Upload
phungquynh
View
220
Download
1
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Chapter-07 105
1. INTRODUCTION
In addition to various parameters palatability and digestibility are important issues in
canine nutrition as they determine the consumption and utilization of the food, which finally
decide the health of the animal. The health of the animal depends on the nutritional adequacy
of their foods and studies on palatability and digestibility help to identify the nutritional
requirements of the pet food.
Dogs have extra taste buds than cats. In both species the sense of flavor is used to test
the palatability of food and to stimulate secretion from the salivary glands, the stomach and
sometimes the pancreas. Both dogs and cats usually reject food with a bitter taste. Dogs,
however, can taste a sweet sensation better than cats and also detect salty flavors at very low
concentrations. Cats experience many amino acids as salty and can associate them with
animal proteins.
To understand and evaluate the nutritional and palatability effects of pet food
containing extruded soybean, experiments were planned as outlined below.
I. Criteria for product evaluation
II. Palatability studies
III. Digestibility studies
I. CRITERIA FOR PRODUCT EVALUATION
Product effectiveness studies are generally carried out to evaluate the impact of
specific changes done in new pet food. The changes may be due to variations in the
nutritional parameters or variations in any other quality parameters like palatability or
digestibility. To ensure the new products performance focused parameters are considered
during product development study. The preference/palatability tests and digestibility tests are
the key tests to qualify the new product for release into the market.
Chapter-07 106
Unprocessed soybeans contain many antinutritive factors as discussed in Chapter 01.
The impairment of these anti-nutritive factors by extrusion process and their relative levels
are discussed in Chapter-04. After extrusion the extruded soybean was included in pet food
formulations. Different pet food formulations were done and extruded as pellets and the
details are discussed in chapter-05 and chapter-03 respectively.
II. PALATABILITY STUDIES
Preference studies are normally done to understand the inclination or likeliness of the
dog or cat towards the pet food. Palatability is a complex dimension, which includes the
animals, breed, palatants in the product, reaction/response by animals and observations by
formulators/manufactures. Palatability is one of the important aspects for any food
formulator during product development. Even though feeding trials are no longer required
for a food to meet the requirements for labeling a food "complete and balanced," palatability
studies are required during developing a new pet food. "Preference" and "acceptance" are
specific measurement techniques to assist in the investigation of assumed pleasant or
unpleasant sensations of food intake.
A. Preference test
The two-bowl preference test measures "choice" between a pair of test foods that are
fed simultaneously side by side. The results of a two-bowl preference test may indicate that
animals distinctly prefer one of the foods, thus the preferred food would be termed more
"palatable".
Chapter-07 107
B. Acceptance test
The one-bowl or monadic method quantifies food acceptance. In most cases this
technique is less sensitive' than the two-pan method. Palatability or preference for a food
substance depends upon mainly from the following points.
Olfactory appeal or freshness of the product
Taste (as it affects taste buds)
Size and texture of the product which includes crunchiness, chewyness, plasticity and
mouth feel
Nature of the ingredients
- Dosage and nutritional requirement of the product
Moisture content
Whatever the objectives of a new product may be, the palatability testing in the early
stages is made through the comparison between two products. Commonly accepted methods
of measuring palatability require calculating a quantitative score based on relative intake of
two samples in the target animals like pets. The feeding protocols for the animals, data
collection, analysis and comparison are generally associated with feeding trials. In animal
palatability tests, the end results are generally expressed as 'better than,' 'worse than,' or
'equal' when two different product samples are selected for palatability testing.
C. Palatability test protocol:
i. Twelve healthy dogs (9 crossbred and 3 native) were selected and housed
separately for palatability studies for twenty days,
ii. Dogs were acclimatized for two bowl tests and for daily feeding schedules such
as time, quantity and place,
iii. The known quantity of two pet foods was offered ad libitum simultaneously to 12
adult dogs in separate bowls along with water,
iv. Overall, each pet food consumption was recorded with the swiping of diets in the
bowls every day.
Chapter-07 108
VI.
The acceptance of the pet food under test was determined as average consumption
for the test period
The preference of the pet food was calculated based on the first approach to one
of the food out of two foods served to the dog.
D. Results
Table-01: Palatability comparison between Pet food with raw soybean RS-01 and Pet food with extruded soy bean ES-01(cha pter-05).
Dog No.
Breed Age (months)
Average food consumption (g/day)
Dog No.
Breed Age (months)
RS ES-01 1 C/B 8 25 350' 2 C/B 8 26 349' 3 C/B 8 0 370' 4 C/B 8 10 345' 5 C/B 48 35 320' 6 Native 18 45 345' 7 Native 16 5 365' 8 Native 14 15 355' 9 C/B 20 20 365' 10 C/B 21 25 342' 11 C/B 25 16 350' 12 C/B 30 20 360'
Average consumption (g/dog/day) 20 351' Average consumption % 05.30 94.60
Preference % 00 100
Chapter-07 109
Table-02: Palatability comparison between Pet food with 15% extruded soybean (ES-01) and Ft jt food with 3C '% extruded so ybean (ES -02).
Dog No.
Breed Age (months)
Average food consumption (g/day)
Dog No.
Breed Age (months)
ES-01 ES-02 1 C/B 8 240 250
2 C/B 8 249 249
3 C/B 8 265 270 4 C/B 8 245 255
5 C/B 48 220 270
6 Native 18 245 255 7 Native 16 240 250 8 Native 14 260 243 9 C/B 13 250 265
10 C/B 13 250 245 11 C/B 25 225 270
12 C/B 30 260 240 Average consumption (g/dog/day) 245 255 Average consumption % 49 51 Preference % 55 45
The comparison of palatability results in table-01 indicated that the average pet food-
RS consumption was 20.1 gram/day/dog with 5.3% total consumption levels compared to pet
food ES-01 consumption of 351 gram/day/dog with 94.6% total consumption.
The palatability comparison of pet foods with 15 and 30% in table-02 indicated that
the average consumption of pet food-ES-01 was 245 gram/day/dog with 49% total
consumption levels compared to pet food ES-02 consumption of 25 5 gram/day/dog with 51%
total consumption.
Chapter-07 110
E. Discussion
The data in table-01 and table-02 indicated that pet food with extruded
soybean was preferred 100% over pet food with raw soybean indicating off flavor in pet food
RS. This is also supported by 94.6% consumption levels of pet food ES-01 compared to pet
food RS with 5.3% consumption levels. There is clear indication that soybean, if not
extruded to impair undesirable compounds such as lipase would contribute to off flavours in
soybean products. This observation supports the earlier inspections made by JM Dust and
Trivedi^ that palatability can be influenced by flavour, food texture, size and shape. This is
evidenced with the preference of dogs to pet food with extruded soybean indicating the
absence of unpalatable flavours. This is further confirmed with the trial data as indicated in
table-02 where it is demonstrated that both pet foods ES-01 and ES-02 were preferred at the
ratio of 55:45. This indicates that there is similarity in palatability of pet food containing
extruded soybean. The preference for the pet food with extruded soybean emphasizes the
need for the treatment of soybean by extrusion at 120-140°C to improve its nutritive values.
III. DIGESTIBILITY STUDIES
Generally the rate of the catabolism of a protein is determined'' by two factors,
namely by the rate of its digestion and by that of its absorption as both factors are considered
as inherent parts of protein quality. Digestibility studies are done to evaluate the product
efficacy, which can be either for maintenance, growth, body condition or any other
observations. Usually digestibility trials involve an experiment by which the amount of
nutrients actually digested and absorbed from a measured amount of food consumed by
animal is determined. The digestibility depends on various parameters like; age of the dog,
type of food, level of cooking or gelatinization in the given food and type of ingredients used
for the preparation of food etc. The following study data explains the digestibility levels of
pet food with extruded soybean.
A. Digestibility study protocol:
1. Determination of nutrient value of the pet food by in-vitro analyses^ for crude protein,
crude fibre, crude fat, NFE and the total digestible nutrients.
2. Randomization of dogs was done and the dogs were acclimatized for daily feeding
schedules such as time, quantity and place, atleast 5 days prior to actual
experimentation.
3. The observation for daily food intake and leftover was recorded during
acclimatization and collection period.
4. The fecal samples were collected on daily basis for 5 days and placed into labeled
plastic bags. Samples were frozen as they were collected.
5. Fecal sample scoring was done based on the following scale
Table-03: Fecal evaluation score'
Nature of the stool Fecal Hard, dry pellets 1 hard, formed, dry stool that remains firm and soft
2
soft, formed, moist 3 soft, unformed stool that assumes shape of container and is puddinglike
4
watery, liquid that can be poured 5
6. Fecal samples were analysed for moisture (fresh) and pooled fecal samples for
nutrient value (dry) example; crude protein, crude fibre, crude fat. NFE and the total
digestible nutrients.
7. Proximate analysis was done for pet food and digestibility nutrient study was
planned as per the method followed by Blackburn and Southgate'
8. ME values are calculated as per AAFCO quantitative methods.
9. Digestibility co-efficient, Total digestible nutrients were calculated
Chapter-07 112
B. Digestibility results:
Table-04: Experimental animal details
Dog No. Breed Age
(months)
B.Wt
(kg)
Food
(g/day)
1 C/B 8 11.6 200
2 C/B 8 12.1 200
3 C/B 8 12.8 213
4 C/B 8 11 190
5 Native 48 17 260
6 Native 18 14.3 225
7 C/B 16 15 250
8 C/B 14 15 225
9 C/B 13 14 245
10 C/B 13 14.5 255
Average - 15.4 13.73 226.3
Table 05: Pre-trial investigation results -Pet food
Proximate Principle Found
Moisture % 4.402
Crude Protein % 33.97
Crude Fibre % 1.50
Crude Fat % 16.735
Ash % 5.90
NFE % 37.493
Dry Matter% 95.598
Gross Energy (Cal/g) 4.71
Metabolizable Energy (Cal/g) 3.92
Chapter-07 113
Table 06: Post-trial investigation results: Chemical composition in excreta
No. Parameter Average value Found
1 Digestible Dry Matter (DDM) % 56.99 ±3.469
2 Digestible Crude Protein (DCP) % 21.48 ±1.725
3 Digestible Crude Fibre (DCF) % -2.471 ±0.762
4 Digestible NFE (DNFE) % 43.41 ±3.506
5 Digestible ether extract (DEE) % 15.27 ±0.41
6 Total Digestible nutrients (TDN) % 96.76 ±3.064
7 Actual GE utilized Cal/g 2.897 ±0.146
8 Actual GE excreted Cal/g 1.813±0.146
9 % of GE utilized 61.5±3.10
10 % GE excreted 38.5 ±8.041
11 Metabolizable Energy (ME) K.cal/kg 3531 ± 122.43
12. Fecal score 2.5-3.5
Out of 16.735% of ether extract estimated, 15.27% is digestible with 91.25%
utilization. Estimated crude protein was 33.97% with approximately 26% utilization,
indicating protein digestibility coefficient of 76%. The Total Carbohydrates estimated
was 43.40%. out of which approximately 41% is digestible with 94.33% utilization. Out
of 4.71 cal of gross energy calculated per gram of food, 2.897 cal/g was absorbed
(61.5%) and 1.813 cal/g (38.5%) excreted in the feces. The metabolizable energy
calculated from the fecal matter is approximately 3530 Kcal/kg of food. Fecal output
score was 2.5 to 3.5.
Chapter-07 114
C. Discussion:
Out often dogs, eight dogs maintained a stable body weight during digestibility trial. The
details of the dogs are given table-04. The large variation in breed of the dogs made it
difficult to determine any real differences between the breeds so the data were grouped
together. The determination was done for nutrient profile of the experimental pet food and
excreta and data is indicated in table-05 and 06. It is shown that approximately 60% of the
Dry Matter is digestible with 40% excretion.
Variation in protein quality and amino acid availability among major protein ingredients
and the response to varying levels of inclusion and processing conditions, their availability
may be variable among animal meals. Out of 16.735% of ether extract estimated, 15.27% is
digestible with 91.25%) utilization. Out of 33.97% crude protein estimated, approximately
26%) is utilized, therefore protein digestibility coefficient is 76%). These values are similar to
the observations made by J. M. Dust' for various ingredients and their digestibility
coefficients in pet food. He discussed that chemical composition and quality of alternative
protein sources differ greatly among ingredients within the same category. These
observations are also supported by G. C. Fahey, Jr .̂ and H. S. Hussein'^ where it was
discussed that alternative raw materials in pet food tend to vary in their nutrient availability
and hence their implications in pet food. Since, the nutrient availability gets influenced by
process conditons", maintaining optimum condhions during processing are very critical. By
extrusion technology (chapter-04), the antinutritive and undesirable compounds of soybean
are inactivated. The Pet food containing such extruded soybean resulted in better palatability
compared to the diet containing raw soybean. During digestibility studies it was observed
normal fecal score and volume. Hence, extruded soybean can be used in pet food
formulations as the antinutritive factors and undesirable compounds are impaired by
extrusion process (chapter-04).
Chapter-07 115
As discussed by G. M. Clapper et al ,̂ that fecal bulk and flatulence are the greatest
concerns in recommending the soy product inclusion in pet food. In contrast to his
observations, as indicated in table-06, the fecal volume and flatulence were observed normal
with fecal score^ of 2.5 to 3.5 during pet food feeding trials. This score indicates that fecal
matter is hard, formed, dry stool that remains firm and soft and moist. This is due to
formulations of pet food with extruded soybean protein and optimum pet food extrusion
conditions.
2. Conclusion
Soybean processing technologies such as extrusion aids in increased availability of all
nutrients due to impairment of antinutritive and undesirable compounds. The digestibility
score and the improvement in palatability of pet food containing soybean protein indicate
that extruded soybean can be used in pet food diets as nutritive and economical ingredient.
Thereby it is inferred that extruded soy protein when formulated with other protein sources
that has balancing amino acids can give an economical source of highly available and reliable
quality protein to the pets.
Chapter-07 116
References:
1. Anonymous: Guido schroeder, the concept of palatability and digestibility and
assessments by means of trials. Companion animal nutrition,
2. J. M. Dust C. M. Grieshop*, C. M. Parsons*, L. K. Karr-Lilientha 1*, C. S.
Schasteent, J. D. Quigley, lllj, N. R. Merchen*, and G. C. Fahey, Jr. *1 Chemical
composition, protein quality, palatability, and digestibility of alternative protein
sources for dogs *University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana 61801;
tNovus International, Inc., St. Charles, MO 63304; and JAPC, Ankeny, lA 50021
3. Trivedi, N., J. Hutton, and L. Boone. 2000. Useable data: How to translate the results
derived from palatability testing. Petfood Ind. 42:42-44.
4. Donald D. Van Slyke and George F. White., the relation between the digestibility and
the retention of ingested proteins., the journal of biological chemistry, 1991, page 219
-229.
5. G. M. Clapper. C. M. Grieshop, N. R. Merchen, J. C. Russett, J. L. Brent, Jr., and G.
C. Fahey, Jr., Ileal and total tract nutrient digestibilities and fecal characteristics of
dogs as affected by soybean protein inclusion in dry, extruded diets J. Anim. Sci.
2001,79:1523-1532
6. AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chem., 1995, Washington,
DC.
7. N.A. Blackburn, D.A.T. Southgate A.R.C, Food Research Institute, Norwich, UK,
protein digestibility and absorption: effects of fibre,
and the extent of individual variation. Item 3.2.4 of the Provisional Agenda, Joint
FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation on
Energy and Protein Requirements. 1981.
8. Banerjee. G.C. A Text Book of Animal Husbandry, 8th edition, 1999,631-653.
9. G. C. Fahey, Jr. and H. S. Hussein.. The nutritional value of alternative raw materials
used in petfood. Proc. Petfood Forum, 1997. pp. 12-24.
10. H. S. Hussein and G. C. Fahey, Jr. Nutrition research with petfood implications.
Proc. Petfood Forum, 1997. pp. 26-43.
Chapter-07 117
ll.Jurgen Zentek, Sonja Fricke, Marion Hewicker-Trautwein, Britt Ehinger, Gunter
Amtsberg and Christoph Baums 2004, Dietary Protein Source and Manufacturing
Processes Affect Macronutrient Digestibility, Fecal Consistency, and Presence of
Fecal Clostridium perfringens in Adult Dogs-'= The American Society for
Nutritional Sciences J. Nutr. 134:2158S-2161S, August.