FIGURE 19.1a. Pastoralists. (a) Pastoralists with a herd of sheep, Mali. Photo: © CIDA (Pierre St. Jacques). From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition,

FIGURE 19.1a. Pastoralists. (a) Pastoralists with a herd of sheep, Mali. Photo: © CIDA (Pierre St. Jacques).

From Africa South of the Sahara, 3rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 19.1b. Pastoralists. (b) Pastoralist family breaking camp, Mali. Because they move frequently with their herds, nomadic pastoralists tend to have relatively few material possessions. Photo: © CIDA (Pierre St. Jacques).


FIGURE 19.2. Schematic drawing of different types of spatial mobility among pastoralists. Mobility enables herders to use seasonally varying resources effectively, increasing returns and limiting ecological damage.


FIGURE 19.3. Pastoralist’s cattle grazing on crop refuse, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The photo illustrates one aspect of the symbiotic relationship between farmers and pastoralists: As the cattle graze, they deposit manure on the farmer’s fields.

Photo: author.


FIGURE 19.4a. Gender and agriculture. (a) Women cultivating rice, Sierra Leone. Photo: © UNESCO (J. Caro Gardiner).



FIGURE 19.4b. Gender and agriculture. (b) Men preparing yam mounds, Ghana. Although women produce most of Africa’s food, men are likely to be involved, even when women have primary responsibility for food crop production. The

preparation of yam mounds is a good example of a male-dominated task; not only is the work heavy, but also the yam crop is a valuable source of cash—hence its attraction for men. Photo: © CIDA (Bruce Paton).

FIGURE 19.5. Cross-section of a shifting-cultivation farm. The diagram illustrates the diversity of intercropped species, mimicking the structure of the forest. Source: M. Hammond. From Riches to Rags: A Critique of the Transformation of Shifting Cultivation

Societies in Contact with Expanding Political Economies of Nation States. Unpublished MA thesis, Michigan State University, 1977.


FIGURE 19.6. Shifting cultivation, southeastern Côte d’Ivoire. The random mixing of several different crops is characteristic of shifting-cultivation systems. Photo: author.


FIGURE 19.7. Termites and tillage in Zambia. Zambian farmers select termite mounds as preferred sites to grow maize because of the enhanced fertility of the soil. Adapted from R. A. Pullan, “Biogeographical studies and agricultural development in Zambia,”

Geography, vol. 59 (1974), pp. 309–321. © 1974 by The Geographical Association. Adapted by permission.


FIGURE 19.8. Nutrient cycling system in a dry savanna farming system in northern Nigeria. The diagram illustrates the complex ecological relationships that sustain this agrarian system. Source: F. Harris. “Nutrient management strategies of small-holder

farmers in a short-fallow farming system in north-east Nigeria.” Geographical Journal, vol. 165 (1999), pp. 275–285.© 1999 by The Geographical Journal. Reprinted by permission.


FIGURE 19.9. Plowing with oxen, Tigre Province, Ethiopia. Two small stone barriers are visible behind the plowman;these structures have been built to trap rainwater and impede soil erosion. Photo: Melvin Peters.


FIGURE 20.1. Major zones of cash crop production. Source: I. L. L. Griffiths. An Atlas of African Affairs.London: Methuen, 1984, p. 121. © 1984 by Methuen and Co. Reprinted by permission.


FIGURE 20.2. Tea plantation, Tanzania. Although Africa produces only a small percentage of the world’s tea,it is locally important in several East and central African countries. Photo: © CIDA (David Barbour).


FIGURE 20.3. Agricultural landscape, eastern highlands of Ethiopia. The most important cash crop in this region is quat (pronounced “chat”), visible as the clusters of bushes in the photo. Quat leaves have an intoxicating effect when they are chewed. Large quantities are exported to

neighboring countries, especially Somalia, Djibouti, and Yemen. When we are thinking of cash crops, it is important to look beyond staples traditionally sold abroad and to consider a range of locally important crops. Photo: author.


FIGURE 20.4a. Modern agriculture. (a) Dairy farm, near Lusaka, Zambia. Photo: author.


FIGURE 20.4b. Modern agriculture. (b) Large mechanized wheat farm, Eastern Rift Valley, Kenya. Modern wheat farms have been established in several countries, including Tanzania, Kenya, and Sudan, in an effort to reduce dependence on

imported wheat. Photo: author.


FIGURE 20.5. Alley cropping. The diagram shows some of the ecological dynamics that make alley cropping a sustainable farming system, even in marginal tropical forest environments. Source: B. T. Kang and L. Reynolds, eds. Alley Cropping in the Humid and Sub-

Humid Tropics. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre (IDRC), p. 18. © 1989 by IDRC. Reprinted by permission.


TABLE 21.1. Food Supply and Undernutrition in Selected African Countries


FIGURE 21.1. Undernourished population, 2005–2007. The map shows a large cluster of countries in west central Africa where there is an especially high prevalence of undernourished people. Data source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO). The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2010. Rome: FAO, 2010. (Available online at www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1683e/i1683e.pdf)


FIGURE 21.2. Change in food production, 1999–2001 to 2008–2009. Data source: World Bank. Africa Development Indicators 2011. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2011.


TABLE 21.2. Agricultural Production, Food Imports, and Food Aid in Selected African Countries


FIGURE 21.3. Billboard promoting bread consumption, Nigeria. Advertising is one of the factors accounting for the rapid growth of bread consumption and the growth of Nigeria’s “wheat trap.” Photo: author.


FIGURE 21.4. Frequency of food emergencies, 1986–2005. Two areas stand out as having experienced the most frequent food emergencies: the Horn of Africa, and west central Africa. Data source: FAO. Database on Food and Agriculture in

African Countries (www.fao.org/giews/afrdatabase.htm).


FIGURE 21.5. The hierarchical structure of survival strategies in times of drought: Northern Nigeria. As the effect of famine deepens, survival strategies shift, typically involving increased commitments of domestic resources and difficulty in reversing the strategies.

Source: M. Watts. Silent Violence: Food, Famine, and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983, p. 436. © 1983 by The Regents of the University of California. Reprinted by permission.


FIGURE 21.6a. Two faces of food aid in Ethiopia. (a) Distribution of famine emergency food. Photo: © CIDA (David Barbour).


FIGURE 21.6b. Two faces of food aid in Ethiopia. (b) The work to terrace and partially reforest this hillside in Tigray Province was done by community groups which were compensated through a food-for-work program. Terracing helps to

retain moisture from rainfall, control soil erosion, and increase crop yields. Photo: Melvin Peters.


Documents

FIGURE 19.1a. Pastoralists. (a) Pastoralists with a herd of sheep, Mali. Photo: © CIDA (Pierre St. Jacques). From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition,