FERTILIZER FERTILIZER MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

FertilizerFertilizer

These are the inorganic sources of These are the inorganic sources of nutrients, which supply one or more nutrients, which supply one or more nutrients nutrients

Why fertilizer is needed?Why fertilizer is needed?

Need at vegetative phase of cropNeed at vegetative phase of crop Need at reproductive phase of cropNeed at reproductive phase of crop Percent increase in yieldPercent increase in yield

Fertility status of soils in Fertility status of soils in PakistanPakistan

Most of the soils in Pakistan have poor Most of the soils in Pakistan have poor status of available plant nutrition and status of available plant nutrition and cannot support optimum level of crop cannot support optimum level of crop

productivity. Generally productivity. Generally NN is deficient in all is deficient in all soils. In case of soils. In case of PP, more than 90% is , more than 90% is

inadequate available soil phosphorus so inadequate available soil phosphorus so PP is also deficient, but in case of is also deficient, but in case of KK picture is picture is

not clearnot clear

Reasons of low fertilityReasons of low fertility

High temperature and arid climate, High temperature and arid climate, accelerate decomposingaccelerate decomposing

Nutrient loss trough soil erosionNutrient loss trough soil erosion Traditional framing and cropping Traditional framing and cropping

systemsystem Low nutrient use efficiencyLow nutrient use efficiency

During the year 2005-06During the year 2005-06

The local production of NPK was The local production of NPK was 2132 tones2132 tones

The imported supply of fertilizer was The imported supply of fertilizer was 1002 tones1002 tones

The off take of fertilizer was 2982 The off take of fertilizer was 2982 tonestones

Fertilizer use in different Fertilizer use in different provincesprovinces

In Sindh it was 200 Kg/haIn Sindh it was 200 Kg/ha In Punjab about 125 Kg/haIn Punjab about 125 Kg/ha In NWFP the consumption was 90 In NWFP the consumption was 90

Kg/haKg/ha In Balochistan 80 Kg/haIn Balochistan 80 Kg/ha

How to increase fertilizer How to increase fertilizer use efficiency?use efficiency?

By following tactics fertilizer use efficiency By following tactics fertilizer use efficiency can be increasedcan be increased

1-Type of fertilizer1-Type of fertilizer

It depends onIt depends on

i)i) Soil fertility levelSoil fertility level

ii)ii) Type of crop to be sownType of crop to be sown

Nitrogenous FertilizersNitrogenous Fertilizers

  

Phosphatic FertilizersPhosphatic Fertilizers

Compound FertilizersCompound Fertilizers

2) Rate of fertilizer2) Rate of fertilizer

It depends onIt depends oni)i) Type of soilType of soilii)ii) Soil fertility levelSoil fertility level

Lighter soils has less Lighter soils has less ability to capture nutrientsability to capture nutrients

Medium loam soil is Medium loam soil is considered to be the best soilsconsidered to be the best soils

On heavy soils fixation of On heavy soils fixation of nutrients occurs, so current crop cannot nutrients occurs, so current crop cannot make use of full nutrients appliedmake use of full nutrients applied

3) Time of application3) Time of application

It depends onIt depends on

i)i) Type and stage of crop growthType and stage of crop growth

ii)ii) Type of soilType of soil

iii)iii) Moisture availabilityMoisture availability

4) Method of application4) Method of application

i)i) Broad cast methodBroad cast method

ii)ii) Band applicationBand application

iii)iii) DrillingDrilling

iv)iv) Foliar applicationFoliar application

DrillingDrilling

Foliar applicationFoliar application

Foliar application of Foliar application of fertilizersfertilizers

MicronutrientsMicronutrients : Zinc : Zinc

MicronutrientsMicronutrients : Boron : Boron

Fertilizer management in Fertilizer management in different areasdifferent areas

1- Management under dry land1- Management under dry land

It mainly depends onIt mainly depends on

Soil managementSoil management

&&

Moisture availabilityMoisture availability

2- Management under multiple 2- Management under multiple croppingcropping

In wheat-rice systemIn wheat-rice system In wheat-cotton systemIn wheat-cotton system In inter croppingIn inter cropping

3-Management in salt affected 3-Management in salt affected soilsoil

Nitrogen (N)Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P)Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K)Potassium (K)

IntroductionIntroductionThe production of livestock and poultry animals, also known as animal The production of livestock and poultry animals, also known as animal

agriculture agriculture

Animal waste includesAnimal waste includes livestocklivestock

poultry manurepoultry manure

bedding and litterbedding and litter

dairy waste waterdairy waste water

feedlot runofffeedlot runoff

wasted feedwasted feed

Uses of Animal WasteUses of Animal Waste

Animal waste properly helpsAnimal waste properly helps

recover nutrients recover nutrients

reduces the possibility of contaminating water & environmentreduces the possibility of contaminating water & environment

as fertilizer.as fertilizer.

improve soil qualityimprove soil quality

air quality and healthair quality and health

Nutrient Cycle

Environmentally Sound Animal Waste Environmentally Sound Animal Waste Management Management

Recovering and using nutrients in solid and liquid wasteRecovering and using nutrients in solid and liquid waste

Properly maintaining waste storage facilities and applying Properly maintaining waste storage facilities and applying waste to land at recommended rateswaste to land at recommended rates

Controlling odors Controlling odors

Animal healthAnimal health

Management PracticesManagement Practices

limit waste runofflimit waste runoff collect and store wastecollect and store waste treat wastetreat waste use waste, such as anuse waste, such as an organic fertilizer organic fertilizer

Effective Waste Management SystemEffective Waste Management System

collectioncollection

transportationtransportation

storagestorage

treatment and utilizationtreatment and utilization

Nutrient content of manure

Type of ManureType of Manure Total NTotal N Total PTotal P22OO55 Total KTotal K

22OO

NitrogenNitrogen PhosphorusPhosphorus PotassiumPotassium

LiquidLiquid lb/1,000 gallonslb/1,000 gallons

SwineSwine 4949 3535 2525

DairyDairy W/out parlor wasteW/out parlor waste 4545 2121 3131

W/parlor wasteW/parlor waste 2323 1111 2323

BeefBeef 4545 2121 3131

Poultry PitPoultry Pit 8080 3636 9696

SolidSolid lb/tonlb/ton

Dairy FeedlotDairy Feedlot SummerSummer 1717 99 1616

WinterWinter 1212 77 77

Dairy Bedded PackDairy Bedded Pack 1515 66 2121

PoultryPoultry

W/out litterW/out litter 3333 4848 3434

W/litterW/litter 5656 4545 3434

.

Percent of total N available

Type of manureType of manureYear of applicationYear of application**

11 33 55

Swine or beef, liquidSwine or beef, liquid

IncorporatedIncorporated 75%75% 85%85% 95%95%

Not incorporatedNot incorporated 5050 6565 7575

Swine or beef, feedlotSwine or beef, feedlotStockpiled, Stockpiled,

incorporatedincorporated3535 5050 5555

Dairy, freshDairy, fresh IncorporatedIncorporated 5050 7070 7878

Dairy, liquidDairy, liquid IncorporatedIncorporated 4040 6060 6868

Dairy, fresh or liquidDairy, fresh or liquid Not incorporatedNot incorporated 2525 3535 4545

PoultryPoultry Broiler litterBroiler litter 5050 6565 7575

Animal Waste Management OptionsAnimal Waste Management Options

Solid manure handling Solid manure handling

Slurry manure handling Slurry manure handling

Dry stack storage Dry stack storage

Liquid manure handling Liquid manure handling

Waste Management PlanWaste Management Plan

Components of a Waste Management Components of a Waste Management PlanPlan

Odor ControlOdor Control

Insect ControlInsect Control

Animal Mortality ManagementAnimal Mortality Management

Waste and Soil TestingWaste and Soil Testing

Record KeepingRecord Keeping

Waste Application Rates Waste Application Rates

A Waste Management PlanA Waste Management Plan

Use of Lagoon to Manage WasteUse of Lagoon to Manage Waste

A lagoon is a type of earth storage where bacteria break down animal A lagoon is a type of earth storage where bacteria break down animal waste into less harmful componentswaste into less harmful components

Designing a lagoon or storage pondDesigning a lagoon or storage pond

Managing a lagoon or storage pondManaging a lagoon or storage pond

Pumping a lagoon or storage pondPumping a lagoon or storage pond

Anaerobic Lagoon Operating Anaerobic Lagoon Operating LevelsLevels

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS,ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS, NITRATE, HEAVY NITRATE, HEAVY METALS AND PATHOGENSMETALS AND PATHOGENS

NITRATE:NITRATE:

IntroductionIntroduction

Nitrate a source of NNitrate a source of N and used as fertilizer and used as fertilizer

ImmobilizationImmobilization Denitrification Denitrification

Sources of NitrateSources of Nitrate

ManuresManures

SludgeSludge

fertilizersfertilizers

Sewage water Sewage water

Effect of NitrateEffect of Nitrate

Eutrophication.Eutrophication.

Digestive Tract Cancer Digestive Tract Cancer

Blue Baby SyndromeBlue Baby Syndrome

Factors Affecting Nitrate Factors Affecting Nitrate Contamination Contamination

CLIMATECLIMATE

FERTILIZERFERTILIZER

Fertilizer applicationFertilizer application

SOILSOIL

Soil TypeSoil Type

Soil thicknessSoil thickness

CROPSCROPS

FARMING SYSTEMFARMING SYSTEM

HEAVY METALSHEAVY METALS

Heavy metal refers to any metallic Heavy metal refers to any metallic element that has relatively high density element that has relatively high density and is toxic or poisonous at low and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. e.g. lead(Pb), concentrations. e.g. lead(Pb), chromium(Cr).chromium(Cr).

Heavy metals tend to Heavy metals tend to BioaccumulateBioaccumulate Heavy metals act as poisons.Heavy metals act as poisons.

Heavy metals in the soils are taken up Heavy metals in the soils are taken up by crops.by crops.

These heavy metals enter the food These heavy metals enter the food chain when animals eat these plants.chain when animals eat these plants.

These heavy metals enter in the body of These heavy metals enter in the body of animals and cause serious health animals and cause serious health problems.problems.

Sources of Heavy MetalsSources of Heavy Metalsin waterin water

Industrial waste.Industrial waste. Consumer waste. Consumer waste. Automobile exhaust.Automobile exhaust. Natural soils.Natural soils. Acid Rain breaking soils and Acid Rain breaking soils and

releasing heavy metals into streams, releasing heavy metals into streams, lakes , rivers and groundwater.lakes , rivers and groundwater.

Sources of Heavy MetalsSources of Heavy Metalsin soilin soil

Parent Material.Parent Material.

Contaminated irrigation water.Contaminated irrigation water.

Atmospheric fallout especially Atmospheric fallout especially around large cities car fumes are around large cities car fumes are sources of heavy metals e.g. lead. sources of heavy metals e.g. lead.

ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS OF ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS OF SOME IMPORTANT HEAVY MET SOME IMPORTANT HEAVY MET

ALSALS ANTIMONYANTIMONY A metal used in batteries, pigments, A metal used in batteries, pigments,

ceramics and glass. ceramics and glass. Exposure to high levels of antimony Exposure to high levels of antimony

for short periods of time causes for short periods of time causes Nausea, Vomiting, and Diarrhea. Nausea, Vomiting, and Diarrhea.

However long term exposure may However long term exposure may prove Carcinogenic prove Carcinogenic

CADMIUMCADMIUM

Used in nickel/cadmium batteriesUsed in nickel/cadmium batteries pigments and coatings of marine pigments and coatings of marine

applications. applications. It is also present as an impurity in It is also present as an impurity in

the phosphate fertilizers, detergents the phosphate fertilizers, detergents and refined petroleum products.and refined petroleum products.

Cadmium is a mobile element in soilCadmium is a mobile element in soil It is taken up by plants primarily through It is taken up by plants primarily through

roots.roots. Its Transfer to plants depends upon Its Transfer to plants depends upon

A.A. Its levels in the soil, Its levels in the soil, B.B. ph value of soil ph value of soilCC humus levels. humus levels. There is an increased risk of accumulation There is an increased risk of accumulation even at low soil levels of <1 mg/kg, with ph even at low soil levels of <1 mg/kg, with ph values under 6.5values under 6.5

Cadmium accumulates at different rates Cadmium accumulates at different rates in a single plant in its different partsin a single plant in its different parts

roots>leaves>sprouts>fruits>seeds.roots>leaves>sprouts>fruits>seeds.

Cadmium uptake in crops can be reduced by:Cadmium uptake in crops can be reduced by: raising soil ph by liming, as cadmium is more raising soil ph by liming, as cadmium is more available to plants in acid soils, selecting available to plants in acid soils, selecting cultivars, which take up less cadmium.cultivars, which take up less cadmium.

In humans long term exposure is associated In humans long term exposure is associated with renal disfunction. with renal disfunction.

High exposure of lead causes lung diseases . High exposure of lead causes lung diseases . It may also produce bone defects (osteomalacia It may also produce bone defects (osteomalacia

and osteoporosis) in humans .and osteoporosis) in humans . A large proportion of cadmium, which is A large proportion of cadmium, which is

ingested by animals, is excreted but a small ingested by animals, is excreted but a small amount is retained, mostly in liver and kidneys amount is retained, mostly in liver and kidneys

COPPERCOPPER

Copper is an essential substance to human Copper is an essential substance to human lifelife

In high doses it can cause anemia, liver In high doses it can cause anemia, liver and kidney damage, and stomach and and kidney damage, and stomach and intestinal irritation.intestinal irritation.

Copper normally occurs in drinking water Copper normally occurs in drinking water from copper pipes, from copper pipes,

From additives designed to control algal From additives designed to control algal growth.growth.

LEADLEAD Lead is used in leaded gasoline(tetra ethyl Lead is used in leaded gasoline(tetra ethyl

lead),batteries, hair dyes, and leaded lead),batteries, hair dyes, and leaded paints, pipes, fittings of household paints, pipes, fittings of household plumbing systems which contaminate the plumbing systems which contaminate the drinking water drinking water

Lead is harmful in very small amounts Lead is harmful in very small amounts once absorbed into our body it combines once absorbed into our body it combines with and inhibits the functioning of certain with and inhibits the functioning of certain enzymes-often with severe physiological or enzymes-often with severe physiological or neurological consequences. neurological consequences.

Lead is a potent poison. Short-tem Lead is a potent poison. Short-tem exposure to high doses of lead can make exposure to high doses of lead can make you seriously ill. you seriously ill.

Long-term overexposure can cause Long-term overexposure can cause numerous health problems, including: numerous health problems, including: anemia, damage to nervous system and anemia, damage to nervous system and brain, kidney diseases, birth defects, brain, kidney diseases, birth defects, mental retardation mental retardation

Today no level of lead is considered to Today no level of lead is considered to be actually safe.be actually safe.

Long-term overexposure can cause Long-term overexposure can cause numerous health problems, numerous health problems, including: anemia, damage to including: anemia, damage to nervous system and brain, kidney nervous system and brain, kidney diseases, birth defects, mental diseases, birth defects, mental retardation retardation

Today no level of lead is Today no level of lead is considered to be actually safe.considered to be actually safe.

MercuryMercury It is a global pollutant. The common areas where it It is a global pollutant. The common areas where it

is found are: Auto exhaust, pesticides, fertilizers, is found are: Auto exhaust, pesticides, fertilizers, drinking water(tap and well), tanning leather, paint drinking water(tap and well), tanning leather, paint pigments and solvents, cosmetics, batteries, air pigments and solvents, cosmetics, batteries, air conditioner filters.conditioner filters.

Most of the mercury in the water, soil, sediments, Most of the mercury in the water, soil, sediments, or plants and animals is in the form of inorganic or plants and animals is in the form of inorganic mercury salts and organic forms of mercury(methyl mercury salts and organic forms of mercury(methyl mercury). mercury).

Piscivorous (fish eating) birds and mammals are Piscivorous (fish eating) birds and mammals are more exposed to mercury. more exposed to mercury.

Adverse effects of mercury on fish, birds and Adverse effects of mercury on fish, birds and mammals include reduced reproductive success, mammals include reduced reproductive success, impaired growth and development, and even death.impaired growth and development, and even death.

FLUORIDEFLUORIDE

Fluoride in the water is essential for Fluoride in the water is essential for protection against weakening of protection against weakening of bones and teeth.bones and teeth.

Its excess quantity causes the Its excess quantity causes the yellowing of teeth and damage to yellowing of teeth and damage to spinal cord. spinal cord.

Main source is the industrial affluent.Main source is the industrial affluent.

ARSENICARSENIC

It‘s source is the phosphate fertilizer.It‘s source is the phosphate fertilizer. Its high concentrations in water are Its high concentrations in water are

harmful and cause the liver damage harmful and cause the liver damage Nervous system damage and skin Nervous system damage and skin

cancer.cancer.

CHROMIUMCHROMIUM

It is used in metal alloys and pigments for It is used in metal alloys and pigments for paints, cement, paper and rubber. paints, cement, paper and rubber.

Its low level exposure can irritate skin and Its low level exposure can irritate skin and cause ulceration. cause ulceration.

Long term exposure can cause kidney and Long term exposure can cause kidney and liver damage, and damage to circulatory liver damage, and damage to circulatory and nerve tissues as well. and nerve tissues as well.

chromium often accumulates in aquatic chromium often accumulates in aquatic life, adding to the danger of eating fish.life, adding to the danger of eating fish.

STRATIGIES FOR SOIL & WATERSTRATIGIES FOR SOIL & WATER

CONSERVATION WITH RELATION CONSERVATION WITH RELATION TOTO

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNSENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION

The act of preserving from The act of preserving from decay,loss or decay,loss or

injury is called conservation.injury is called conservation.

Soil ConservationSoil Conservation

1.Conservatin tillage1.Conservatin tillage

2.Contour ploughing2.Contour ploughing

3.Strip planting3.Strip planting

4.Stubble planting4.Stubble planting

5.Terraces5.Terraces

6.Strip Disking6.Strip Disking

7.Strip Mowing7.Strip Mowing

8.Animal Wastes application8.Animal Wastes application

9.Composting9.Composting

10.Wind Breaks 10.Wind Breaks

11.Contour Buffer Strips11.Contour Buffer Strips

12.Riparian Forests12.Riparian Forests

13.Zero Tillage13.Zero Tillage

14.Tree Planting14.Tree Planting

15.Crop Factors15.Crop Factors

CONSERVATION TILLAGECONSERVATION TILLAGE

In conservation tillage, crops are grown In conservation tillage, crops are grown with minimal cultivation of the soil. When with minimal cultivation of the soil. When the amount of tillage is reduced, the the amount of tillage is reduced, the stubble or plant residues are not stubble or plant residues are not completely incorporated, and most or all completely incorporated, and most or all remain on top of the soil rather than being remain on top of the soil rather than being plowed or disk ed into the soil. The new plowed or disk ed into the soil. The new crop is planted into this stubble or small crop is planted into this stubble or small strips of tilled soil. strips of tilled soil.

CONTOUR PLOUGHINGCONTOUR PLOUGHING

   One of the first procedures that resulted from the dust bowl was the technique of contour plowing. With contour plowing the tractor operator will follow the contours of the hillside, in effect going around the sides of the hills following the contours of the hillsides

    

POTATO GROWN ON CONTOUR

STRIP PLANTINGSTRIP PLANTING

In the dreams of the efficiency experts the In the dreams of the efficiency experts the ideal farm would be flat and contain fields ideal farm would be flat and contain fields with lengths of many miles. These large fields with lengths of many miles. These large fields are indeed very efficient because they are indeed very efficient because they reduce the 'turn around' time of tractors at reduce the 'turn around' time of tractors at the end of each field. they also reduce the the end of each field. they also reduce the amount of non-planted space at the edges of amount of non-planted space at the edges of fields that give the tractors the room they fields that give the tractors the room they need to swing the long pieces of equipment need to swing the long pieces of equipment around as a proportion of total field sparound as a proportion of total field sp

STUBBLE PLANTINGSTUBBLE PLANTING

    This is a fairly new development that is well This is a fairly new development that is well suited to many of the grain and cereal suited to many of the grain and cereal crops. In this method the old stubble of the crops. In this method the old stubble of the years harvested crop is not plowed in as years harvested crop is not plowed in as was the practice for centuries. Instead the was the practice for centuries. Instead the inches high stubble is left in place, any inches high stubble is left in place, any fertilizers and new seed planted afterwards fertilizers and new seed planted afterwards is inserted into the soil through small slits is inserted into the soil through small slits cut into the soil by a razor type device cut into the soil by a razor type device attached to the tractor, in other words the attached to the tractor, in other words the soil is left virtually undisturbedsoil is left virtually undisturbed

COVER CROPSCOVER CROPS

Cover crops will in some rare instances act Cover crops will in some rare instances act as a 'nurse crop' planted along with a as a 'nurse crop' planted along with a cash crop, the cover crop will generally cash crop, the cover crop will generally germinate first, then it will shade the germinate first, then it will shade the tender cash crop as it grows. This is a tender cash crop as it grows. This is a highly specialized operation, and much highly specialized operation, and much research needs to be done in this research needs to be done in this technique before it can be technique before it can be recommended for a particular crop. recommended for a particular crop.

STRIP DISKINGSTRIP DISKING

Various crops according to nature Various crops according to nature are grown are grown

in form of strips in form of circular in form of strips in form of circular patternpattern

conserving soil constituentsconserving soil constituents

Zero TillageZero Tillage

Appraisal of crops with no tillage and Appraisal of crops with no tillage and whenwhen

they have good stand then givethey have good stand then give

secondary tillagesecondary tillage

STRIP MowingSTRIP Mowing

The pattern of grass cutting or The pattern of grass cutting or harvesting of harvesting of

crops should be such one field should crops should be such one field should be be

harvested at one time.harvested at one time.

WATER CONSERVATIONWATER CONSERVATION

1.choice of 1.choice of vegetativevegetative cover cover

2.2.erosionerosion prevention prevention

3.3.salinitysalinity management management

4.acidity control 4.acidity control

5.encouraging health of beneficial soil 5.encouraging health of beneficial soil organisms organisms

6.prevention and 6.prevention and remediationremediation of of soil contaminationsoil contamination

7.no till farming 7.no till farming

8.contour ploughing 8.contour ploughing

9.wind rows 9.wind rows

10.crop rotation 10.crop rotation

Rainwater harvestingRainwater harvesting

1.Domestic Use 1.Domestic Use

2.Agricultural Use (Irrigation and Animal 2.Agricultural Use (Irrigation and Animal Drinking Troughs) Drinking Troughs)

It uses local construction materials and labor. It uses local construction materials and labor.

Sources of energy are not needed to operateSources of energy are not needed to operate

the systems. The owner/user can easily the systems. The owner/user can easily maintain the systems. maintain the systems.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Fog HarvestingFog Harvesting

To capture the water from fog, rectangular To capture the water from fog, rectangular obstacles constructed of polypropylene mesh obstacles constructed of polypropylene mesh are employed. These are usually placed are employed. These are usually placed perpendicular to the prevailing flow of the perpendicular to the prevailing flow of the clouds. The "fog harvesters" are positioned 1.5 clouds. The "fog harvesters" are positioned 1.5 m above the ground, and are supported on m above the ground, and are supported on vertical posts. The size of the harvesters vertical posts. The size of the harvesters depends on the topographical conditions and the depends on the topographical conditions and the purpose for which the water is to be used. purpose for which the water is to be used.

Seawater/brackish water Seawater/brackish water desalinationdesalination

. . Water is pumped by submersible pumps to the Water is pumped by submersible pumps to the intake of the plant. The two other plants, intake of the plant. The two other plants, operated by Aqua Design (BVI) Ltd., obtain their operated by Aqua Design (BVI) Ltd., obtain their feed water from either shallow wells dug in the feed water from either shallow wells dug in the alluvial deposits of the nearby valleys or wells alluvial deposits of the nearby valleys or wells drilled at the shoreline (in the case of the drilled at the shoreline (in the case of the westernmost plant). The two plants operated by westernmost plant). The two plants operated by Aqua Design (BVI) Ltd. on Virgin Gouda obtain Aqua Design (BVI) Ltd. on Virgin Gouda obtain their feed water from an open-sea intake their feed water from an open-sea intake system. system.

DESALINATION ON SHORES

Recycling of industrial Recycling of industrial effluenteffluent

Recycling of industrial effluent is now being Recycling of industrial effluent is now being practiced by several industries to reduce the practiced by several industries to reduce the demands on freshwater resources and to demands on freshwater resources and to reduce pollution of the environment. The reduce pollution of the environment. The recycling of industrial effluent was recycling of industrial effluent was spearheaded by the bauxite/aluminum spearheaded by the bauxite/aluminum companies operating in Jamaica, and they companies operating in Jamaica, and they are the largest recyclers at the present time. are the largest recyclers at the present time. The bauxite/aluminum industry produces a The bauxite/aluminum industry produces a waste product known locally as "red mud," waste product known locally as "red mud," which consists of over 70% water, enriched which consists of over 70% water, enriched with caustic soda and organics. with caustic soda and organics.

Raised beds cultivationRaised beds cultivation

This technology is based on modification of the soil surface to This technology is based on modification of the soil surface to facilitate water movement and storage, and to increase the organic facilitate water movement and storage, and to increase the organic content of the soil to increase its suitability for cultivation. This content of the soil to increase its suitability for cultivation. This system of soil management for irrigation purposes was first system of soil management for irrigation purposes was first developed in the year 300 B.C., before the rise of the Inca Empire. It developed in the year 300 B.C., before the rise of the Inca Empire. It was later abandoned as more technically advanced irrigation was later abandoned as more technically advanced irrigation technologies were discovered. Nevertheless, in 1984, in Tiawanaco, technologies were discovered. Nevertheless, in 1984, in Tiawanaco, Bolivia, and Puno, Peru, the system was re-established. It is known Bolivia, and Puno, Peru, the system was re-established. It is known in the region as in the region as Waru Warn,Waru Warn, which is the traditional Indian which is the traditional Indian (Quechua) name for this technique(Quechua) name for this technique

WARU WARU CULTIVATION