Ficus or Fig Tree

8/8/2019 Ficus or Fig Tree

1/15

Ficus or Fig Tree.

Ficus is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes, and hemiepiphytein the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the

tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The so-called Common

Fig (F. carica) is a temperate species from the Middle East and eastern Europe (mostly Ukraine),

which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its fruit, also referred to as figs. The

fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic

importance or eaten as bushfood. However, they are extremely important food resources for

wildlife. Figs are also of paramount cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of

worship and for their many practical uses.

A Ficus carica

Ficus is a pan-tropical genus of trees, shrubs and vines occupying a wide variety of ecological

niches; most are evergreen, but some deciduous species are endemic to areas outside of the

tropics and to higher elevations.Fig species are characterized by their unique inflorescence and

distinctive pollination syndrome, which utilizes wasp species belonging to the Agaonidae family

for pollination.

The specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but figs as a group are

relatively easy to recognize. Many have aerial roots and a distinctive shape or habit, and theirfruits distinguish them from other plants. The fig fruit is an enclosed inflorescence, sometimes

referred to as a syconium, an urn-like structure lined on the inside with the fig's tiny flowers. The

unique fig pollination system, involving tiny, highly specific wasps, know as fig wasps that enter

these closed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs, has been a constant source

of inspiration and wonder to biologists. Finally, there are three vegetative traits that together are

unique to figs. All figs possess a white to yellowish sap (latex), some in copious quantities; the


2/15

twig has paired stipules or a circular stipule scar if the stipules have fallen off; and the lateral

veins at the base of the leaf are steep, forming a tighter angle with the midrib than the other

lateral veins, a feature referred to as a "tri-veined".

Unfortunately, there are no unambiguous older fossils of Ficus. However, current molecular

clock estimates indicate that Ficus is a relatively ancient genus being at least 60 million yearsold, and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of extant species, however, may

have taken place more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago.

Some better known species that represent the diversity of the genus include the Common Fig

which is a small temperate deciduous tree whose fingered fig leaf is well-known in art and

iconography; the Weeping Fig (F. benjamina) a hemi-epiphyte with thin tough leaves on

pendulous stalks adapted to its rain forest habitat; the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from

Australia; the Creeping Fig (F. pumila), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of

foliage over rocks or garden walls. Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone

adaptive radiation in different biogeographic regions, leading to very high levels of alphadiversity. In the tropics, it is quite common to find that Ficus is the most species-rich plant genus

in a particular forest. In Asia as many as 70 or more species can co-exist.

Ecology and uses

Coppersmith Barbet feeding on White Fig (Ficus virens) fruit

Figs are keystone species in many rainforest ecosystems. Their fruit are a key resource for some

frugivores including fruit bats, capuchin monkeys, langurs and mangabeys. They are even more

important for some birds. Asian barbets, pigeons, hornbills, fig-parrots and bulbuls are examples

of taxa that may almost entirely subsist on figs when these are in plenty. Many Lepidoptera

caterpillars feed on fig leaves, for example several Euploea species (Crow butterflies), the Plain

Tiger (Danaus chrysippus), the Giant Swallowtail (Papilio cresphontes), the Brown Awl

(Badamia exclamationis), and Chrysodeixis eriosoma, Choreutidae and Copromorphidae moths.

The Citrus long-horned beetle (Anoplophora chinensis), for example, has larvae that feed on

wood, including that of fig trees; it can become a pest in fig plantations. Similarly, the Sweet


3/15

Potato Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as potted plants and

is spread through the export of these plants to other localities. For a list of other diseases

common to fig trees, see List of foliage plant diseases (Moraceae).

Leaves of the Sacred Fig

The wood of fig trees is often soft and the latex precludes its use for many purposes. It was used

to make mummy caskets in Ancient Egypt. Certain fig species (mainly F. cotinifolia, F. insipida

and F. padifolia) are traditionally used in Mesoamerica to produce papel amate (Nahuatl: matl).

Mutuba (F. natalensis) is used to produce barkcloth in Uganda. Pou (F. religiosa) leaves' shape

inspired one of the standard kbach rachana, decorative elements in Cambodian architecture.

Weeping Fig (F. benjamina) and Indian Rubber Plant (F. elastica) are identified as powerful air-

cleaning plants in the NASA Clean Air Study. Indian Banyan (F. bengalensis) and the Indian

Rubber Plant, as well as other species, have use in herbalism. The latter is known to be a

hyperaccumulator of benzene and methane,[dubious discuss] and urban or potted plants should

be considered toxic for that reason.

Fig trees have profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. Among the

more famous species are the Sacred Fig tree (Peepul, Bodhi, Bo, or Po, Ficus religiosa) and the

Banyan Fig (Ficus benghalensis). The oldest living plant of known planting date is a Ficus

religiosa tree known as the Sri Maha Bodhi planted in the temple at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka by

King Tissa in 288 BC. It is one of the two sacred trees of Islam, and there is a sura in Quran

named "The Fig" or At-Tin( ), and in East Asia, figs are pivotal in Buddhism,

Hinduism and Jainism. Siddhrtha Gautama, the Supreme Buddha, is traditionally held to have

found bodhi (enlightenment) while meditating under a Sacred Fig (F. religiosa). The same

species was Ashvastha, the "world tree" of Hinduism. The Plaksa Pra-sravana was said to be afig tree between the roots of which the Sarasvati River sprang forth; it is usually held to be a

Sacred Fig but more probably seems to be a Wavy-leaved Fig (F. infectoria). The Common Fig

tree is cited in the Bible, where in Genesis 3:7, Adam and Eve cover their nakedness with fig

leaves. The fig fruit is also included in the list of food found in the Promised Land, according to

the Torah (Deut. 8). Other important plants reported included: wheat, barley, grapes,

pomegranates, olives, and dates (representing the honey). Jesus cursed a fig tree for bearing no


4/15

fruit (Mark 11:12-14). The fig tree was sacred in ancient Cyprus where it was a symbol of

fertility.

Fig pollination and fig fruit

A Common Fig syconium (fruit)

Many are grown for their fruits, though only Ficus carica is cultivated to any extent for this

purpose. Furthermore, the fig fruits, important as both food and traditional medicine, contain

laxative substances, flavonoids, sugars, vitamins A and C, acids and enzymes. However, figs are

skin allergens, and the sap is a serious eye irritant. The fig is commonly thought of as fruit, but it

is properly the flower of the fig tree. It is in fact a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the

flowers and seeds grow together to form a single mass. The genus Dorstenia, also in the figs

family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case thereceptacle is a more or less flat, open surface.

Depending on the species, each fruit can contain up to several hundred to several thousand seeds.


5/15

Inside of a ripe brown Turkish fig

Figs, fresh

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy 310 kJ (74 kcal)

Carbohydrates 19 g

Sugars 16 g

Dietary fiber 3 g

Fat 0.3 g

Protein 0.8 g

Percentages are relative to US recommendations

for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient database

Figs, dried

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1,041 kJ (249 kcal)

Carbohydrates 64 g

Sugars 48 g

Dietary fiber 10 g

Fat 1 g

Protein 3 g

Percentages are relative to US recommendations

for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient database


6/15

Cannabis

Cannabis (Cn-na-bis) is a genus of flowering plants that includes three putative species,

Cannabis sativa,[1] Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. These three taxa are indigenous to

Central Asia, and South Asia. Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp), for medicinalpurposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants

selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of THC (9-

tetrahydrocannabinol), a psychoactive molecule that produces the "high" associated with

marijuana. The psychoactive product consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to

produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced

from the plant

Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound or

digitate, with serrate leaflets. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number

gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine),

depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again

diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf

arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature

plant.

Cannabis normally has imperfect flowers, with staminate "male" and pistillate "female" flowers

occurring on separate plants. It is not unusual, however, for individual plants to bear both male

and female flowers. Although monoecious plants are often referred to as "hermaphrodites," true

hermaphrodites (which are less common) bear staminate and pistillate structures on individual

flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the


7/15

same plant. Male flowers are normally borne on loose panicles, and female flowers are borne on

racemes. "At a very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant as dioecious," and

the (ca. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defined xi "male cannabis" and fu (or ju )

"female cannabis".

All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated and produce "seeds" that are technicallycalled achenes. Most strains of Cannabis are short day plants, with the possible exception of C.

sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis), which is commonly described as "auto-

flowering" and may be day-neutral.

Cannabis, like many organisms, is diploid, having a chromosome complement of 2n=20,

although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced. The plant is believed to have

originated in the mountainous regions northwest of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp,

although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use.

Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids, which produce mental and

physical effects when consumed. Cannabinoids, terpenoids, and other compounds are secreted byglandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants.

As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flower buds (marijuana), resin (hashish), or

various extracts collectively known as hashish oil. In the early 20th century, it became illegal in

most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis for drug purposes.


8/15

Populus

Populus is a genus of 2535 species of deciduous flowering plants in the family Salicaceae,

native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. English names variously applied to different species

include poplar, aspen, and cottonwood.

The genus has a large genetic diversity, and can grow from anywhere between 1550 m tall, withtrunks of up to 2.5 m diameter.

Mle catkins ofPopulus Canadensis

The bark on young trees is smooth, white to greenish or dark grey, often with conspicuous

lenticels; on old trees it remains smooth in some species, but becomes rough and deeply fissured

in others. The shoots are stout, with (unlike in the related willows) the terminal bud present. The

leaves are spirally arranged, and vary in shape from triangular to circular or (rarely) lobed, and

with a long petiole; in species in the sections Populus and Aegiros, the petioles are laterally

flattened, so that breezes easily cause the leaves to wobble back and forth, giving the whole tree

a "twinkling" appearance in a breeze. Leaf size is very variable even on a single tree, typically

with small leaves on side shoots, and very large leaves on strong-growing lead shoots. The

leaves often turn bright gold to yellow before they fall during autumn.

The flowers are mostly dioecious (rarely monoecious) and appear in early spring before the

leaves. They are borne in long, drooping, sessile or pedunculate catkins produced from buds

formed in the axils of the leaves of the previous year. The flowers are each seated in a cup-

shaped disk which is borne on the base of a scale which is itself attached to the rachis of the

catkin. The scales are obovate, lobed and fringed, membranous, hairy or smooth, usually


9/15

caducous. The male flowers are without calyx or corolla, and comprise a group of 460 stamens

inserted on a disk; filaments short, pale yellow; anthers oblong, purple or red, introrse, two-

celled; cells opening longitudinally. The female flower also has no calyx or corolla, and

comprises a single-celled ovary seated in a cup-shaped disk. The style is short, with 24 stigmas,

variously lobed, and numerous ovules. Pollination is by wind, with the female catkins

lengthening considerably between pollination and maturity. The fruit is a two to four-valved

capsule, green to reddish-brown, mature in mid summer, containing numerous minute light

brown seeds surrounded by tufts of long, soft, white hairs which aid wind dispersal.

Poplars of the cottonwood section are often wetlands or riparian trees. The aspens are among the

most important boreal broadleaf trees.

Poplars and aspens are important food plants for the larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera

species -


10/15

Willows

Willows, sallows, and osiers form the genus Salix, around 400 species[2] of deciduous trees and

shrubs, found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions of the Northern

Hemisphere. Most species are known as willow, but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called

osier, and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow (derived from the Latin word

salix, willow). Some willows (particularly arctic and alpine species) are low-growing or creeping

shrubs; for example the Dwarf Willow (Salix herbacea) rarely exceeds 6 cm (2 in) in height,

though spreading widely across the ground.

Willows are very cross-fertile, and numerous hybrids occur, both naturally and in cultivation. A

well-known ornamental example is the Weeping Willow (Salix sepulcralis), which is a hybrid

of Peking Willow (Salix babylonica) from China and White Willow (Salix alba) from Europe.

Description

Willows all have abundant watery bark, sap which is heavily charged with salicylic acid, soft,usually pliant, tough wood, slender branches, and large, fibrous, often stoloniferous roots. The

roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and tenacity to life, and roots readily grow from

aerial parts of the plant.

The leaves are typically elongated but may also be round to oval, frequently with a serrated

margin. Most species are deciduous; semi-evergreen willows with coriaceous leaves are rare, e.g.

Salix micans and S. australior in the eastern Mediterranean. All the buds are lateral; no

absolutely terminal bud is ever formed. The buds are covered by a single scale, enclosing at its

base two minute opposite buds, alternately arranged, with two small, opposite, scale-like leaves.

This first pair soon fall, and the later leaves are alternately arranged. The leaves are simple,feather-veined, and typically linear-lanceolate. Usually they are serrate, rounded at base, acute or

acuminate. The leaf petioles are short, the stipules often very conspicuous, looking like tiny

round leaves and sometimes remaining for half the summer. On some species, however, they are

small, inconspicuous, and fugacious (soon falling). In color the leaves show a great variety of

greens, ranging from yellowish to bluish.

Flowers

Willows are dioecious with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on different plants; the

catkins are produced early in the spring, often before the leaves, or as the new leaves open.

The staminate (male) flowers are without either calyx or corolla; they consist simply of stamens,

varying in number from two to ten, accompanied by a nectariferous gland and inserted on the

base of a scale which is itself borne on the rachis of a drooping raceme called a catkin, or ament.

This scale is oval and entire and very hairy. The anthers are rose colored in the bud but orange or

purple after the flower opens, they are two-celled and the cells open longitudinally. The

filaments are threadlike, usually pale yellow, and often hairy.


11/15

The pistillate (female) flowers are also without calyx or corolla; and consist of a single ovary

accompanied by a small flat nectar gland and inserted on the base of a scale which is likewise

borne on the rachis of a catkin. The ovary is one-celled, the style two-lobed, and the ovules

numerous.

Fruit

Open capsules of Salix cinerea with seeds and hairs

The fruit is a small, one-celled, two-valved, cylindrical beaked capsule containing numerous tiny

(0.1 mm) seeds. The seeds are furnished with long, silky, white hairs, which allow the fruit to be

widely dispersed by the wind.


12/15


13/15

Etymology

Native "criollo" avocados, the precursor to today's domesticated varieties

The word 'avocado' comes from the Nahuatl word ahuacatl ('testicle', a reference to the shape of

the fruit). Avocados were known by the Aztecs as 'the fertility fruit'. In some countries of South

America, such as Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay, the avocado is known by its

Quechua name, palta. In other Spanish-speaking countries, it is called aguacate, and in

Portuguese it is abacate. The fruit is sometimes called an avocado pear or alligator pear (due to

its shape and the rough green skin of some cultivars). The Nahuatl ahuacatl can be compounded

with other words, as in ahuacamolli, meaning 'avocado soup or sauce', from which the Mexican

Spanish word guacamole derives.

Also in some South American countries, the avocado is called "la manzana del invierno". This

translates to "the apple of the winter".[citation needed]

Cultivation

Persea americana, young avocado plant (seedling), complete with parted pit and roots


14/15

Worldwide avocado output in 2005

Food and agriculture

Avocado fruit (cv. 'Fuerte'); left:

whole, right: in sectionCountry Quantity

(Tm)

World

Rank

Mexico 1,040,390 1

Indonesia 263,575 2

United States

of America

214,000 3

Colombia 185,811 4

Brazil 175,000 5

Chile 163,000 6

Dominican

Republic

140,000 7

Peru 102,000 8

China 85,000 9

Ethiopia 81,500 10[9]

The tree grows to 20 m (69 ft), with alternately arranged leaves 12 centimetres (4.7 in)

25 centimetres (9.8 in) long. The flowers are inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, 5 millimetres

(0.2 in) 10 millimetres (0.4 in) wide. The pear-shaped fruit is 7 centimetres (2.8 in)

20 centimetres (7.9 in) long, weighs between 100 grams (3.5 oz) 1,000 grams (35 oz), and has

a large central seed, 5 centimetres (2.0 in) 6.4 centimetres (2.5 in) long

The subtropical species needs a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the

humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination. When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur, although the Hass cultivar can tolerate temperatures down to

1C. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep. Yield is reduced when

the irrigation water is highly saline. These soil and climate conditions are available only in a few

areas of the world, particularly in southern Spain, the Levant, South Africa, Peru, parts of central

and northern Chile, Vietnam, Indonesia, parts of southern India, Sri Lanka, Australia, New

Zealand, the Philippines, Malaysia, Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico, California,


15/15

Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Florida. Each region has different types of cultivars. Mexico,

the center of origin and diversity of this species, is the largest producer of the Hass variety, with

over 1 million tonnes produced annually.

Harvest and post-harvest

An average avocado tree produces about 1200 avocados annually. Commercial orchards produce

an average of 7 tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per

hectare. Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor

yields the next. The avocado tree does not tolerate freezing temperatures, and can be grown only

in subtropical or tropical climates.

The avocado is a climacteric fruit (the banana is another), which means that it matures on the tree

but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in

coolers at 38 to 42F (3.3 to 5.6C) until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be

mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruitis picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick Hass-variety avocados when they have

more than 23% dry matter and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked,

avocados ripen in a few days at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples

or bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Premium supermarkets sell pre-ripened

avocados treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten the ripening process.[12] In some cases,

avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial

growers who seek the greatest return for their crop; if the fruit remains unpicked for too long,

however, it falls to the ground.

Documents

Ficus or Fig Tree