FEM 4101 MOTIVATION AND HUMAN ACHIEVEMENT FEM 4101 PJJ -Dr. Zarinah Arshat1

FEM 4101MOTIVATION AND HUMAN

ACHIEVEMENT

FEM 4101 PJJ -Dr. Zarinah Arshat

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ZARINAH ARSHAT

ROOM : A104, Department of Human Development and Family

StudiesEMAIL : [email protected]

/[email protected] PHONE : 03-89467139


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mailto:[email protected]

mailto:/[email protected]

INTRODUCTION TO FEM 4101

• COURSE OBJECTIVES• ASSESSMENT

• COURSE CONTENT• REFERENCES


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• Course objective 1–Explaining the relationships between

emotions, motivation, behavior and human achievement

• Course objective 2–Comparing various of theories related to

motivation and human achievement



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• Course objective 3–Designing motivation programs to

increase human potential of group• Synopsis

–Please refer to your h/out



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Course Contents

• Motivation concept and principle• Component of motivation• Themes of contemporary motivation

theories• Theories on learning, motivation and

human achievement



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Course Contents

• Psychological theories, motivation and human achievement

• Cognitive theories, motivation and human achievement

• Theories on life-goal, motivation and human achievement



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Course Contents

• Emotion, motivation and behavior• Development of motivation and self-

control• Formation of motivation programs

and human achievement



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• Assessment– Test 1 30% – Assignment 30%– Final 40%



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MOTIVATION

• The difference or gap between what needs to be done and what is not being done can be closed using motivation.


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• Motivation is the characteristic that helps you achieve your goal.

• Psychologists define motivation as an internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time.

MOTIVATION


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• Motivation originates from a variety of sources (need, cognition, and emotions)

• Internal processes energize and direct behavior in multiple way (starting, sustaining, intensifying, focusing, and stopping the particular behavior)

• Motivation can vary in both intensity and direction.

MOTIVATION


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WHAT IS ACHIEVEMENT?

• ...according to Murray's list of basic human need "achievement is described as to overcome obstacle, and attain a high standard or to rival and surpass others or to strive and to master"

• ...is the driving force to do well relative to a standard of excellence (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953)


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• Examples of self-related standard of excellence: – Performing batter then done previously, as in

exceeding last semester's GPA• Examples of other-related standard of

excellence- Performing better than other person or a

group of other, as in making higher grades then your other coursemate/ roomate/housemate



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• However, note that “standards of excellence are double-edged swords”• The tendency to APPROCH a standard of excellence OR to overcome the Tendency to AVOID it• Anticipating anxiety, fear, defensiveness may lead to avoid or withdraw from standards of excellence• Anticipating pride and gratification may lead to approach standard of excellence



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RESEARCH ON MOTIVATION

• There are two distinct approaches to the study of motivation. – First is a product of academic, experimental

procedures, – Second is an outgrowth of clinical, non-

experimental methods.


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• All investigators in this field are guided by a single basic question, namely, Why do organisms think and behave as they do?

• Quantitative and qualitative measurement of human achievement, for eg.– Hermans (1970) Prestatic Motivation Test

(PMT)– Jackson (1974) Personal Research Form

(PRF)

RESEARCH ON MOTIVATION


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What does the research onmotivation tell us?

• The research on motivation defines motivation as an orientation toward a goal. (This orientation may be positive, negative, or ambivalent.)

• Motivation provides a source of energy that is responsible for why learners decide to make an effort, how long they are willing to sustain an activity, how hard they are going to pursue it, and how connected they feel to the activity.


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• Much of the research on motivation has confirmed the fundamental principle of causality: motivation affects effort, effort affects results, positive results lead to an increase in ability.

What does the research onmotivation tell us?


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TOPIC 2 COMPONENTS OF

MOTIVATION

Human Motivation


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Components of Motivation

• Biological component• Learned component• Cognitive component

– Behavior is caused by an interaction of biological, learned, and cognitive processes: brain circuits are activated, learned responses are triggered, and control is taken by making plans.


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The Biological Component

• Main focus on the structure/design of the brain


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Evolutionary theory• Assumes our brain today is a result of

years of experiences and learning.• Brain is made up of number of systems

that work together with the body to produce our actions.

• Humans have two central complementary drives (minds): self-preservation and the preservation of the species.



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Temperament• Refers to how we react to the world (reactivity)

and how we self-regulate ourselves (self-control) in the face of certain environmental demands. (Our predisposition to act one way or another.)– High activity (preference for intense stimulation and like

of risk-taking)– Negativity (fearful/sad and angry when frustrated)– Regulation of attention/behavior (effortful control)


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• The Big Five: Personality Factors- –extraversion, –neuroticism, –agreeableness, –conscientiousness, –openness to experience.



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• Scientists use monozygotic/dizygotic twin studies to determine whether behavior is caused by genes.

• The brain triggers emotions/feelings > motivates us to act.

• Brain circuits: structures work together with one another with connecting pathways that are aroused simultaneously. Each emotion has a distinct brain circuit.


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Approach/Avoidant Motivation Brain Circuits• Behavioral Activation System (BAS)

– Activated by conditioned signals or rewards and nonpunishment, arousal is enhanced to promote increased approach behavior.

• Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)– Activated by conditioned signals of punishment

and nonreward, as well as novel stimuli, arousal is enhanced to inhibit ongoing behavior.


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Pleasure/Punishment Motivation Brain Circuits

• The Reward Pathway– Reward centers are stimulated when positive

responses occur. – Humans are motivated to perform actions that

produce positive feelings.– Done through combination of dopaminergic

pathways and limbic system.



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Limbic system: set of interconnected structures deep within the brain that regulates emotions such as fear, love, and anger. Helps in adaptation of environmental demands.

Plasticity: whether the basic structure of the brain can be altered as the result of certain experiences or thought processes.


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Synapses: gaps that separate short lengths of nerve fibers in which neurotransmitters are released and carry information.



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Neurotransmitters: chemicals that carry information across the synapse.–Norepinephrine/serotonin/dopamine:

high levels = euphoria, low levels = depression



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The Learned Component

What we learn is governed by a large degree by attention.

• Attention: focus sensory receptors on source of information and analyze (attending); focus on given source and selectively process (selective attention); and organize the information.– Attention is governed partly by motivational processes.

• Associative learning: (S-R learning) the connection or association of stimuli and responses.– Depends on receptor orientation and selective

attention.– Deliberate (intentional) or incidental (passive) learning.


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Classical Conditioning:• In this type of learning, the CS

(conditioned stimulus) becomes a signal that the UCS (unconditioned stimulus) is about to be presented. The UCR (unconditioned response) is automatically elicited by the UCS (unconditioned stimulus). The CR (conditioned response) is typically weaker, but is the same response.

• Crucial for adaptive behavior.• Associations are formed not only

between the US/CS, but also between the events and the situations in which the conditioning takes place.

Instrumental Learning:• In this type of learning, the S

(stimulus) becomes the signal to perform a R (response). Getting the R to occur may require shaping.

• Organisms learn that certain environmental events, such as receiving rewards/punishments, depend on their own behavior.

• A nonrewarded response will eventually diminish in rate or strength (extinction).


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Pavlov’s Experiment


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Analysis of Pavlov’s Study


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Social incentive theory: positive (rewarding) experiences often occur when we do what others want us to do.– Seeking approval and avoiding disapproval are

assumed to be central motivators for people.– Learned component of motivation has its roots

in this theory.– Children learn a great deal through imitation

and observation.– We are intrinsically motivated to learn about our

environment.FEM 4101 PJJ -Dr. Zarinah

Arshat38

The Cognitive Component

Cognition involves thinking, perceiving, abstracting, synthesizing, organizing, or otherwise conceptualizing the nature of the external world and the self.

Cognitive theories are framed in terms of having or developing cognitive structures that allow us to make sense of the complexity of the world.


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Cognitive processes help us summarize and reduce the amount of information we encounter by finding higher-order relationships, structures, principles, and rules.Cognitions are based on past learning (beliefs and attitudes are developed by imitating/modeling parents) or from cognitive processes (active construction).



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Many beliefs, attitudes, and values are based on our own experiences and desires.



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Assimilation: children will process information by whatever structures they have.

Disequilibrium: experienced confusion or incomprehension about the world that motivates a child to develop new cognitive structures to make sense of the complexity (accommodation).


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Categories: allow us to summarize complex information into more generic forms, freeing us from having to keep track of endless pieces of specific information.

Generalization: tendency to simplify a response learned in one situation to other situations. (Example: stereotypes)



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Habits: result from a repetition of some response or sequences of responses.

Automatic behavior: repeating behavior over and over until one not longer needs to think about intentions. (Example: driving car)



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Cognitive dissonance theory – humans are inclined to process information to

be consistent with existing categories, beliefs, attitudes, values, stereotypes, and behavior, ignoring information that does not fit.


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Implicit theories hypotheses, models, and beliefs about the

nature of the external world (world theories) and about what we need to do to satisfy our desires in this world (self theories).

– Often exist at preconscious level and often involve more irrational and intuitive thinking.



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Attribution theory how humans come to perceive the causes of

behavior; reasonable explanations.



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Locus of control theory (internal vs. external causes of behavior):– Internals: cause of behavior lies within self– Externals: cause of behavior lies outside self



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Components Example:Motivation for Running

• Biological component:– Stimulates output of several chemicals (Example: increase

in norepinephrine = elation/euphoria)

• Learned component:– A rewarding activity that helps many people cope with

anxiety, depression, stress, fatigue, etc.

• Cognitive component:– Benefits of exercise- decrease likelihood/progression of

number of health disorders, reduce cholesterol, increase immune response, slow down aging process, etc.


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TOPIC 3

BASIC THEMES IN THE STUDY OF MOTIVATION


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What causes behavior?

Motivation theorists • Assume that for every behavior, there is

cause– Goal is to identify those causes

• Tend to be eclectic• Want to know what instigates behavior

– Biology, learning, cognition

o


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Approach and Avoidant Causes

• Biological basis for approach/avoidant behavior

• Individual differences may be a result of inherited amounts of each system


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Temperament: we approach life with a particular orientation that can affect everything we do and say

Dual nature: we are often being pulled in two directions (moves us forward or stops us in our tracks)

Approach and Avoidant Causes


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Approach and Avoidant Causes Approach Causes

People do things because of something they want, desire, or need

Example: People eat because they are hungry.

Sometimes the want, desire, or need does not immediately give rise to a specific goal object

Avoidant Causes

People do things to avoid something

Example: People who have anxiety at a party may leave the party.

These things are not only aversive/noxious, they are also difficult/impossible to ignore


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Eight Basic Themes of Contemporary Motivation Theories

1. Behavior represents an attempt to adapt to the environment

2. Importance of determining what arouses/energizes behavior


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3. Understanding what governs the direction of behavior

– Need theory: needs are what give direction to behavior

– Goal theory: goals create a tension, and the individuals move toward the goals to reduce that tension



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4. Understand persistence– One of the main predictors of success;

grows out of intrinsic motivation– Reward theory: we are inclined to repeat

behaviors that make us feel good (positive reinforcement) and discontinue behaviors that make us feel bad (negative reinforcement)



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5. Understanding the role of emotions– Affect theory: people approach things to

experience positive affect and avoid things to guard against experiencing negative affect

– Feelings are important determinants of behavior



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6. Accounting for individual differences– Motivation theorists are interested in why

individuals behave the way they do (biology, cognitions, learning)



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7. Self-regulation of behavior– Learning to set attainable goals, manage

negative emotions, focus attention; tendency to engage in planning

– Motivational principles are the underlying reasons people self-regulate/achieve/take control



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8. Humans have will (people can create their own destiny)

– People are not mere products of biology or the environment



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TOPIC 4

LEARNING THEORIES, MOTIVATION AND HUMAN

ACHIEVEMENT


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LEARNING THEORIES• Learning theory: belief that behavior could be better

explained by principles of learning than by instinct– John B. Watson (1878-1952) (School of Behaviorism)

• Concluded that there were only three innate emotional reactions: fear, rage, and love.

– Clark Hull (1884-1952) (Drive theory)• Energy for behavior is the result of drives; behavior is caused by the

multiplicative effect of drives times habit (Behavior = Drives x Habits)

– B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) (Reinforcement Theory)• Behavior can be learned even if there is no biological drive

reduction• Behavior modification: altering behavior based on the systematic

applications of rewards– Social Learning Theories: Many behaviors (habits) can be

acquired in the absence of rewards


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• Rewards as: –Reinforcers for learning new behaviors– Incentive stimuli that motivate approach

behaviors

REWARD


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REWARD

• A reward is something given in exchange for something such as money, trophy, medal or any things wonderful.

• A process that reinforces behavior to increase in intensity.

• The functions of rewards are based directly on the modification of behavior and less directly on the physical.


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INCENTIVE

• Incentive is any factor (financial or non-financial) that provides a motive for a particular course of action, or counts as a reason for preferring one choice to the alternatives

• Incentive occur before an action or behavior.


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PUNISHMENT

• Punishment is the practice of imposing something unpleasant or response to an unwanted behavior

• Punishment is the reduction of a behavior via a stimulus applied ("positive punishment") or removed (“negative punishment")


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Reward as Reinforces• Skinner defined a reinforcer as any stimulus

following a behavior that increases the probability that the behavior will occur again.

• A punisher is any stimulus following a behavior that decreases the probability that the behavior will occur again.

• Reinforcers are desirable outcomes of behavior, and punishers are aversive outcomes of behavior.


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Reward as Reinforces

• Reinforcers are most effective if given immediately after a response and are progressively less effective with longer delays.

• The delay between a response and a reinforcer can be bridged by a secondary reinforcer, a stimulus that gets its reinforcing power by previous association with some reinforcer.


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Maintaining Behavior: Schedules of Reinforcement

• A schedule of reinforcement is some rule for when to deliver reinforcers in relation to responses

• Schedules can be response-based or time-based.


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• Response-based: Delivering a reinforcer after every tenth response (a fixed ratio schedule)

• Time-based: Reinforcing the first response after some minimum amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement (a fixed interval schedule).

Maintaining Behavior: Schedules of Reinforcement


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• Response Theories• Motivational Theories• Stimulus Theories

THEORIES OF REINFORCERS


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• Response Theories: the effective rewarding events are the responses made, not the subsequent stimuli

1. Functional analysis

2. The Premark principle

3. Elicitation theories

4. The Glickman-Schiff biological theory

Response Theories


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Response Theories

1. Functional analysis• Reinforces functionally: Any stimulus

following a response that increases the probability of that response’s recurring is a reinforcer (Skinner, 1938)

• It is difficult to say in advance what will be a good reinforcer for a given person in a given situation

• Tried and True stimuli sometimes fail to modify human behavior in the way we expect them to do.


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2. The Premark principle• A more systematic functional analysis

(Premark, 1959).• Any Response A will reinforce any other

Response B, if A has a higher response rate than B

• Experiment: Operating a candy machine or pinball machine• getting candy reinforced playing pinball – eaters• playing pinball reinforced getting candy -

manipulators

Response Theories


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3. Elicitation Theories (Denny & Adelman)• Requirement for reinforcement: A response be

repeatedly elicited by some stimulus.• Example:

• Animal gets food following lever pressing

Lever Pressing Running to Food Response (Eating Food)

Response Theories


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4. The Glickman-Schiff biological theory (Glickman & Schift, 1967)

• A stimulus would be reinforcing if it just activated the neural systems underlying responses even if an overt response did not occur

• Example: Animals will normally eat if the lateral hypothalamus is stimulated and food is available

Response Theories


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Motivational Theories

• Motivational Theories: Emphasize increases or decreases of drive or arousal as reinforcing

1. Drive reduction theory

2. Evidence for drive reduction

3. Evidence against drive reduction

4. Arousal theory


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1. Drive reduction theory• Directly ties reinforcement to motivation

by saying that drive reduction is a necessary condition for reinforcement (Hull, 1943)

• Miller (1951a,1959) argued that any strong stimulus has drive properties, but not all need states produce strong stimuli. e.g: milk drunk by a hungry rat was a better

reinfocer in a T-maze than milk tubed directly into the stomach



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2. Evidence for drive reduction Drive-reduction theory is supported by

research on pain reduction, fear and reward-by-fistula



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3. Evidence against drive reduction Suggests that drive reduction may be a

sufficient condition for reinforcement but not that drive reduction is the only or necessary condition.



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4. Arousal theory Either increases or decreases in internal

arousal can be reinforcing as long as they lead to a more optimal level of arousal



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STIMULUS THEORIES

• Stimulus theories: Stimuli that produce positive emotion or provide information are reinforcing

1. Hedonic reinforcers

2. Sex and brain stimulation

3. Stimulus change and information


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1. Hedonic reinforcers Animals that are not under any known

dietary deficiency and that never have been deprived of food or water will press levers or run through mazes for sweet-tasting substances (e.g.,Young, 1959

STIMULUS THEORIES


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STIMULUS THEORIES

2. Sex and brain stimulation Sexual arousal appears to be very

reinforcing. Electrical stimulation of the brain produces

excitement in animals and highly reinforcing


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3. Stimulus change and information 2 explanations that have been proposed to

account for alternation behavior

i. Response inhibition theory: the animal tends not to repeat the same response

ii. Stimulation satiation theory: the animal tends not to go to the same stimulus.

STIMULUS THEORIES


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REWARD AS INCENTIVES

• Concept of incentive: Rewards do not necessarily affect specific responses

• Experiments: Shows that changes in incentive value, increasing or decreasing, quickly produce appropriate changes in performance even though not associated with particular response


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• Human incentives are also related to fantasy.

• Klinger: Proposed that we have commitment to goals (incentives) and this commitment is reflected in our current concerns that persist over time

• Current concerns are shown in fantasy, dream and thougths.

REWARD AS INCENTIVES


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• Locus of Control is considered to be an important aspect of personality.

• Locus of Control refers to an individual's perception about the underlying main causes of events in his/her life.

LOCUS OF CONTROL


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• A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal control (external control orientation)." (Zimbardo, 1985, p. 275)

LOCUS OF CONTROL


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LOCUS OF CONTROL

External Locus of Control Individual believes that

his/her behaviour is guided by fate, luck, or other external

circumstances

Internal Locus of Control Individual believes that

his/her behaviour is guided by his/her personal decisions

and efforts.

Locus of control is conceptualised as referring to a unidimensional continuum, ranging from external to internal:

Self-concept Self-concept as "the perception(s) one has

of oneself in terms of personal attributes and the various roles which are played or fulfilled by the individual." (Beane & Lipka, 1984)

They further noted that self-concept represents the "description an individual attaches to himself or herself... in terms of roles and attributes."


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• Self concept – determines the goals we set– how we evaluate progress toward those goals– the impact of success and failure on our

future goal-directed behavior

Self-concept


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Functions of Self-concept

2. To provide context1. To provide information

3. To provide integration


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Functions of Self-Concept

1. To provide information Provides information that will enable us to

make judgments about we can or cannot do. Individuals whose self-concept

underestimates their skills and talents could find it difficult and even impossible to develop aspirations that might motivate them to set difficult goals


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2. To provide context Humans are inclined to view feedback

regarding their behavior in the context of their enduring aspirations and goals

Example: Receiving a grade of B might mean very little for someone whose only wish to graduate but a great deal for someone who wants to be admitted to medical school


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3. To provide integration The self-concept is a storehouse of

information about the self and provides the global integration of that information

From the integration of information comes our sense of identity



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SELF-EFFICACY

• Self-efficacy is defined as a person’s belief in his or her capability to successfully perform a particular task (Bandura, 1997)

• Together with the goals that people set, self-efficacy is one on the most powerful motivational predictors of how well a person will perform at almost any endeavour.


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• A person’s self-efficacy is a strong determinant of their effort, persistence, strategizing, as well as their subsequent training and job performance.

• Self-efficacy is also a much stronger predictor of how effectively people will perform a given task than either their self-confidence or their self-esteem.

SELF-EFFICACY


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THE SELF-REGULATION OF BEHAVIOR

• Self-regulation– The ability to make us of knowledge we have

about that lawfulness of human behavior and use that knowledge to achieve goals that we think are in our best interest or simply goals that will make us happy


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• Self regulation involves 3 processes

1. Self-observation (self-monitoring)

2. Self-evaluation (self-judgment)

3. Self-reaction (self-incentive)

The Self-regulation of Behavior


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Self-observation (self-monitoring)

• Before we can change a behavior, we need to become aware of it

• This involves monitoring our behavior.• The more systematically we monitor our

behavior, the more quickly we will become aware of what we are doing.

• Example: Improving our social skills


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Self-evaluation (self-judgment)

• The next step is to decide if what we are doing is congruent with what we want or our personal standards.

• Personal standards are developed from information that we gain from significant others.

• Social cognitive theory: Most of us possess considerable knowledge about the best course of action to achieve a certain outcome but not to have a clear idea of what we are presently doing.


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Self-reaction (self-incentive)

• Self-judgments are typically accompanied by affective reactions.

• When we succeed or do well, we experience pleasure or satisfaction,

• If fail or perform poorly a negative mood or dissatisfaction

• These self-reactions lead us to set higher goals or to abandon goal


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FEM 4101 MOTIVATION AND HUMAN ACHIEVEMENT FEM 4101 PJJ -Dr. Zarinah Arshat1