Upload
gtsoukalas
View
214
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
1/11
George 1
George Tsoukalas
Professor Jeanette Novakovich
English 213
November 2010
Transforming Gender:
Globalizations Impact on Gender Ideologies in Latin America
Most contemporary political theories involve the introduction of a new global market as a
means to propitiate developing countries economies. The World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund are organizations whose scope is to successfully integrate such policies
effectively. However, a select number of theorists have argued that this approach to development
isnt the ideal solution and instead of expanding countries economies it creates dependencies.
Nonetheless, modern economic policies have been promoted by lending funds to institutions
throughout the globe. In 1982, Mexico had a huge external debt of 80 billion dollars and couldnt
pay it off. The country declared bankruptcy because it could no longer pay the World Bank. As a
result, the G7 had no choice but to terminate their debt propitiating Mexico into harmonious
economy. Similarly, other Latin American countries would now pay off their outstanding debts
with loans in hopes of economic prosperity. This affected the daily lives of many Latin
Americans: their way of life took new shapes and forms, their traditions shifted and their culture
was redefined. The development of the Latin American trade market has resulted in a swift
change in traditional and essential principles of the Latin American household. In an attempt to
identify such cultural and economic shifts in the household, I will examine how globalization has
affected gender relations in Latin America. The research provided will clarify how such
economic changes took place in the Latin American domestic sphere highlighting the importance
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
2/11
George 2
of globalization and how it changed Latin America. Globalization impacts gender relations by
attributing new roles within the household, by redefining power relations and changing a
patriarchal way of life in Latin America. After a brief contextualization of how modern
globalization works, I will focus on globalizations impact on power relations between men and
women within the domestic sphere, the shift away from traditional forms of patriarchy in the
domestic sphere and an alternate economic orientation within a modern global market.
Globalization
According to various researchers, globalization is typically regarded as the global process
of an increase in exchange and the diversification of a countrys products, services, capital,
people, information, and culture. Martin Albrow defines globalization as ...the diffusion of
cultural practices within a global context.... (Albrow 2000). In 1944, the 2nd world war had and
ended and, at this time, the United Nations had been created, as well as other global economic
organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The goal was for
these organizations to rid the world of poverty through means of free-trade. The G7 (Germany,
Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Canada, and US) were usually the countries with the largest wealth
rendering them important global monetary contributors. Theorists, such as, Adam Smith, a
Scottish economist, helped develop the notion of free-trade; whos objective was to restrict
government involvement within global economy in order to ensure a modern form of oligopoly
of the G7. An initiative by G.A.T.T (General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade) imposed free-
trade policies on less wealthy economies rendering Adam Smith and his theory overwhelming.
The modernization of a global economy consisted of removing tariffs, regulations,
standards, laws, legislations and regulatory measures. Thus, restricting normative capital flows
and resulted in unstable economies around the world, i.e. gridlock. The attempt to privatize
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
3/11
George 3
multi-national corporations gave the opportunity for lesser affluent countries to compete in an
evolving global market.
Certain activists, such as Elizabeth Martinez, believe globalization only reinforces a
nations dependency and binds them to a never ending cycle. Martinez, a dependency theorist,
explains how the rule of the market only prolongs a nations development because of its self-
regulating notions focusing on downward wealth distribution, as opposed to stable economic
plans. In order for the nation to achieve economic prosperity, they must first ensure stable and
harmonious economic growth. The role of the global market de-unionizes a nations labour
forces; ultimately, affecting their expenditures, income and political stability. Also, it cuts social
service expenditures by lowering investments in healthcare and education, it privatizes the public
enterprise and it allows market-forces to regulate themselves. Globalizations greatest influence
within a society is how it changes public perceptions and leads to forms of totalitarian political
regiments regarding social responsibility and wellbeing (Harris, 2002).
Case studies from Nicaragua, Chile, Mexico, Puerto Rico and the Caribbean are good
examples of how globalizations impact on gender ideologies in Latin America. These nations
were first integrated into global markets of exchange; later, Structural Adjustment Programmes
(S.A.P.), offered by the I.M.F., were needed in order to diminish each countrys individual debt.
Due to a rapid integration of the above mentioned countries, Latin American populations
followed up to date policies in an attempt to further an already outstanding debt; ultimately,
populations from the earlier mentioned countries reduced the probability of contending with
wealthier nations. Globalization, now a common and almost necessary global economic policy,
may in fact be disadvantageous to Latin American communities because it only distances
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
4/11
George 4
traditional domestic gender relations and results in a difficult transition from a lifestyle well
known lifestyle to a foreign one.
Globalization and the Latin American Household
Traditionally, Latin America was a male dominated society where men performed the
role of breadwinner. Globalization influenced societies from all around the world by promoting
individualist ideals creating gaps between communities in and outside the domestic sphere both
economically and culturally. This created a difficult transition from well-accustomed gender
ideologies to a more modern Latin American household. Women were now actively participating
in domestic financial affairs and contributing to their individual needs. Now, men and women
alike share the role of breadwinner in most sectors of Latin American, particularly the household.
As result of globalizations effects on uneven wealth distribution, women were now considered
principle providers of the household economy and notions of patriarchy no longer existed in the
domestic sphere.
Let us review a few examples that will demonstrate the shifting roles of women. During
the 1980s in Mexico, an industrial change occurred as a result of global trades impact on the
nations market; most factories were relocating themselves to the north of Mexico and closer to
the U.S. border. This helped improve political ties within Mexican and American companies
economic policies which led to changes in and out of the household of the average Mexican
family. An indigenous tribe living in South Western U.S. and Northern Mexico, the Navajo,
could potentially shed a light on how globalization seriously affected the roles of men and
women in Latin America, particularly in the household. Cowen explains that the growth in the
weaving industry among the Navajo was a result of the global trades influence within this tribe.
This resulted in the dependence of the female within both the domestic and economic sectors of
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
5/11
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
6/11
George 6
mostly located in the fruit and textile sectors. Although Chilean campesinas now occupy
multiple roles being both worker and a mother, most Chilean women envision themselves as
mothers above all else. In an attempt to comprehend any form of distribution of wealth within
the household, portray themselves as mothers above all else seems to conflict with the scope
behind globalization and the changes within the Latin American household.
In Sosa a popular tourist destination in the Dominican Republic, households greatly
depend on women as economic providers. Brennan explains the impact the global markets on
womens careers and how selling themselves for money isnt an unusual trend for mothers in the
Dominican. Here, sex workers contribute to their homes and families by selling their bodies and
creating relationships with tourists. Brennan explains in her article the life of a sex worker in
this tourist town. Andrea, a female sex worker living in Sosa, sold herself to the tourists of the
town to provide for her two daughters. She hoped to meet a rich tourist to finally leave this city.
She met with a German tourist who wanted to bring her back to Europe, but she couldnt leave
her children behind. Because Andrea was a full-time worker caring for her children was hard, for
this reason, she kept her daughters in her mothers care while trying to economically provide for
them (Brennan 2004). This demonstrates how important females are in the lives of their children
and how grandmothers are family figures who help contribute to a single or married mothers
career. Although women are still concerned with the upbringing of children, age is an important
aspect within the Dominican Republic in regulating household roles. An older mother or
grandmother will usually take care of the domestic chores, while a younger, career-oriented
women will work outside the home for wages helping her take care of her familys wellbeing.
Although globalization affects women in the Dominican Republic by reconfiguring household
roles, it also helps create new roles for men, such as that of the sponge. Here, Brennan uses the
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
7/11
George 7
term sponge to describe a man within the household who tends to feed off or sap his wifes
wealth. In brief, the classic or typical role of the male breadwinner not only shifts it inverts
towards a lesser role, possibly that of sponger.
Globalization did not only redefine the economic relations existing in Latin American
countries, but also created new household ideologies. Women were now dominant economic
providers within the household, supported their families needs and ensured a promising life
style for its members.
Globalization & Power Relations of Gender in Latin America
The shift of the global market has affected power relations within Latin American society
by influencing ideas about men and women should be. Society is the result of interactions within
its members, by observing other cultures a general ideology is formed of how they should be
perceived. For a woman living in Latin America, their contribution to society is more important.
For this reason, globalization enforces the change in gender relations of Latin American men and
women.
In the Caribbean, globalization has created a larger economy and modified career
opportunities. Although most females still remain in the pink-collar field (female suited jobs),
various firms or companies attribute biological traits, which will be indentified later, to womens
working style. An off-shore development officer put forth a biological explanation for why
women are preferred in his industry. He claims women are better suited for manipulating objects
and light assembly work which involves sitting, and unlike men, women have good hand-eye
coordination. Historically, women have been manipulating needles weaving shirts and have
smaller hands enabling them to be more precise. This mans biological reasoning entails the
classical portrayal of how men are designated for heavier and physically demanding jobs, and
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
8/11
George 8
women are designated for meticulous jobs. Freeman later explains that this biological rationale
creates an image for men and women and is used for their career selection. The fact that women
are passive, patient and dexterous makes them ideal candidates for electronic or cloth-weaving
factories. Also, such characteristics help women further distance themselves from men within
the work sector by according them sedentary, monotonous and meticulous work. Management
usually considers such reasoning as commonsense, further segregating the sexes and helping
create a larger gap amongst female and male employment opportunities in Latin America. Such
rationales are exhibited by many of the recruitment departments of various companies in the
Caribbean. Data Air is an example of how the majority of the recruited employees are women,
usually because of their slimmer fingers and delicate nature they can perform the task of typing
more efficiently. In a sense, globalization not only has affected the gap within Latin American
sexes, but has literally biologically categorized the employment opportunities depending on your
gender (Freeman 2002).
Such notions of power have also been demonstrated in other parts of Latin America and
have led to similar results. Safa explains operation bootstrap an industrial program which
attempted to augment Puerto Ricos export program. Bootstrap enabled Puerto Rico to compete
within a global context and began in 1947 under the first industrial incentives Act. Its goals were
to give Puerto Rican economy a competitive edge through free-trade policies and no tariffs for
multi-national corporations. This was an early form of globalization and in most part was still
unclear. This entailed interesting results within the Puerto Rican community who strived for a
better future. Bootstrap was initially designed to provide job opportunities for male farmers, thus
creating development amongst the nations people by helping them re-adjust to the countrys
new economic policies. Because Bootstrap was an operation intended to introduce Puerto Rico
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
9/11
George 9
to the competing global market S.A.P. policies were followed including reducing social wealth
distribution. For this reason, women and their passive nature were now the primary labour force
within the countrys employment sector, usually working in food processing factories. This is an
early example of how the sexes were segregated according to their working capabilities.
Globalization not only reinforced such ideologies, but made men and women adjust to their
appropriate working conducts. Starting in 1952, male dominated industries went into steep
decline. Unemployment was very high in Puerto Rico between 1970 and 1990. Men
outnumbered women in the countrys population and 90% of Puerto Rican males agreed with the
fact that it is easier for women to find jobs. With male participation rates declining
approximately 63.4% over the age of 16 were unemployed during this period (Safa 1995). The
majority of the men were unemployed and unable to provide financially for their families. This
meant that they greatly depended on their female partners contributions for their families. This
reality further accelerated the transformation of power relations by redefining the status of most
men from that of the agricultural breadwinner to that of a dependent one.
Cultural exchange within a global market
In Cowens book: Creative Destruction, he examines the impact globalization has on a
global level within cultures all over the world. He argues that culture has been modified to
enable the successful development of Latin American countries within a global context. This
race has transformed various practices and traditions within countries like Mexico. The practice
of Navajo weaving dates from the historical background of the Mexican Aztecs. This practice
was basically a type of work female Aztecs practiced which consisted of them weaving clothing
out of raw materials. Cowen later explains that the impact industrialisation has had within the
Navajo weaving practice was characterized by the creation of multiple Navajo weaving factories.
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
10/11
George 10
This occurred in North-eastern Mexico which acted as a contributor to the female workforce.
Although this helped the Mexican cultures economic development, the delocalization of such
American firms from the U.S.A. to Northern Mexico resulted in cross cultural exchange within
its population. Now, Mexican workers were able to earn money in the condition that they
followed the policies and work ethic of such factories; exemplifying the absorption of foreign
countries culture (Cowen 2002). Absorbing the cultures had a great impact on the Mexican
culture re-integrating the concept of a female worker amongst the Mexican society.
In a study conducted by Bellman, she demonstrated the impacts of globalism within the
female gender and how it affected culture in Nicaragua. Her results show that female work
participation rates are mostly accorded to the societys awareness of gender differences. A
variable which showed the gender awareness of what is perceived to be an appropriate job for a
female versus male was the active increase of females within the garment industry. The need for
female involvement within a work union regarding a collective work approach rose from a 29%
rate to a 52% rate in the span of 10 years. This data indicates the cultural shift of a more
collective society of the classical female Nicaraguan to a rather individual mentality. The fact
that the typical female Nicaraguan worker is in accordance with the unionization policies of the
garment industry shows a drastic ideological shift occurred amongst gender ideologies of
classical patriarchal Nicaraguan cultural perception. Although female workers had more rights,
they understood the need to separate from the male industry to a more female industry, such as,
clothe weaving or fruit picking permitting a closed structural organism. This led to a larger gap
within the cultural perception of working styles accorded to the male and female gender. A
collective strategy amongst these female garment sewers helped them attain their goals.
8/8/2019 Final Draft Research Ver 6
11/11
George 11
Latin America has had many impacts from European colonialism affecting their typical
lifestyles culturally. Globalization was a theory which helped provide its leading economic
nations with wealth and resources at a cheaper cost. Places like the third world have been the
ones which were affected the most, but other nations were also caught amidst the struggle for
economic development within a global economy. Gender ideologies have been greatly affected
by globalization and the vast global market increasing the shifts within gender in Latin America.
Globalization impacted Latin America by impacting the gender roles within a household, shifting
the cultural perceptions of Latin Americas nations who practice globalization increasing the
power gap within the sexes. A political commentator, Benjamin Barber, explained the worlds
current situation as being caught between Jihad and McWorld (Cowen 2002). This example
highlights the intentions of globalization, demonstrating the contemporary worlds struggle for
economic profit. Although many residents of cities like Rio de Janeiro, Bogota, Mexico City and
Sosa can have a cheeseburger from time to time they still struggle for their future on a daily
basis. Having a dollar store has its perks, but does being able to buy almost anything for a dollar
really exemplify the success of the 21st century?