect views of the community and rectify
the mistakes if committed.
School Programmes Children are strong communicators. Emphasis on educating school children in order to
make them aware about the importance of a clean environment and waste segregation is
useful. This can be done by organizing activities like painting competition, slogans
writing, helping them organize clean up drives. Students should also be trained for
making recycled products (reuse paper and plastic carry bags, use recycled paper etc.)
The gram panchayats/block office should hold regular meetings with principals, teachers
and students to explain the need for change, and the usefulness to society of new ways to
manage waste. The message can be reinforced by holding essay, debate or drawing and
painting competitions on the subject and giving prizes to the contestants.
99
Environment Education through fun-filled activities, games
Involvement of National Cadet Corps (NCC), National Social Service (NSS) and
Scouts: The NCC and NSS have a strong social service component. Students from the schools
and colleges where these activities exist, can be involved in awareness creation and
education campaigns and in demonstrating action in their schools and colleges.
NSS Camp in a village in Gujarat
100
Involvement of Religious Leaders Religious leaders play a significant role in bringing about a change in the mind set of the
people. If they advise their devotees/disciples to keep their surroundings clean by not
littering and by managing their waste as advised by the local body, it can go a long way
in improving the situation in the rural and urban areas.
Involvement of Mahila Mandals (Women’s Associations) Women are generally more concerned about maintenance of health and hygiene of their
families and are involved in domestic waste management on a day to day basis.
Awareness among women could be raised through Mahila Mandals/Women’s
Associations who could be given talking points and necessary literature in a simple
language along with graphics for creating awareness among other women.
Mass Communication Methods
Print Media
Advertisements and appeals may be given in a planned manner to educate community at
large and local newspapers can also be requested to insert the given messages on SWM at
regular intervals. The local panchayat can also use newspaper delivery services for
distributing handbills for readers in a particular locality to announce the start of campaign
or incentives for compliance to the systems.
TV / Cable TV / Radio/Web Site
This is a very powerful medium and can be used through local programmes to inform the
citizens of new waste collection arrangements made by the local body as and when they
become operational and advise them to participate effectively. Contact numbers of the
concerned officials for problem solving or redressal may be publicized. This media may
be used to publicize successful efforts in some localities to motivate other citizens to
perform likewise.
Cinema Halls
Slides in cinema theaters can be displayed to inform and motivate the public.
9.4 Recommended method of participatory approach in implementation of effective
waste management system Consultations with community for taking stock of existing situation The local body needs to decide the methodology to be adopted for reaching out to the
community and seeking their cooperation and effective participation in solid waste
management services. This needs to be done very meticulously and seriously. This can
be done by consulting the representative groups to ascertain the perception of people
about existing SWM services, their expectations and the extent to which they are willing
to support and participate in the process. Their choice of approach and technology
options should also be considered. The local rural body may take the help of NGOs,
School and College students for conducting consultations.
101
Community consultations to take stock of situation and decide strategy
Process for formulating strategy is as follows:
Identification of problems and perceptions through a consultative process
Work out the optimal solutions
Consult community on the options available
Work out the strategy for implementation
The most effective method of eliciting participation is to visit every household or
commercial establishment and establish a personal rapport with its owners/residents.
Communication material describing the different aspects of waste management should be
distributed. Volunteers can also be drawn from a resource pool of college/school students
for the same.
Consultation process should end with a Citizen Charter capturing the voice of the
citizens. A Stakeholder Committee needs to be formed to take the implementation
forward.
Feedback
102
Formation of Stakeholder and Waste Management Committees .
A strong stakeholder committee needs to be formed to ensure maximum participation and
ownership of SWM initiatives. Cooperation between these stakeholders would give long
lasting results.
A Waste Management Commitee at work
• Maximum representation needs to be ensured from stakeholders such as lower
economic groups, disadvantaged and others especially those like waste pickers,
women, students, children and senior citizens.
• Co-opting of local traders, recyclers, media, market associations, religious institutions
and associations should be regularly taken up.
• Regular meetings, minutes, implementation of decisions and follow up should be
maximized and ensured.
• Facilitation of delegation of responsibilities, project management, fund raising and
correct monitoring is essential.
Identification of Pilot areas for Implementation of Pilot Projects
Once the overall SWM strategy along with the IEC plan and implementation is ready, the
local gram panchayat should take up pilot projects, selecting the areas where better
participation is expected. Pilot projects should be used to demonstrate the success to other
areas and gradually implementation in rest of the city or town should begin. It is
important to implement the new program in few areas while monitoring and assessing the
success and the lessons learnt should be carefully recorded and subsequently extended to
other areas with suitable modifications wherever necessary.
Door to Door awareness programmes have been the key for the success of many projects
103
From each pilot initiative, certain lessons need to be learnt about the role they can play in
waste management in the entire village/block and their possible contribution to the
‘Strategic Plan for Waste Management’. The community involved in the initiative
provides extensive knowledge of the local needs, the suitable systems required and the
skill and willingness to manage the initiative. The initiatives developed through
indigenous means and tools to deliver the services should also adopt appropriate locally
available technologies for processing waste.
Evaluation of the Pilot Projects
Evaluation has to be planned right from the beginning of the pilot project since the
success of evaluation lies in not only clearly spelling out and delineating the parameters
to be evaluated but the scope and scale of achievement which is being envisaged during
or after the pilot. Further, in all projects involving the community and its participation the
effectiveness of IEC cannot be perceived or measured only by physical quantification but
by the change in behavior or attitude towards age-old beliefs and traditions, which are
often the key to measurable changes as well. To evaluate this, we require insight,
empathy and a good understanding of the needs of the community.
9.5 Learnings
It has taken a long time to get recognition for the important role of education and
communication play in bringing about an effective and sustained solid waste
management. However, this struggle is just beginning to bear fruit because some people
have started understanding that action without understanding and results without
reinforcement are unsustainable. While the policy and programmes clearly articulate the
need for community participation and the central role of education and communication,
there is still a gap in their implementation in a way that would be socially, economically
and environmentally just. We hope that the sourcebook helps provide the required
information and tools to the local decision makers and facilitators to develop inclusive
solid and liquid waste management strategies and programmes.
References
1. Guidelines for Swachh Bharat Mission (Grammen). Ministry of Drinking Water and
Sanitation. Available at
http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ddws/files/pdf/SwachBharatGuidlines.pdf
2. MoUD – GOI (2000), Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management.
3. MOEF [Online], Available from http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-
information/Roadmap-Mgmt-Waste.pdf
104
CASE STUDIES
105
Case Study 1- CEE-ERU (CEE Eco Recycling Unit) Coorg, Karnataka
A woman working on the loom weaving waste polybags
To address the dry recyclable wastes such as paper and polybags, which are a major
problem in Coorg, Centre for Environment Education (CEE) set up a handmade paper
making unit and a plastic weaving loom. This unit was called CEE’s Ecological Reuse
and Recycling Unit (CEE-ERU).
As an alternative mode to mere disposal for used polybags generated in this district, a
novel sustainable method helps in reusing discarded polybags in the form of woven
products, which are more durable, and eco friendly. This prevents the poly bags from
polluting our environment.
The waste polybags are collected at the unit through a collection system set up to
collected segregated plastic bags. These are washed, dried, cut into strips and woven in
handlooms to make attractive bags, mats, folders, pencil cases, wall charts, curtains for
windows and doors etc.
Cleaning and Disinfecting Plastic Waste: Some plastic carry bags may have been picked up from roadsides and unclean
surroundings. Hence it is important to first clean with detergent and water and soak in 0.5
per cent hypochlorite solution for half an hour before drying them out in the sun. This
will ensure destruction of all pathogens and make it safe for weaving and also for using
the products made from such an activity.
Benefits to our Environment
• These woven products can be used for longer period and are durable.
• This novel method of polybag weaving prevents environmental pollution.
106
• While collecting used carry bags and selling these products, messages are given to
avoid the environmental hazards of disposing these in our environment
Components of Plastic Weaving unit
• Green loom (Multi Activity Loom) comprising a set of 48” width looms + warping
(spooling) machine + 2 Charkas, bobbin stand, heeled stand, khargosh and wooden
plank.
• Shed of 100 sqft covered
• Raw material– cotton thread, liner cloth and plastic carry bags collected from our
environment.
• Human power to do the weaving
• Cleaning and drying of waste carry bags (Vats, Tanks, tubs, pipes)
• Sewing Machine and accessories.
Recycling of Plastic Carry Bags with Poly Loom
• Collection of discarded “plastic carry bags/poly bags” from houses, roadsides,
schools, colleges, hostels etc
• Washing with soap water and drying
• Plastic Polybags cut into strips
• Thread taken from Charka
• Reel to be arranged in Bobbin stand
• Thread rolled to Warping Machine from Bobbin stand
• Thread set to loom from warping Machine
• Weaving to produce plastic woven fabric with different designs
• Tailoring and fabricating different products such as Mats, Awnings, Bags, Files and
Cases
• Marketing the products and conducting training for creating more opportunities
107
Process
108
Details of the Product
• The product is designed keeping in view the present trend of the market. Although
made out of recycled plastic, the hygiene aspect along with aesthetic and utility
aspects is always taken into consideration while preparing the final product for
marketing. • Electricity is not required for setting up the loom, which helps it to be integrated with
other electricity dependent activities to fully utilize the services of the workers during
power shutdowns and periods of no electricity in the rural areas. Creation of new
business opportunities with minimal investments and space requirements is possible.
Machinery is easily transportable and easy to assemble. Addressing the growing
urban menace it has led to merging of rural technology and to curb the ever-
increasing problem of plastics being unthinking dumped in our environment. • The new technology has led to increase job opportunities among women due to its
easy and user friendly process. • This process, which helps in diverting the plastics away from the landfill, prevents
environmental degradation and leads to employment opportunities. The product is
also environmentally safe and can be used for over five years. It can be used regularly
in any location and helps in removing lakhs of such unwanted plastic carry bags from
our environment. This leads to cleaner and greener environment.
CEE wins Award for Innovation in Recycling Technology
Centre for Environment Education (CEE) was awarded the ‘Plasticon 2005 Award’ on 1st
October 2005 in Mumbai by the PlastIndia Foundation in the category of ‘Innovation in
Recycling Technology’ for its innovation of the ‘Polyloom’.
The first CEE-ERU established in Coorg, Karnataka was subsequently set up through
various CEE offices, also in Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, Delhi, and Tirupati. Today, the
concept has been taken up by many women’s self-help groups who gather raw material
either by door to door collection or by buying it from rag pickers. This provides them
livelihood while taking the plastic carry bags away from the environment.
List of Plastic Recycled products
• Seminar kit bags and folders
• Double Cot mat
• Single Cot mat
• Dining mat
• Small Yoga mat
• Box type Market bag
• Fancy Market bag
• Shoulder bag
• Fancy Jhola bag (Big/small)
• Tiffin carrier bag
• Puja bag with stick handle
• Hand purse
• Dining set
• Mobile case
• CD case
• Pencil case
• Travelers bag • Cloth markt bag • Travelers kit bag • Fancy long handle bag • Puja bag with rope handle
109
Lessons Learnt
Dry waste separated at source can be utilized for creating jobs and generating revenue
110
Case Study 2 – Satyanagar’s biogas based community toilet complex,
Bangalore, Karnataka
Project Location: Bangalore, Funding Agency: NORAD
CEE carried out a systemic and stepwise planning for upgrading the living conditions of
the residents of Satyanagar, a suburban pocket at the outskirts Bangalore. Data on socio-
economic profile of the people and environmental features of the existing civic amenities
was also collected and analysed. The whole project broadly involved 3 phases:
▪ Preparation of a Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP) for Satyanagar.
▪ Estimation and costing for implementing the CDP.
▪ Actual Implementation of the CDP.
The data collection was done through Geographic Information System (GIS), one to one
questionnaire surveys, using participatory approach, frequent site visits, etc. This report
came up with the detailed study of the quality and quantity of waste being generated,
socio-economic structure of the residents and existing infrastructure in Satyanagar.
111
Strategy components
Strategy
• Identifying issues involved in improving infrastructure &quality of life of people
residing in slums
• Developing action plan for upgrading living conditions (Basic Amenities etc.
including community & individual toilets)
• Through participatory processes, involvement of communities in identifying
lacunae in existing infrastructure etc.
• Capacity Building programmes (for Communities, Panchayats, NGOs and others)
• Developing GIS, Building partnership ( among NGOs, Local Community,
Government)
Achievements
• As a part of providing Satyanagar with urban services, providing fuel and
electricity to benefit 6000 residents was one of the achievements.
• In this regard we approached Karnataka Khadi Village Industries Corporation
(KVIC) Bangalore to explore the possibilities of fuel utilisation which is generated by the
toilet linked biogas plant, constructed and maintained by CEE.
• This has been implemented by providing fuel for those households near the
complex including the persons residing in the toilet complex for the purpose of
maintaining it.
112
• The environmental awareness programmes conducted at Satyanagar has led to
increase in awareness to keep the area clean. Many of the residents who were going out
for open defecation have started using the toilets. Moreover chain-link fencing of the
vacant piece of land adjacent the toilet complex has compelled many of the people to use
the community toilet.
• The community toilet complex at Satyanagar is an asset to the community
• Association with Development Education Society (DEEDS), an NGO working at
Satyanagar has helped in conducting the awareness programme effectively. The teachers
from DEEDS were able to mobilize housewives to attend the awareness programme.
113
Case Study 3 - Converting Dhansura Block of Sabarkanta district into a
plastic-free zone, Gujarat
Dhansura is one of the talukas of Sabarkantha district, Gujarat. It consists of 33 Gram
panchayats with a total population of 96,389 (50,310 men and 46,079 women).
Agriculture and animal husbandry are Dhansura’s main livelihoods. The total sanitation
Campaign (TSC) program was initiated in this taluka in 2004. The District Rural
Development Agency (DRDA), under the leadership of its director, is responsible for
implementing the TSC programme. The Block Development Office (BDO) provides
technical and monitoring support to the Gram panchayats and communities for the TSC's
effective implementation. In July 2011, as part of the TSC's integrated Waste
management campaign, a special drive was launched to convert Dhansura into a ‘plastic
free’ taluka, with the cooperation of block and village panchayats. This campaign was
initiated and managed by Amruthbhai Bhambi, Assistant Project Officer of the TSC in
Sabarkantha district.
Project planning meeting
A state-level meeting was organised under the leadership of the TSC state Program
Officer to identify and work out a strategy for creating plastic-free GPs and blocks. The
team agreed to make Dhansura block in Sabarkantha district a plastic-free zone on a pilot
basis. A workshop was organised in Dhansura block under the leadership of the director
of DRDA in Sabarkantha district to orient all key stakeholders on the issues of plastic
waste and its impact on the environment and human life. participants include the
sarpanch and secretary of all 33 GPs in Dhansura block, all consultants of district 60
Pathway to success and block TSC units, the State Program Officer, Block Development
Officer and BDO team, the Director and relevant officers of DRDA, regional consultants,
various local scrap traders, etc. at the end of the workshop, an action plan was prepared in
view of making Dhansura a plastic-free block.
IEC activities
The district deputed all district TSC community mobilizers (13 members) to create
awareness and organize communities for the safe disposal of plastic waste. Each
mobilizer was assigned three GPs in which to undertake various IEC activities. In
addition, teachers and students throughout the district were oriented on the issue of
plastic waste; they, in turn, organized rallies and door-to-door campaigns to raise
awareness within their respective communities. A series of Gram sabha meetings was
held in every Gram panchayat to sensitize GP members and communities with respect to
the importance of safely disposing of plastic waste. subsequently, a resolution was passed
in the Gram sabha to end the dumping of litter—including plastic waste—in public places
and along roads, urging citizens to instead collect plastics at the household level and sell
them to authorized local scrap vendors at the rate of `3 per kg.
114
Organizing scrap vendors
Before holding the Gram sabha, meetings took place among the sarpanch, Gram
panchayat secretary, Community mobilizer, and local shopkeepers to discuss the
purchase of plastic waste collected by households. In every GP, one local trader was
identified and was asked to sign a letter of consent. It was decided that a village trader
would buy plastic waste at a rate of `3 per kg; the resale price this vendor would obtain
from a taluka scrap vendor would be `4 per kg.
Impact of Best Practice
Every GP is now more or less free from plastic waste and looks very clean. This
campaign created public awareness about the adverse impact of plastic waste on humans
and animals and, to a certain extent, it helped to curb the purchase of plastics. The
awareness and commitment of households in Dhansura block when it comes to the safe
disposal of plastic waste is very high. Until very recently, plastic was discarded as waste
material; now it generates a small income for conscientious households. Many local
traders and taluka scrap vendors reported earning between `500 and `2,000 per month
thanks to this new trade in plastic waste. This campaign also created a demand for
household toilets.
References
WSP (2014), WSP-Compendium of Best Practices Rural Sanitation India [Online],
Available from http://www.wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-Compendium of Best
Practices Rural Sanitation India
115
Case Study 4 - Pammal’s Green Exnora, Pammal, Tamil Nadu
Using People-Public-Private-Partnership (PPPP) to establish sustainable waste
management system in a small town’s door-to-door collection, transportation and waste
processing services by Exnora Green Pammal has paid off well. Pammal town is situated
on the periphery of the city of Chennai in southern India. The grave condition of waste in
the area made a resident take initiative to form an informal group and start creating
awareness about waste management among local residents. Their efforts began to pay off
when they started collecting user fees and involved some waste pickers to clean their
area. Once they got noticed, they were funded by PepsiCo and registered themselves as
Exnora Green Pammal and initiated several activities to deal with solid waste in Pammal
town. Their journey from a few hundred households to their reach of 75,000 households
currently, speaks of success from 1994 to 2014.
Pammal is a part of Kancheepuram District and is located 25 km from Chennai in Tamil
Nadu. Pammal has a population of 75,870 according to 2011 census while the floating
population is approximately 20,000. The town primarily comprises residential,
commercial, institutional and industrial area and is famous for tanneries, which are
located in and around the municipal boundary.
The total municipal waste generated in the town is 35 MT per day. The waste
management in the town is entrusted with the municipal sanitary staff and a team of 7
groups. The municipality is responsible for solid waste management in 5 of the 21 wards
(in ward number- 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11). The municipality lifts 18.5 MT per day. Waste
collection, transportation and disposal of waste from remaining 16 wards is carried out by
an NGO- Exnora Green Pammal
In 1994, Pammal was a town panchayat and had a team of 70 sanitary workers, 22 of
whom were permanent and 48 temporary. Of the 48 temporary workers, only 29 worked
on waste collection. The other 19 were deputed to other departments. The panchayat
could not employ additional required staff due to lack of finance. In 1994, a local resident
initiated the formation of a civil society organization to address the issues of solid waste
collection and cleanliness. Ten women residents, who were also interested in these issues,
volunteered and joined in to form an informal citizens group called Shri Shankara Nagar
Mahalir Mandram. They initiated a campaign to involve the local residents in cleaning
the area. They organized a mass cleaning campaign for the first time in Shri Shankara
Nagar area of Pammal.
House to house discussions were done to educate citizens to store their waste in bins and
not throw it in open spaces and also to segregate waste. The Mandram explored
possibilities of collecting a service charge of Rs. 10 per month per household for the
waste collection services. However, residents opposed the idea saying that this was the
municipality’s duty. In 1995 with some financial support from a private company -
Sterling Tree Magnum, the Mandram bought tricycles for door to door collection and
appointed two street cleaners. The waste collected was then disposed in the town’s
secondary collection bins.
116
In 1996, as the Mandram’s influence grew, they started facing various challenges from
the municipality as well as from the residents. Mandram’s crew collected waste from
individual households and disposed it in secondary bins of the town. The residents felt
that this was not enough and the panchayat did not want the Mandram to collect user
charges from residents. In late 1996, the Mandram members explored composting of
waste on an experimental basis under a tree. A monthly service charge of Rs. 10 was
collected from households who gave their waste. This money supported salaries of the
waste collectors and to erect a shed. With more households segregating waste at source,
most of the compostable waste was converted to manure. Further support came from an
eye hospital that provided space for vermicomposting and the Mandram, now registered
as a self-help group obtained a loan for construction of a shed.
80 per cent of the total waste generated in the Shri Shankara Nagar was now composted
and sold. The recyclable materials such as paper, plastic, metal, glass and rubber was also
sold. Hence, only 10 per cent of the total waste generated in the Shri Shankara Nagar was
disposed at the town’s dumpsite.
By mid-1998, more than two-thirds of residents regularly paid service charges for this
waste management service. Their work caught attention of many officials including the
Executive Officer of Pammal Municipality.
Institutionalization of the Mahalir Mandram: Formation of Exnora Green Pammal
Zero Waste Programme
This success of the Mahalir Mandram’s community-based solid waste management
project started getting published and got noticed by an international NGO- Exnora
International1. The initiative was also applauded and encouraged by the Mayor of
Chennai. Inspired by this citizen led initiative in Pammal, the mayor of Chennai city also
organized awareness rallies in Chennai. He advised the elected council of Pammal town
panchayat, to take up vermicomposting on a large scale. He also inaugurated the
municipality’s “Pasumaiyana Pammal” or the Green Pammal Zero Waste Programme
that reached out to six wards of Pammal.
In 2004, representatives of a multinational beverage company PepsiCo visited the project
and suggested that the Mandram's activities be expanded to cover a larger area. They
extended financial support of Rs 32 lakh for extending the Mandram’s initiative to seven
wards of the city. However, there were issues in accessing this money since the Mandram
was not registered as a formal institution. Here, Exnora International supported in
formalizing the Mandram and registered a NGO called Exnora Green Pammal, under the
Societies Act, 1860.
1Exnora International, a non-profit, environmental service organisation focuses on mobilizing and
empowering communities to participate in preserving nature and preventing environmental degradation.
Exnora's work includes solid waste management, liquid waste management, rain water harvesting and
recycling of inorganic waste.
117
With PepsiCo’s support, door-to-door collection was expanded and a MoU was signed
with the Municipality. In 2005, the NGO employed 52 people as waste collectors and
also constructed a larger shed for vermicomposting. The land of 1.1 acres was provided
by the municipality. This shed had 108 cells for composting. To support the operations of
the waste management services, the service charge was increased to Rs 15 per household
in more affluent areas.
City-wide scaling up of the initiative
In 2007, the Pammal Municipality approached the Exnora Green Pammal (EGP) to
expand its services across all the 21 wards of the town. The NGO agreed to provide
services in 16 of the wards. The municipality and Exnora Green Pammal entered into a
MoU to provide waste management services including primary collection, segregation,
and secondary collection, lifting of debris from drains and disposal to the compost yard.
As part of the MoU, the Municipality and the NGO provided 70 and 80 tricycles each.
The municipality introduced an annual house tax that included SWM taxes as well and
hence it was decided to discontinue the collection of service charges. As per the MoU, it
was also decided that the municipality would pay Exnora Green Pammal at the rate of 95
paise per house per day.
The NGO now had a waste management team of 5 supervisors and 100 workers who
were called ‘Green Ambassadors’. EGP has trained and employed over 135 green
ambassadors. The workers and green ambassadors are all drawn from the same localities,
who were previously engaged in illicit liquor brewing and from leprosy rehabilitation
settlements. The workers are part of the SHG federation and they are employed as
federation workers. The workers are given dignity of labour and are paid a monthly
salary of Rs. 4000-5000 according to the Minimum Wages Act. The waste pickers also
get an additional income by selling the recyclables collected by them.
This arrangement continues to function in the 16 wards of the city. EGP has deployed 10
trucks and 2 mini trucks for the secondary transportation of municipal waste from the
wards to the compost and dumpsite at Vishweshapuram. The payment mechanism has
now changed with the municipality paying Rs. 850 per MT to Exnora Green Pammal.
After the waste is collected by green ambassadors in hand carts, it is transferred into
trucks for weighing.
Since the year 2010, a two-year contract has been formed based on which, the EGP will
pay Rs 500 to the Municipality for each MT of compost that EGP produces from the
municipality's waste, and Rs 100 per tonne of recyclable material recovered. This
payment from EGP to the municipality ranges between Rs 35,000 and Rs 45,000 per
month.
118
IEC Campaigns
EGP along with the Pammal Municipality imparts education and training on livelihood
options for disadvantaged groups in the community. They also conduct training programs
for external self-help groups on income generation and livelihood options related to
waste, paper recycling, mushroom cultivation, etc. Summer camps focusing on
environmental issues and waste management are held for children. Street plays for
community awareness are also regularly conducted. Depending upon the IEC activity,
funding is sought from agencies such as PepsiCo for materials, toolkits, games, etc.
Employed with EGP since a decade, her day
begins from 6:00 am where she collects
segregated waste from 250-300 households
everyday. 90 per cent waste from households
is segregated. She says that she is happy to be
a ‘Green Ambassador’ and now she lives in
dignity and earns her living. She has been
able to educate 3 of her children due to the
salary paid by EGP and the benefit of loans
from SHGs. - Interview with Thilagavathy Mulaswami,
Green Ambassador, EGP
Summer programme for kids, training of women and street play as a part of IEC campaign
119
Results and Waste Recovery
EGP has collected and segregated a total of 11,934 MT of waste from 16 wards in the
financial year, April 2012 to March 2013.
Month Municipal solid waste collected (in MT)
April – 12 1042.68
May – 12 970.24
June – 12 918.362
July – 12 1042.09
August – 12 1010.58
September –
12
968.78
October – 12 1028.87
November – 12 958.41
December – 12 1056
January – 13 1046.95
February – 13 850
March – 13 1024
4.1 Waste Recovery
Municipal solid waste is segregated and further sent for processing as vermicomposting,
biogas, or up scaling.
Vermicomposting: The segregated organic waste is partly utilized for feeding the biogas
plant and partly for the vermicomposting processing shed. A total of 383 MT of organic
waste was collected in the last financial year, of which 115 tons was utilized for biogas
production and 268 tons was utilized for vermicomposting process.
Vermicomposting of organic waste by EGP in Pammal
120
Biogas: A considerable amount of food gets wasted in the restaurants. EGP uses
biomethanation technology to use the waste to produce electricity. The EGP has set up 3
biogas plants in the town, one to handle kitchen waste from restaurants and two in
temples to handle temple wastes.
The model biogas plant to handle kitchen waste from restaurants has a capacity of
producing 25 cum of gas and electricity output of 5 kva per day. The electricity is used to
power streetlights and to produce cooking gas.
Under the ‘Temple Green Project’, waste from temples such as flowers, milk, prasadam,
fruits and cow dung are used to produce biogas. The biogas is used for cooking of the
prasadams in the temple premises.
Waste treated in biogas plants and electricity generated, Source - EGP Annual Report, 2013
Month Food waste (kg) Units of electricity
produced, Kwh
April – 12 2491 6229
May – 12 2240 5898
June – 12 7843 7813
July – 12 7659 7799
August – 12 6509 7522
September –
12
7979 8309
October – 12 9041 8529
November – 12 12584 7780
December – 12 8851 7953
January – 13 6073 7873
February – 13 7529 8072
March – 13 6435 8109
Total 85234 91886
Biogas plants for processing organic waste; L-Model biogas plant for managing kitchen
waste; R- Temple Green initiative
121
Up cycling plastic waste: A total of 6623 numbers of plastic carry bags and 41097 plastic
water pouches were segregated and utilized for the plastic upcycling initiative called
“Project Avthar”. This upcycling process diverted 47,720 numbers of plastic carry bags
and water pouches from the dumpsite and also from clogging drains and ending up in
water bodies. These plastic bags are then used to make into bags, mats, stationery items.
This technology was transferred to EGP by CEE Coorg through a series of workshops
and training programmes.
Monthly waste segregated and diverted from dumpsite, Source- EGP Annual report
Month Plastic carry bags Plastic water pouches
April – 12 426 3425
May – 12 533 3724
June – 12 590 5125
July – 12 523 5730
August – 12 513 4124
September – 12 557 1399
October – 12 423 6026
November – 12 622 4196
December – 12 566 3876
January – 13 364 1629
February – 13 923 985
March – 13 583 858
Total 6623 41097
Upscaling of plastic waste into innovative products
Briquette making: The coconut leaves collected from the wards are used for making
briquettes, which are used as a fuel in industrial boilers. The briquettes are prepared by a
slow pyrolysis process.
Briquette making from
coconut leaves
122
Lessons learned
The reason that the segregated waste could be used efficiently for various waste recovery
processes is due to the fact that citizens segregate waste at the source itself.
When residents don’t segregate their waste, the
workload of green ambassadors increases because
they have to then segregate the waste. The value of
recyclable material also reduces considerably since
recyclables are mixed and become dirty. The quality
of biodegradable material deteriorates as well. In the
absence of source segregation or inefficient
segregation of waste at source, the amount of
landfilled material increases. A much more intensive
and sustained awareness campaign and a regulatory
framework are essential to encourage maximum
residents to segregate their waste at source. Raising awareness to achieve widespread
public cooperation in terms of segregation of waste requires continuous effort and is
likely to take several years. Changing people’s habits is a gradual process.
Although, Pammal has demonstrated a successful waste collection, segregation and waste
recovery process, it still lacks a scientific landfill site. Sanitary landfills urgently need to
be constructed for disposal of waste that cannot be recycled or composted.
Sustainability and Transferability
The involvement of waste pickers in solid waste management in towns or cities is of
utmost importance; especially in areas where it is difficult for the municipality to
undertake door-to-door waste collection. Formalizing them is not only environmentally
sustainable but has social and economical benefits. Proper channelizing of the waste
pickers for operation and monitoring is important for a trouble free waste management
system in the long run. Waste pickers should be supported by a registered body to
encourage them to stay in mainstream systems as well as to gain people’s trust.
This project offers good opportunity to mainstream waste pickers into the solid waste
management system. It can also provide door-to-door waste collection and street
sweeping services as well as added income by selling recyclables and up scaling products
to generate more income.
Small towns as well as ULBs can replicate this successful model for efficient services to
the community through their involvement, and add to the well-being of waste pickers.
123
Case Study 5 - Waste recycling/waste to wealth: Vermicomposting from
Solid Waste by KGS, Kanpur in U.P.
This case study is about round-the-year production of vermicompost by recycling of
cattle dung and cow dung slurry from the village Gaushala (an organization which cares
for all cattle). Biogas plants are managed successfully through a low cost technology at
village Bhounti, which is promoted by Kanpur Gaushala Society (KGS), Kanpur, Uttar
Pradesh. It is a good example of income generation from solid waste management by
using low cost technology.
Main features
Vermicomposting involves the stabilization of cow dung through earthworms, which
converts cow/ cattle dung into worm castings. Vermicomposting is the result of combined
activity of microorganisms in cow dung and earthworms (Eisinia foetida). Microbial
decomposition of biodegradable organic matter occurs through these earthworms culture
activities of primary decomposition. Ingested feed substrates are subjected to grinding in
the interior part of the worms gut gizzard resulting in particle size reduction. The
technology consisting of a tripartite system that involves biomass, microbes and
earthworms, is influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture, aeration etc.
Microbial ecology changes according to changes in these factors in the biomass. Hence
processing of waste like cow dung as well as providing favorable environmental
conditions necessary for vermicomposting. Conditions such as particle size of biomass,
the extent of its decomposition, very high temperature (May to July in Kanpur),
anaerobic conditions, toxicity of decomposition products etc. influence activity of worms
and production of manure. The technology has been used for composting of organic
agriculture waste, cow dung and its adoption in solid waste management in rural and
urban areas in India is of recent origin.
Economic viability
The project has qualitative and quantitative benefits. On an average 50 kg earthworms
produce 50 kg manure per day; thus, monthly yield about 4000 kg. Manure packets of 20
and 5 kg are sold at the cost of Rs 50/- & Rs 20/- respectively. The average yield is 4,000
kg per month and 1000 kg waste which is again reprocessed. Gross sales turnover from
the Vermiculture compost is 4000 kg x Rs 5/- = Rs 20,000/- per month. Also the un-
reprocessed waste is selling @ Rs 2.50 per kg i.e.1000kg x Rs 2.50 = Rs 2500/- per
month making the total earning of Rs 22,500/- per month from the vermiculture compost.
The cultivated earthworms are also sold @ of Rs 300/- per kg. During the last two years,
the society sold 200kg of earthworms to the farmers and earned Rs 60,000/- against the
total initial expenditure e.g. purchase of 50kg of earthworms @ Rs 500/- per kg= Rs
25,000/- + Rs 5,000/-. This had been recovered at the end of the 1st year of operation of
the plant.
124
Precautions
A proper covering of the feed bed has to be provided. Sprinkling water, protecting the
shed area and the beds from red ants, cockroaches etc. by using Turmeric and flour
around the perimeter of the bed and the shed would sustain production. Keeping the feed
beds away from birds/chicken/ducks from eating the worms is important.
Constraints
• Lack of organized marketing, lack of awareness within the farming community of
benefits of EWC is responsible for poor replication
• Seasonal variation in the composting process due to temperature and moisture
differences may result in variation in production
• Lack of institutional arrangements for dissemination of information for
vermicomposting technology
Reference
India Sanitation Portal (2007), Solid and Liquid Waste Management in Rural Area
[Online], Available from http://indiasanitationportal.org/sites/default/files/SLWM_20-08-
07.pdf
125
Case Study 6 - Project Kihim: Solid Waste Management and Sanitation
activities at Kihim, Maharashtra
In Kihim, it is estimated that nearly 2.2 tons of waste is generated per day. The storage of
waste at source is not a common practice and the households do not follow the concept of
segregation of waste at source. The Kihim beach also has high tourist inflow and hence
the waste is found thrown on the beach, streets and throughout the village treating the
village area as receptacle of waste.
The SWM scenario of Kihim The village does not have a system of street sweeping in place and hence the waste
strewn on the street is found lying there for long periods and spreads all over. Household
waste is collected by the ghanta gadi and then dumped at Chondi Naka, the unofficial
dumping point of the village. Open burning has been prevalent and no processing of
waste or scientific landfill was done. This led to an unhygienic and unaesthetic
atmosphere in the village.
Pile of garbage thrown and burnt openly is another major concern in the village. Open
defecation is still prevalent and around 37 per cent of the households do not have their
own toilets.
Looking into the conditions prevalent, Hindustan Construction Company (HCC)
identified Kihim village as a work area for solid waste management (SWM) and
sanitation activities as a part of the company’s corporate social responsibility and
appointed Centre for Environment Education (CEE) for implementation of the activities.
The Project Kihim involved setting up a scientific system for integrated waste
management, creating awareness and motivating the stakeholders for their active
participation in SWM and sanitation activities to make these activities sustainable. The
project emphasized the involvement of beneficiaries in participatory processes through
effective communication strategies and to use participatory capacity building exercises
involving community support to develop individuals as ‘Solid Waste Managers’ and
‘Community Outreach Agents’. The project also aimed to mobilize the local community
to understand the benefits of the SWM and sanitation strategies and support the role of
the local authority i.e. the Gram Panchayat in achieving the same.
System Setting for Waste Management
• CEE designed and implemented the completely functional system for solid waste
management. This system composed of:
• Identification of locations for placing of dustbins. HCC procured the dustbins and
handed over to Gram Panchayat Kihim; these bins were placed in the designated
locations with the aim of restricting littering.
126
• The door to door collection of household waste through ghanta gadi is streamlined
(Detailed Route). For streamlining door-to-door collection, route for waste collection
is devised, timings for the waste collection ascertained, trial run of waste collection
from all the households from Kihim village, Chondi and Bamansure on daily basis is
undertaken and after the satisfactory trial run, the waste collection through ghanta
gadi is implemented on regular basis.
• The cleaning schedule of the dustbin is devised and followed.
• The residents were motivated and oriented for segregation of waste generated. The
segregated waste is handed over to the ghanta gadi from where it is transported to the
site of segregation and composting. Secondary segregation is carried out at the site;
the biodegradable waste is composted while recyclables are stored and later on sold to
the local recycler. The various items, which fall under the category of hazardous
waste were stored in black plastic liners and then in plastic tanks for the time being.
• The composting unit is established wherein composting of the collected
biodegradable waste was undertaken. The GP personnel were oriented for the process
of composting.
Lessons learnt and recommendations proposed
The beneficiary should come forward for the need of implementation of such projects; in
case such projects are implemented without the beneficiaries feeling the need, the
stakeholders seem to take such projects for granted. These results in negative effect on
the sustainability of the project after the responsibilities of the implementing agency and
funding agency get over.
The end users should take up equal responsibility in the project implementation; this will
ensure the sustainability of the project.
127
128
Case Study 7: Making night soil-based biogas plants viable in
Maharashtra’s Pune district
Biogas generated from night soil serves a dual purpose of providing energy and helping
manage human waste. Human night soil is a good substrate for generating biogas.
However, night soil from 25-30 persons per day is required for generating 1 cubic metre
biogas. While biogas generated from night soil of community toilets, which are used by
larger numbers of people, have proved viable, gas produced from individual toilets used
by 5-10 persons are inadequate for any practical use. Keeping this in mind, a new
strategy has been evolved in Dehu village of Maharashtra’s Pune district, where some
families allow their neighbours to use their toilets for a nominal maintenance charge
making attached biogas plants economically viable. Currently, there are about 75 family-
owned human night soil-based biogas plants in Dehu providing kitchen fuel for villagers.
The strategy has also eased the village Panchayat’s responsibilities for human night soil
management and reduced environmental pollution due to open defecation. Improper
management of human excreta has long posed a major health and environment threat in
India. Open defecation, especially in rural areas, is a major sanitation problem. In a push
towards achieving universal sanitation various agencies have joined efforts to come up
with various low-cost, on-site technologies suited to local requirements. These are largely
based on two biological degradation processes: (1) aerobic digestion through two-pit
latrines and (2) anaerobic digestion as exemplified by an aqua privy or septic tank latrine.
The latter is more commonly used but it is now accepted that a total pathogen kill is not
ensured by the process. In addition, the methane produced is allowed to escape. This is
not environment-friendly as methane is an ozone-depleting gas. Besides, it is a source of
energy being wasted. But if the same human night soil is anaerobically digested through a
process of biomethanation, the wastes are better managed and valuable energy in the
form of biogas is recovered.
Initially, about two household-owned biogas plants functioning on the strategy of
involving neighbours were constructed. Usually, a person with the required space and
funds opts for the construction of the biogas plant. The experience in Dehu has shown
that this is most often a person who already feels the need for a latrine for his household.
Along with the latrine, he prefers to install a biogas plant as he is convinced through an
information, education and communication (IEC) campaign that the technology is
functionally better and financially viable. The capacity of the plant and the number of
latrines is based on the number of possible users from neighbouring families. The
capacity of the plant may vary from 1 cubic metre to 3 cubic metres.
The user families usually pay Rs.10-20 per month to the owner. Families that do not use
the latrine properly may be asked to discontinue. More user families mean more the
money for the owner. If latrine users are tenants, the rate of rent may be higher because
the latrine facility is available. Latrine maintenance is done by the owner.
By letting neighbours use their latrines, the owner benefits in three ways: (1) He gets
maintenance charges from the user families. (2) He uses the biogas generated in his own
kitchen. (3) Wherever possible, the recovery of manure is also an advantage. The latrine
129
user families gain by access to latrines at a nominal cost. The village benefits because
open defecation is reduced and the latrines are maintained by the owners and are not a
responsibility of the Panchayat.
Biogas plants have enormous environmental benefits as well. It has been calculated that
the installation of the 75 biogas plants in Dehu village has reduced the demand for LPG
gas in the village by about 100 domestic LPG cylinders per month. The health benefits
are also significant as faecal pollution is reduced.
The cost of construction of a human night soil-based biogas plant is comparable to the
cost of a septic tank and is, therefore, a much better choice given its environmental,
health and financial advantages. The initial capital outlay may vary between Rs. 8000 and
Rs. 12,000 depending on the local rates of construction material. If the plant is used to
full capacity the designed quantity of biogas would be generated. One cubic metre of
biogas in energy terms is equivalent to 0.433 kg of LPG or 4 units of electricity or 4 kg
firewood. Thus, the comparable cost of firewood would be around Rs.10 per cubic metre.
The cost of biogas recovered in a year would be about Rs. 3,500. Thus, even after the
initial cost, interest and depreciation are considered, the recovered biogas itself provides
for a payback period of around five years. The health benefits, convenience and so on are
extra factors which are not considered in financial terms.
Reference:
Mapuskar V. (2012) Innovative strategy for viability of family owned night soil based
biogas plant.
Mapuskar S.V., Low Cost On-Site Integrated Waste Management Systems, Maharashtra:
Appa Patwardhan Safai W. Paryawaran Tantraniketan.
130
Case Study 8 - Rural waste management in a South Indian Village
A micro-level study was carried out in a typical south Indian village to assess the quantity
and type of wastes generated and its present mode of management. This information was
used to identify the appropriate technologies which could enhance the value of the waste
produced and, at the same time, improve the economic conditions of rural people. The
study indicated that nearly 2364 tons of rural wastes in the form of crop residues, animal
manure and human excreta are produced annually in the village with a population of 510.
About 77 per cent of the waste generated in the village was used as domestic fuel, animal
fodder and organic fertilizer for crop production. The rest (23 per cent) was left out in
open fields for natural decomposition. The energy balance sheet of the village indicated
that the present consumption of biomass resources was 50 per cent less than that actually
required for various domestic and agricultural applications. Anaerobic digestion of
animal manure and human excreta produced in the village could yield 82 per cent of the
domestic energy required besides enriching the waste by 3–4 times as compared to
conventional storage on the ground. If the traditional mud Chula (stove) were replaced by
an improved Chula, each family unit could reduce their annual biomass (fire wood)
consumption by about 2/3. Commercializing the utilization of coconut and paddy
biomass using the village's man-power and facilities could increase the rural family
income several fold.
Reference
Science Direct, Available from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
131
Case Study 9 – Greywater Treatment in Kokawad Ashram School, MP
The case studies of construction and successful operation and maintenance of greywater
treatment plants in Ashram schools in tribal districts of westerns Madhya Pradesh are
presented in this chapter. Dhar and Jhabua are two districts of Madhya Pradesh in Central
Province of India which suffers recurrent water quantity and quality problems. Lack of
water is major reason for low sanitation coverage in schools.
In many residential schools in Dhar and Jhabua Districts, limited availability of
freshwater has prompted UNICEF, in collaboration with NEERI and other Governmental
and Non Governmental partners, to explore the use of greywater for appropriate purposes
such as flushing of toilets. A holistic water management is adopted in these Ashram
schools by integrating different water usages and corresponding quality requirements. It
has been found out in Ashram schools that water requirement is about 60-70 liter per
student per day as against drinking/cooking water requirement of 5 liter per day.
Considering the consumptive use of 20-30 per cent, greywater generation is in the range
of 23-35 liter per student per day. The greywater treatment plants have been constructed
by providing treatment techniques such as screening, equalization, settling, filtration and
aeration. This simple treatment has resulted in use of treated greywater in flushing the
toilets which were otherwise unclean and hence not used by the students.
Greywater treatment plant is constructed in Girls Ashram School in Kokawad, District
Jhabua in Madhya Pradesh. The details of the Ashram school are provided below:
• Total number of students: 50 tribal girls from rural area
• Education: 1 to 8 standards.
• Age group: 5 to 14 years
• Distance from pucca road: 8 km
• Total water requirement for Drinking and cooking: 90000 liter /year (For ten months/
300 days)
• Total water requirement for bath, toilets, etc.: 375000 liter / year (For ten months/ 300
days)
• Water source: One tube well
• Sanitation facility: Four latrines and three bathrooms
• Greywater generation: 1500 - 1750 l / day
The greywater treatment plant is constructed in Ashram school to make water available to
flush toilets, to improve sanitation, to use treated greywater for gardening and for floor
washing.
Greywater Treatment Plants in other Schools
UNICEF and NEERI along with Government and Non-government partners have
constructed six greywater treatment plants in Dhar and Jhabua districts. The operation
and maintenance of these greywater treatment plants are looked after by students and
Parent Teachers Association (PTA). Department of Tribal Welfare, Government of
132
Madhya Pradesh has committed funds for regular maintenance of these plants. It is
proposed to build similar greywater treatment plants in 60 Ashram schools in Dhar and
Jhabua districts using funds available with Government of Madhya Pradesh.
Performance Evaluation of Greywater Treatment Plants
Microbial Performance
Performance evaluation of greywater treatment plant was undertaken by NEERI by
collecting samples from seven greywater treatment plants in Dhar and Jhabua district.
Physical and microbial parameters were analyzed. The turbidity removal efficiency of 50
per cent is observed in all the greywater treatment plants. Considering direct correlation
between turbidity and microorganism, it can be stated that microbial removal efficiency
of these greywater treatment plants is also approximately 50 per cent.
Financial Aspect
The acceptance of setting up greywater reuse system in Ashram school using
Government funds indicates that the financial implications of greywater treatment
systems provide greater environmental and social benefits. Greywater treatment
technologies adopted in these systems are economically feasible which make these
systems more attractive. Like the development of the other utilities, the implementation
of greywater reuse facilities generally requires a substantial capital expense. In addition
to capital costs associated to greywater reuse facilities, there are also additional
operations, maintenance and replacement (OM and R) costs.
The main objective of the greywater reuse system is to satisfy the water related needs to
the community at the lowest cost to the society whilst minimizing the environmental and
social impacts.
Reference
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (2007), Greywater Reuse in
Rural Schools Guidance Manual, Available from http://neeri.res.in/pdf/greywater.pdf.