Fichamento - Byram, m. Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence

8/9/2019 Fichamento - Byram, m. Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence

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SELEÇÃO – PROGRAMA DE PÓS GRADUAÇÃO EM LÍNGUA E CULTURAÁREA: LÍNGUAS, LINGUAGENS E CULTURAS CONTEMPORÂNEASLÍNHA DE PESQUISA I: AQUISIÇÃO, ENSINO E APRENDIZAGEM DE LÍNGUAS

TÓPICO 2: PERSPECTIVAS INTERCULTURAIS E CRÍTICAS PARA O ENSINO E AAPRENDIZAGEM DE LÍNGUAS

FICHAMENTO: !RAM, M" T#$%&'() $(* A++#++'() I(#-%./.-$/ C011.('%$'#C013##(%#" M./'%./.-$/ M$#-+, 4556"

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Relationships between different cultural and lingusitic groups are at the heart of diplomacy and

the need to choose appropriate ambassadors o fone group to another is as old as civilised

societies. What is new, howerver, is the condition of the world which allows and encourages all

the people in a cultural and linguistic group, not just its diplomats and Professional travellers, totake up contact with people in other groups. (p. 1

!ocial groups informally, and societies through their formal institutions, have as a first priority

their own longevity and they ensure that their members ac"uire loyalty and group identity from

an early age. #heir institutions support this through processes of socialisation, particularly in

educational institutions, but at the same time, schools and other educational insitutions are also

increasingly e$pected to prepare those entrusted to them for the inter%lingual and inter%cultural

e$periences of the contemporary world. (p. &

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#he "ualities re"uired of the sojourner are what ' shall label intercultural communicativecompetence) ('**. #he phrase deliberately maintains a link with recent traditions in foreign

language teaching, but e$pands the concepto f communicative competence) in significant ways.

(p. +

-# has a central aim of enabling learners to use that language to 'nteract with people for whom

it is their preferred and natural) mdium of e$perience, those we call native speakers), as well

as in l/ngua franca situations where it is an estranging and sometimes disturbing means of

coping with the world for all concerned.

-# is therefore concerned with communication but this has to be understood as more than the

0$change of information and sending of messages, which has dominated communicative

language teaching) in recent years. 0ven the 0$change of information is dependent uponunderstanding how what one says or writes will be perceived and interpreted in another cultural

conte$t it depends on the ability to decentre and take up the perspective of the listener or

reader. 2ut successful communication) is not judged solely in terms of the efficiency of

information 0$change. 't is focused on establishing and maintaining relationships. 'n this sense,

the efficacy of communication depends upon using language to demonstrate one)s willingness to

relate, which often involves the indirectness of politeness rather than the direct and efficient)

choice of language full of information. (p. +

Politeness is however only the visible symptom of a more comple$ phenomenon3 the

differences in beliefs, behaviours and meanings through which people 'nteract with each

other,differences which may be impompatible and contain the seed of conflict unless

relationships are maintained through politeness. (p. +%4


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-# needs to be based on 5*ommunication presented as interaction among people of comple$

cultural and social identities6 but also to go beyond linguistic realisations of politeness to take

account of the ways of living out of whichh others speak and write. 7nly then can -# claim to

prepare learners to communicate and 'nteract with foreigners who are other) and accepted as

such, rather than being reduced to people assumed to be (almost like us). (p, 4

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't follows from the view of communication and interaction presented here that it is specific

combinations of individuals with specific cultural identities which are the outcome of -#.

#here can be no generalisable syllabus, neither linguistic nor cultural. (p. 4

!imilarly the assessment of their success as learners needs to take account of specific learners)

origins as well as the languages and cultures they are learning. 't is therefore inevitable that non%

specific discussion can provide only a framework, a discussion of principles, illustrated with

specific e$amples, but no more. (p. 4

*89P#0R 1

Defining and Describing Intercultural Communicative Competence

'ntroduction

#he assessment of an individual)s ability to communicate and 'nteract across cultural

boundaries is facilitated by a detailed description of the process involved and definition of what

is e$pected of the individual. 't is an advantage to the assessor but also to both teacher and

learner. 9ll three can benefit from clarity and transparency (*ouncil of 0urope, 1::+3 ; and

agree upon the aims and purposes of the teaching, learning and assessment processes in which

they are involved. 't is important to remember, too, that their aims and purposes are determined

in part by the societal conte$ts in which they find themselves < national, international and intra%national < and by the preocupations of instructions, which reflect those of the societies in which

they function.

'n this first chapter, ' shall 2egin to describe and define 'ntercultural *ommunicative

*ompetence ('** as it relates to foreign language teaching. (p. =

C011.('%$'() A%-0++ L'().'+'% $(* C./.-$/ 0.(*$-'#+

C011.('%$'# %013##(%##he concept communicative competence) was developed in the anglophone world by 8ymes)

criti"ue of *homsky and in the germanophone literature by 8abermas. 8ymes argued that

linguists wishing to understand first language ac"uisition, need to pay attention to the way inwhich not only grammatical competence byt also the abilityy to use language appropriately is

ac"uired. 8e thus put emphasis on sociolinguistic competence and this concept was

fundamental to the development of communicative language teaching, when 8yme)s description

of first language ac"uisition and communication among native speakers was transferred into the

description of the aims and objectives of foreign language teaching and learning. ' shall argue

later that this transfer is misleading because it implicitly suggests that foreign language learners

should model themselves on first language speakers, ignoring the significance of the social

identities and cultural competence of the learner in any intercultural interaction. 'n fact, 8ymes)

argument ought to lead to a greater awareness of the relationship between linguistic and

sociocultural competence, since he described linguistic competence as just one kind of cultural

competence3 (p. >


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rom a finite e$perience of speech acts and their interdependence with sociocultural

features, (children develop a general theory of speaking appropriate in their community which

they employ, like other forms of tacit cultural knowledge (competence in conducting and

interpreting social life. (my emphasis

...

rom a communicative standpoint, judgements of appropriateness may not be assigned to

different spheres, as between the linguistic and the cultural certainly the spheres of the two will

'nteract. (8?@0!, 1:=&3 &=:, &>A

Ban 0k)s modelo f communicative ability) (1:>A3 +; comprises si$ competences), together

with autonomy and social responsibility. (p. : 8e emphasises that these are not discrete

elements, but that they are different aspects of one concept (1:>A3 +A. (p. 1C

5...6 the modelo f si$ competences is a useful starting point and can be summarises as follows3

• -inguistic competence3 the ability to produce and interpret meaningful utterances which

are formed in accordance with the rules of the language concerned and bear their

conventional meaning... that meaning which native speakers would normally attach to

an utterance when used in isolation (p. +:.• !ociolinguistic competence3 the awareness of ways in which the choice of language

forms ... is determined by such conditions as setting, relationship between

communication partners, communicative intention, etc., etc. ... sociolinguistic

competence covers the relation between linguistic signals and their conte$tual < or

situational % meaning (p. 41.

• Discourse competence3 the ability to use appropriate strategies in the construction and

interpretation of te$ts (p. 4=

• !trategic competence3 when communication is difficult we have to find ways of getting

our meaning across) oro f finding out what somebody means) these are

communication strategies, such as rephrasing, asking for clarification (p. ;;.

• !ocio%cultural competence3 every language is situated in a sociocultural conte$t and

implies the use of a particular reference frame which is partly different from that of the

foreign language learner sEcio%cultural competence presupposes a certain degree of

familiarity with that conte$t (p. +;.

• !ocial competence3 involves both the will and the skill to 'nteract with others, involving

motivation, attitude, self%confidence, empathy and the ability to handle social situations

(p. A;. (p. 1C.

't is above all in linguistic and sociolinguistic competence that the native speaker as model is

implicit in van 0k)s definition. 8e re"uires learners to speak or write in accordance with the

rules of the language concerned), without specifying the origins and nature of the rules). 8e

also re"uires utterances to bear their conventional meaning), i.e. that meaning which native

speakers would normally attach to an utterance when used in isolation). (p. 11

Framsch (1::+, and in press has argued for a "uite different view, namely that the learner has

rights to use a foreign language for their own purposes, and makes the very important point that

van 0k)s approach places power in social interaction in the hands of the native speaker. (p. 11

With respect to sociocultural competence), there is again a tendency to view the learner as an

incomplete native speaker.

#here are two kinds of reason for criticising the use of the native speaker as a model, in which

van 0k is just one of m any. #he first is pragmatic educational one which has been recognised

widely in recent years. 't is the problem of creating an impossible target and conse"uently

inevitable failure. #he re"uirement that learners have the same mastery over a language as an(educated native speaker ignores the conditions under which learners and native speakers learn


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and ac"uire a language. ' suspect it is linked to a belief that if bilinguals can speak two

languages perfectly, then so can learners of a foreign language. #his view is uninformed because

it does not take into account the literature which shows that few if any bilinguals are perfect) in

linguistic competence, even less so in sociolinguistic or sociocultural competence. (p. 11

#he second ground for criticism of the native speaker model is that, even were it possible, it

would create the wrong kind of competence. 't would imply that a learner should be

linguistically schiGophrenic, abandoning one language in order to blend into another linguistic

environment, becoming accepted as a native speaker by other native speakers. #his linguistic

schiGophrenia also suggest separation from one)s own culture and the ac"uisition of a native

sociocultural competence, and a new sociocultural identity. #he strains involved in this process,

even if it were desirable and possible, are related to the psychological stress of culture shock)

(urnham H 2ochner, 1:>A and could be permanently damaging (cf. Paulston 1::& for a

personal description of being bicultural). (p. 11%1&

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$// 9'(*+ " 8eidentifies tem dimensions of communication where the learner may meet problems. #he first

four of which are familiar to the language teacer, but are insufficient as a basis for intercultural

communication3

• Phonetics K phnemics

• @orphology

• !ynta$

• Bocabulary

• Paralanguage (e.g. tongue clicks, meaniingful use of loudness and whispering

• Finesics (e.g. communicative gestures, manners and poostures

(p. 1+

• Pro$emics (e.g. personal or intimate distances between peers, parents, ac"uaintances

• *hemical Kderma (e.g. tear%shedding, blushing

•2ody%adaptors Kadoptors (e.g. cosmetics, clothes, occupational artefacts

• 2uilt and modified environements (e.g. status objects such as homes and gardens.

(p. 14

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People become members of a group through a processo f socialisation over time, and when they

are members, they are constantly negotiating their common understanding of details, which over

time may become major changes in their beliefs, behaviours or meanings. (p. 1=

*hristensen (1::4 5...6 writes from the particular perspective of Western 0urope and its concern

with political and social integration 5...6 -# should not introduce learners to a culture), to a

particular combination of beliefs, behavious and meanings dominant in a specific society, precisely because they are dominant and represent the interests of a powerful minority. 5...6 the

aims might be e$pressed in terms of providing learners with the means of interacting with any

speaker of another language, whatever field or capital they bring to the interaction 5...6 the

"uest for culture as essence and object has to be abandoned in fovour of method, i.e. a processo

f investigation where every single social encounter potentially involves different values,

opinions and world%views). #hus learners are not limited to interaction only with those who

have 9ccess to the dominant cultural capital. 'nstead their own cultural capital, even if not

dominant in their society, is valued in any interaction, as is the cultural capital of their

interlocutors. #his is particularly important 5...6 when the language is a l/ngua franca, and

neither interlocutor is familiar with the cultural capital of the other. 5...6 with respect to -#,

therefore, he argues against representation of a society)s culture, because this inevitably means

the coice of the culture which a dominant group has managed to make the national) culture of

the society, even though it is accessible only to that group, not to the many other people in the

society (p. 1>

!pecifically, he argues against the adoption of IeertG)s (1:=;3 >: definition of a culture as an

historically transmited pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited

conceptions e$pressed in a symbolic form by means of which men communicate, perpetuate and

develop their knowledge about attitudes towards life) (see 2yram, 1:>:L3>&. 9part from the fact

that this pattern of meanings) is likely to be only that of the dominant group, this definition is

too static, not allowing for the negotiation and change which go on within social groups and

societies as a whole. (p. 1>

#he implication of this interactionist perspective is that -# should not attempt to provide

representations of other cultures, but should concentrate on e"uipping learners with the means


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of accessing and analysing any cultural practices and meanings they encounter, whatever their

status in a society. #his would be a complete reversal of recent traditions in -# where the

provisiion of information about a country has been the major and sometimes only approach to

e"uipping learners with sociocultural competence. #he information has, moreover, been mainly

about the institutions of a society and their history, complemented by an intuitive selection of

representations of everyday life). #o replace this approach with ine which focuses on processes

and methods of analysing social processes and their outcomes, is to take seriously the issues of

social power in -#, to provide learners with critical tools to develop their critical

understanding of their own and other societies. (p.1>%1:

't may however be possible and desirable to combine these two approaches (providing

information about a particular cultural group and providing critical tools to develop critical

understanding of their society and others 9nalysis of individuals) social identity defines this as

that parto f an individual)s self%concept which derives from their knowledge of their

membership of a social group (or groups together with the value and emotional significance

attached to that membership (#ajfel, 1:=>3 A+ Bivian H 2rown, 1::;. T FLT, 3-0'*#* &$ $ 1#$(+ '+ >0.(* 0 #(+.-# &$ /#$(-#+ *0

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'( #-1+ 0> *01'($( #/'# %./.-# '+ .(*#-1'(#* ' '+ (0 >0%.+ 0- 3#-&$3+ ##(3-#+#( $ $// '( %0.-+# 0> +.*=" S#%0(*, #13&$+'+ 0( 1#&0* 3-#3$-#+ /#$-(#-+ >0-#(%0.(#-+ 8'& %./.-$/ 3-$%'%#+ 8&'%& &$# (0 $($/=+'+ /#$-(#-+ %$( $/+0 = 8$=+ '( 8&'%&3$-'%./$- %./.-$/ 3-$%'%#+ $(* 3$-'%./$- )-0.3+" T $($/=+'+ %$(


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area. -anguage learners aspire to the mastery of grammar and idiom of the educated native

speaker using the standard language, and their accuracy is usually evaluated against that norm.

insofar as a minority of learners can attain the norm with respect to the grammar and linguistic

competence, this approach seems acceptable. 0ven though it condemns the majority of learners

to failure), it can be argued that convergence to the norm is needed to ensure efficient

communication among foreign speakers of a language, just as a standard language is re"uiered

for native speakers. #here is no doubt, however, that in both cases those who mMster the norm $( FLT$33-0$%& #13&$+'+'() $($/=+'+ 0> '(#-$%'0( '+ &$ ' $//08+ /#$-(#-+ 0 +## '- -0/#(0 $+ '1'$0-#+ 0> ($'# +3#$9#-+ >#-#( >-01 &$ '- 08(, '+ '( $ 30+''0( 0> 308#- $ /#$+ #.$/ 0 &$ 0> ($'# +3#$9#-" (p. &1

#he advantages of representing a national culture and cultural identity < the need to prepare

leanrers for inter%national interactions < can therefore be combined with the advantages of a

focus on critical and comparative method. #he national culture will be seen as only one of the

sets of cultural practices and beliefs to which an interlocutor subscribes < or is at least aware of

as a framework for their actions and identity < and yet it provides learners with a basis for

interaction. #he learner has also ac"uired methods for transfer to other situations and the means

of coping with new cultural practices and identities. (p. &1%&&

5...6 -# has a particular contribution to make the preparation of learners for encounter with

otherness, a contribution which complements that of other subject areas in the general educationcurriculum, notably human geography (@cPartland et al. 1::A. -# is centrally concerned with

communication in a foreign language. #he significance of this is not only the practical "uestion

of linguistic competence for communication, central though that is, but also the relationship

between the language and cultural practices and beliefs of a group. !ince language is a prime

means of embodying the comple$ity of those practices and beliefs, through both reference and

connotations (2yram, in press a, and the interplay of language and identity (-e Page H

#abouret%Feller,1:>;, the ac"uisition of a foreign language is the ac"uisition of the cultural

practices and beliefs it embodies for particular social groups, even though the learner may put it

to other uses too. 't is also the ralativisation of what seems to the learner to be the natural

language of their own identities, and the realisation that these are cultural, and socially

constructed. T#$%&'() >0- /'().'+'% %013##(%# %$((0 -01 #$%&'() >0-

'(#-%./.-$/ %013##(%#" (p. &1

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'n discussing whether there should be content) as well as method) in the cultural dimension of

-#, ' gave three simple e$amples of intercultural communication3

• 2etween people of different languages and countries where one is a native speaker of

the language used

• 2etween people of different languages and countries where the language used is a

l/ngua franca

• 9nd between people of the same country but different languages, one of whom is a

native speaker of the language used.


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#his is a reminder that -# always takes place in a particular conte$t and that ($.-# 0> I(#-%./.-$/ %011.('%$'# C013##(%# -#.'-#* '+ 3$-/= *#3#(*#( 0( %0(#?.

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Fichamento - Byram, m. Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence