Fazey and Hardy (1988) - Amazon S3 · 2016. 10. 27. · However, self-confidence allows the cognitively anxious performer the possibility of regaining the sm ooth stable area of performance;

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Fazey and Hardy (1988) The Inverted-U hypothesis: A Catastrophe for Sport Psychology.

Background and aim: The inverted-U hypothesis originated from a study of habit-strength formation in mice under different conditions of punishment stimulus frequency (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908) and was built upon by Oxendine (1970) to describe the relationship between arousal and motor performance in a range of different conditions. Fazey and Hardy suggest there are three

big problems with the hypothesis, namely: There are difficulties with the basic constructs of the hypothesis, a lack of consideration of situational specificity and the multidimensionality of the stress response, and a lack of supporting evidence from sport psychology. This study considers these issues and proposes two catastrophe models of motor performance under anxiety which describe the relative contributions to performance of cognitive anxiety, ‘on the day’ physiological arousal, task difficulty and self-confidence. Method: The study is a monograph, which is a specialist work of writing on a single subject which identifies and considers the three problem areas with the hypothesis. The authors also propose an alternative model and a number of testable hypotheses of the model are stated and an extension of the model. Difficulties with the basic constructs Two questions in relation to the inverted-U hypothesis need to be addressed:

- If physiological arousal is a unitary construct, then is it related to performance by an inverted-U function?

- Does this say anything about a systemic relationship between stress and performance?

Difficulties with the corroborative evidence No previous research has considered the influence of the different anxiety systems on the stress response, or the possibly different effects of increasing and decreasing stress levels. There is still little convincing, sound experimental evidence for the inverted-U hypothesis as a model of the relationship between stress and performance. Difficulties in applying the model Fazey and Hardy present three major criticisms of the inverted-U hypothesis:

- The failure to recognise the multidimensionality of the anxiety and arousal systems.

- The general lack of sound experimental support for the detailed predictions of the hypothesis.

- The apparent lack of predictive validity in practical situations.

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Catastrophe model of anxiety and performance Fazey and Hardy discuss two alternative approaches that have been used to study the effects of stress upon performance. These ideas have been used to develop the ‘catastrophe’ model of anxiety and performance. The model states that anxiety has at least two components, cognitive anxiety and the physiological arousal response. Physiological arousal is the degree of generalised sympathetic physiological response reflected by somatic anxiety or other physiological changes. Cognitive anxiety determines whether the effect of physiological arousal is smooth and small, large and catastrophic, or somewhere between the two. This model fits with existing data which shows a negative relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance and mixed positive and negative effects for physiological arousal upon performance during high cognitive anxiety. But how does cognitive anxiety alter the effect of physiological arousal on performance? It may be that higher levels of performance are shown under conditions of high physiological arousal in simple or well learned tasks. It is possible that cognitive anxiety disrupts this control by distracting the individual’s attention and by creating doubt about what is a beneficial physiological effect and what is an adverse effect. As a result, physiological demand is high and the cognitive control demand is low. Cognitive anxiety might lead to enhanced performance when physiological arousal is high. Conversely, in tasks with a low physiological demand but a high control demand, cognitive anxiety would usually lead to a drop in performance when physiological arousal is high. Fazey and Hardy’s proposed catastrophe model hypothesises that:

- Physiological arousal is not necessarily detrimental to performance, but it will be associated with catastrophic effects when cognitive anxiety is high.

- During high cognitive anxiety, hysterics will occur, i.e. performance changes as physiological arousal increases, compared to when physiological arousal decreases. During low cognitive anxiety, hysterics will not occur.

- Intermediate levels of performance are most unlikely in conditions of high cognitive anxiety.

Higher dimensional catastrophes – Although the catastrophe model is able to describe the roles of cognitive anxiety and physiological arousal in performance under stress, other factors such as task difficulty and self-confidence may also play a part. Therefore, the model has been extended to a higher-order butterfly catastrophe which explains the influence of these two factors. Task difficulty is known as a bias factor and self-confidence as a butterfly factor. Physiological arousal level at which catastrophes occur in cognitively anxious individuals gradually shifts to the left as cognitive processing demands of the task increase, which supports the inverted-U hypothesis and research into the effects of arousal and anxiety on tasks with differing cognitive processing demands (Humphreys and Revelle, 1984). However, self-confidence allows the cognitively anxious performer the possibility of regaining the smooth stable area of performance; this is increased when self-confidence is very high and/or when anxiety is not extreme. The extended catastrophe model (Butterfly catastrophe model) predicts that:

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- Difficult tasks with a high processing load shift the hysteresis loop to the left, while simple tasks shift the loop to the right.

- When cognitive anxiety is at an intermediate level, individuals with a high degree of self-confidence will demonstrate a trimodal distribution for performance. At more extreme levels of cognitive anxiety, the same individuals will produce bimodal performance-distribution curves. In particular, intermediate levels of performance are possible only for confident performers or at relatively low levels of cognitive anxiety.

Conclusions: The inverted-U hypothesis is flawed: ‘The real catastrophe would be for sport psychology to remain tied to the inverted-U hypothesis as the only plausible model of the stress performance relationship’. Catastrophe models of motor performance under anxiety can be applied to describe the relative contributions to performance of cognitive anxiety, ‘on the day’ physiological arousal, task difficulty and self-confidence. There are a number of plausible models to explain the stress-performance relationship. Most notably, stress and performance can be explained through the application of a catastrophe model.

Evaluation Usefulness of research: Fazey and Hardy’s research has been useful in explaining the stress performance relationship. From this research a number of strategies have been developed to improve performance in athletes including pep talks, self-talk, the use of imagery and rituals such as the Haka which all ‘psych up’ the athletes, while relaxation training programmes and breathing exercises can reduce anxiety. Reductionism/holism: Fazey and Hardy have heavily criticised the inverted-U hypothesis. One criticism is its reductionist nature in that only anxiety is linked to performance. The catastrophe models are more holistic in that they consider other factors such as task difficulty and self-confidence of the individual. However, other variables such as the setting and familiarity of the task may also play a part in performance. Research Method: Although researchers are able to measure physiological arousal and the performance of an athlete, it is not possible to measure cognitive anxiety while the athlete is performing; therefore, the conclusions reached by Fazey and Hardy may not be valid. Furthermore, it is unclear at what specific level anxiety and arousal need to be in order to see a catastrophic drop in performance. It seems that there are still a lot of unanswered questions. Exam Style Questions Using the research by Fazey and Hardy (1988), explain optimising arousal, controlling anxiety and measuring anxiety in sport. (10) Explain how the research by Fazey and Hardy (1988), could be used to manage arousal and anxiety in sport. (10)

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Kroll and Crenshaw (1970) Multivariate Personality Profile Analysis of Four Athletic Groups. Background and aim: Kroll and Crenshaw report that early research into personality factors in sport presented few meaningful results. One reason for this is the lack of samples which are truly representative of the sports being investigated. Later research by Kroll et al. found no differences in personality profiles within wrestlers of different skill levels or for karate participants. Further to this, Kroll and colleagues carried out research into personality profiles of participants with differing abilities within different sports. The aim of this study was to build on the research into personalities within a particular sport, by analysing personalities between different sports. Method: This piece of research used the Cattell Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire to gather data in relation to athletes’ personality characteristics. 387 athletes took part: 81 were College football players, 141 were gymnasts from 14 different college and university teams, 94 were wrestlers of varying abilities from Olympic standard to below-average College standard, 71 were amateur karate participants from four states across the south-west of the USA. They were all of regional or national level. Additionally, some others were given a 15-item questionnaire; those who scored seven or above on the lie scale were removed from the study. Results: Significant differences were shown on the personality profiles of the different groups of athletes. There were six personality traits which distinguished athletes from each other: 1. shy vs. venturesome, 2. group-dependent vs. self-sufficient, 3. trusting vs. suspicious, 4. less intelligent vs. more intelligent, 5. reserved vs. outgoing), 6. affected by feelings vs. emotionally stable. Based on individuals’ responses, they assigned each person to the sport group for which the probability of group membership was highest. For example, of the 81 footballers, 32 were predicted to be in the football group, 18 in wrestling, 9 in karate and 22 in gymnastics. Out of all 387 participants, correct classification was 50.6%. Gymnasts were classified correctly 73.1% of the time, while footballers were at 39.5%, wrestlers 39.4% and karate participants were 33.8%. Further analysis took place whereby comparisons were made for each of the possible pairings of different sports. Gymnasts scored lowest of all four groups on the relaxed vs. tense factors, while karate participants scored the highest. Gymnasts were also lowest and karate participants highest on the non-conforming vs. conforming factor. Gymnasts were lowest on the sober vs. happy-go-lucky factor, suggesting they are silent and introspective; however,

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they were highest on the intelligence factor. For the group-dependent vs. self-sufficient factor, wrestlers and footballers were very significantly different to other groups. This was the biggest discriminator and showed these two groups to be high on group dependence. The wrestlers’ results went against the overall trend that players of team sports were higher in group dependence than those playing individually. Conclusions: Kroll and Crenshaw concluded that participants of different sports display different characteristics. Football players and wrestlers exhibit similar personality profiles and characteristics, which differ from gymnasts and karate participants. However, gymnasts and karate participants exhibit different personality traits from each other.

Evaluation Usefulness of research: It can be suggested from this study that certain personality profiles are linked to success in different sports. With this in mind, sports performance could be improved through promoting these characteristics with sports participants. This is useful for both players and coaches. Research method: As the study used self-report, researchers are relying on valid accurate responses to the questionnaire. However, it may be that certain personality traits are viewed more favourably in different sports and as a result participants may give responses that fit into what is expected, leading to social desirability bias and invalid results. However, the removal of participants who score highly on a lie scale may have removed this issue. Free will/determinism: It is unclear from Kroll and Crenshaw’s research as to whether different sports attract different personality types, or whether playing a particular sport causes changes to your personality and to developing particular traits; this is the cause or effect argument. This links to the debate as to whether our personalities are unchangeable and pre-determined, or whether certain traits can be developed or enhanced due to environmental factors or free will. Exam Style Questions Using the research by Kroll and Crenshaw (1970), explain personality, its measurement and its relationship to sport. (10) Explain how the research by Kroll and Crenshaw (1970) could be used to improve sports performance. (10)

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Lewis et al. (2014) Mood changes following social dance sessions in people with Parkinson’s Disease. Background and aim: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease, found usually in people over 50 years old. Symptoms include movement difficulties, signs of tremor, rigidity and postural instability. ‘Depression is the most common neuropsychiatric disturbance in PD (Papapetropoulos et al., 2006). Starkstein et al. (1992) found that depression in PD was strongly associated with a greater decline in cognition and severity of disease. Research has shown that positive mood is increased and negative mood is decreased following dance exercise interventions after sessions and over a longer period of time. Paulson (2011) interviewed elderly dancers who reported feelings of psychological wellbeing as well as a sense of belonging, while Lima and Vieira (2007) suggest that dance participants reported ‘being transported to a world of happiness’ and being able to ‘forget their problems’. However, not all studies have shown improvements in mood following dance classes in elderly participants and research often fails to assess the mood benefits that dance provides. No previous research has investigated whether dance classes could improve mood in PD over both a short and a longer time period. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the moderating effect of dance on mood in the elderly, particularly those with PD across a long cycle of 12 weeks and a short cycle of one hour. Method: This experiment was part of a larger investigation into dance as an intervention for PD. The first IV was whether participants were sufferers of PD or not. This was a matched pairs design. The second IV, manipulated by the researchers, was the time cycle: Long Cycle Time - week 1 vs. week 12 and Short Cycle Time - before class vs. after class. This part of the experiment used a repeated measures design. The DV was participants’ mood scores. 37 participants, aged between 50 and 80 years took part and of these 22 participants had been diagnosed with mild to moderate PD. The other 15 participants were age-matched controls (8 of whom had partners in the PD group and others were carers). Participants volunteered via a local advertisements and through contact with local PD support groups. A 64-item mood scale questionnaire known as Profile Of Mood States (POMS) was administered to measure mood changes across long cycle time. This measures six subcategories: Tension–Anxiety, Vigour–Activity, Depression–Dejection, Fatigue–Inertia, Anger–Hostility and Confusion using a 5-point Likert scale. Participants filled out a demographics questionnaire and the POMS according to how they felt in the past month. A Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) was also completed as a baseline. Weekly dance classes which lasted for 50 minutes were then attended for 10 weeks.

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Each class was based on rhythmic dancing to a strong beat which was appropriate for the sample. The style changed every week and included Bollywood Tango and party dancing based on the Charleston. Participants were taught in two separate, but identical classes. After 9 weeks participants were asked to complete the Brunel University Mood Scale (BRUMS), according to how they felt ‘right now’, before and after the dance class (short cycle). The POMS was then completed for a second time a few days after the last dance class in week 12 (long cycle). Results: One participant from each condition dropped out of the study during the intervention and a further five (3 PD, 2 Control) were unable to attend the final testing session, so did not submit a final POMS questionnaires and one other control group participant was excluded due to scoring below the cut-off point on the MMSE. The mean scores of the PD and control groups showed no significant differences for age, MMSE scores or baseline mood scores – the PD group did not score higher than the control group on depression. Tension, Vigour, Confusion and Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) were found to be significantly different from the norms in the PD group, in all cases showing a higher mood disturbance. No significant differences from the norms were found for the control group. TMD scores were significantly different over time; total disturbance in mood was lower post intervention. When the results for the DVs were considered separately, a significant difference was found in Tension and Anger, in that all participants reported less tension and anger and greater vigour. After further statistical analysis anger was the only subscale to have a significant reduction. Those scoring high in depression reported less fatigue after the dance sessions and a reduction in TMD was found after classes (short cycle). Conclusions: Dance can have physical and psychological benefits for the elderly, especially for those with PD. Dance can provide positive benefits over short and long cycles. Dance can help improve mood states (especially anger) in elderly people, especially those with PD. Exercise can improve levels of vigour, TMD and fatigue. Evaluation Usefulness of research: Previous research has shown the physical benefits of dance for those with PD, but this is the first study to show that there are psychological benefits too. With depression being common in many elderly people, particularly those with PD, this study is very useful in that there is evidence to show that mood can be improved through exercise. Therefore exercise can be used as a strategy to improve mental health, which can be applied to different age groups and different types of exercise which are appropriate for the individual. Sampling Bias: The sample in this study was quite small initially and a further eight participants withdrew from the study. Therefore, the remaining participants could be those who particularly enjoyed the dance sessions. The sample was also self-selected. Volunteers are certain types of people and it is unlikely that the people with particularly low mood or depression would volunteer for a study. Furthermore, the control group was made up of PD carers who are more likely to have low mood because of their

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circumstances. All of these factors make the sample unrepresentative and ungeneralisable to the PD population. Validity: Lewis et al. conclude that dance can have psychological benefits for people with PD. However, it is unclear whether the benefits were from social interactions with others, rather than dance itself. Therefore the internal validity could be questioned. Exam Style Questions Using the research by Lewis et al. (2014), explain the benefits of exercise to mental health. (10) Explain how the research by Lewis et al. (2014), could be used to improve mental health. (10)

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Munroe-Chandler et al. (2008) Playing with Confidence: The Relationship Between Imagery Use and Self-confidence and Self-efficacy in Youth Soccer Players. Background and aim: Many studies have found strong evidence that the use of Motivational General Mastery (MG-M) imagery is associated with increased self-confidence and self-efficacy. However, these findings have been with adults and adolescents who are relatively elite athletes. The aim of this was to see whether the same findings would be true for football players aged 11-14 years competing at both the recreational and competitive levels. The researchers had two hypotheses:

- MG-M imagery will be a significant predictor of both self-confidence and self-efficacy in young athletes;

- The relationship between MG-M imagery use and self-confidence and self-efficacy will be stronger in competitive athletes than recreational athletes.

Method: A sample of 56 males and 69 female football players, aged between 11 and 14, of which 72 were recruited from house (non-elite) and 50 from travel (elite) soccer leagues from south-western Ontario, Canada. A mean of 6.11 years of football playing experience was reported. Three participants did not report their competition level and were therefore removed, leaving a total of 122 participants. A self-report method was used to collect data in relation to young soccer players’ use of imagery and a second questionnaire was used to measure their general self-confidence and a third for their self-efficacy in soccer. This data was gathered over a two week period during mid-season before a practice session. Imagery use was measured using The Sport Imagery Questionnaire for Children (SIQ-C). This includes 21 statements relating to the frequency of children’s imagery use. Statements were scored from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very often). Each of the five functions of imagery were included. For example - ‘I see myself being mentally strong’ assessed MG-M imagery. The Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory – 2 for Children (CTAI-2C) measured confidence levels, as well as somatic and cognitive anxiety. This was a 15 item questionnaire, but only the confidence responses were used. Responses were rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much so). Furthermore, the 5 item Self-efficacy Questionnaire for Soccer (SEQ-S) asked participants to record their belief in their mental abilities, such as being focused, or in control mentally. The strength of the belief was on a 100-point scale in 10-unit intervals from 0 ‘No Confidence’ to 100 ‘Complete Confidence’. The items included - ‘I am confident I can be mentally tough throughout a competition’.

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Football team coaches were contacted about taking part by email and letter and then parental consent was obtained. At the beginning of the study the players completed a questionnaire which asked about age, gender and information about their football level and experience. The three other questionnaires were then completed, which all took about 15 minutes. Results: A number of different statistical tests were carried out to analyse the results. No significant differences were found between level of play or gender in relation to the five imagery functions, self- confidence, or self-efficacy, or to the number of years playing. All correlations between the imagery subscales and the two confidence measures were positive, significant and moderate to strong. As expected The MG-M subscale of the SIQ-C was most strongly correlated with SEQ-S, while the two measures of confidence were significantly correlated. In CTAI-2C, stats tests showed for the recreational group that self-confidence was significant, with MG-M imagery accounting for 50.6% of the total variance, with Motivation-General Arousal (MG-A) imagery and Motivational Specific (MS) imagery accounting for an additional 12.7%. While for the elite group, self-confidence was the only significant result, accounting for 39.6% of the total variance. Meanwhile, the use of MG-M was positively related to self-confidence. For the SEQ-S test, analysis of the recreational group showed that self-efficacy was significant and MG-M was the only significant imagery predictor, accounting for 51.6% of the variance. MG-M was also positively correlated with self-efficacy. Results for the elite group showed that MG-M was the only significant predictor, accounting for 57% of the variance. Therefore, as hypothesised, MG-M imagery proved to be a significant predictor of self-confidence and self-efficacy in young footballers. MG-M imagery accounted for 40% to 57% of the variance for both self-confidence and self-efficacy, with MG-A and MS only moderately predicting self-confidence in non-elite athletes, while MG-M imagery use and self-confidence and self-efficacy was not significantly different between the two groups. Conclusions: The use of MG-M imagery significantly predicts self-confidence and self-efficacy in young football players. If young athletes, regardless of standard, wish to increase their self-confidence or self-efficacy through the use of imagery, the use of MG-M should be encouraged. MG-A and MS imagery also contribute to self-confidence in recreational athletes. Competitive level has no influence on the relationship between MG-M imagery and self-confidence and self-efficacy. It is important to match the function of imagery use (MG-M) with the intended outcome (self-confidence or self-efficacy).

Evaluation Usefulness of research: These research findings are useful for athletes of all ages and abilities. Therefore, all sports people can gain confidence and self-efficacy by using imagery which should be of the MG-M variety. This in turn could increase the motivation, mental toughness and success of these sports people.

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Reductionism/holism: This research emphasises the importance of MG-M imagery, while other types of imagery are less important in improving confidence and self-efficacy. This is a rather reductionist view and also fails to consider other factors such as personality and situational factors that may play a part. These would give a more holistic explanation of what is very important for sportsmen and women. Determinism: Although MG-M imagery was a significant factor in gaining the intended outcome, it was not effective for all athletes. Therefore, individual differences should be considered when using this strategy. Exam Style Questions Using the research by Munroe-Chandler et al. (2008), explain self-efficacy and sports confidence, including imagery and sports orientation. (10) Explain how the research by Munroe-Chandler et al. (2008) could be used for motivating athletes. (10)

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Smith et al. (1979) Coach Effectiveness Training: A Cognitive Behavioural Approach to Enhancing Relationship Skills in Youth Sports Coaches. Background and aim: With youth sports participation increasing, it is important that children receive a positive outcome from participation. This is often dependent on their coach. The behavioural guidelines communicated to coaches in this study were developed from previous research into 51 ‘Little League Baseball’ coaches and 542 of their players. Behaviours of the coaches were observed and children were interviewed. Based on the relationships between observed coaching behaviours, players’ perceptions and recall of such behaviours, and players’ attitudes, a series of behavioural guidelines were developed (Smoll et al. 1977). Research by Smith et al., 1978 found that children who had highly reinforcing and encouraging coaches had significantly higher levels of post season self-esteem than those who didn’t. This study attempted to promote the utilisation of the guidelines, with the aim of enhancing the ability of Little League Baseball coaches to relate more effectively with their players. It was expected that cognitive changes would promote and mediate positive changes in overt coaching behaviours. The effects of the training programme on coach behaviours and player perceptions, attitudes, and self-esteem were therefore assessed. The role of self-esteem as a moderator variable affecting children’s reactions to trained and untrained coaches was also investigated with the following hypothesis: Differences in attitudes towards trained and untrained coaches will be most pronounced for low self-esteem children. Method: The IV for this field experiment was whether the coach was assigned to the group who underwent the Coach Effectiveness Training (CET) session or whether the coach was assigned to the control group. The DVs were the observed behaviours of the coaches during games and players’ perceptions of the coaches’ behaviours and, player attitudes towards themselves, the coaches, team-mates and the sport. Data was collected through observations, interviews and questionnaires. 34 Little League Baseball coaches took part, who coached 10-12 year olds and 13-15 year olds in the Seattle area. 18 coaches were randomly assigned to the experimental group and 16 to the control group; however, 3 members of the control group withdrew during the study. The coaches had a mean age of 36. 1 and had an average of 8.37 years coaching experience. 325 male baseball players also took part. Coaches in the experimental group were invited to participate in an evening training session, were told the results of the previous study, and guidelines were presented and discussed. The desirability of reinforcement, encouragement, and the use of technical

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instructions were emphasised. The goals of the guidelines were to increase positive interactions and to reduce the fear of failure. Examples of the guidelines included: – ‘DO – REWARD! Do so immediately. Let the players know that you appreciate and value their efforts’ and ‘DON’T – Take their efforts for granted.’ The experimenters also modelled desirable and undesirable methods of responding to specific situations to the coaches and a brochure including suggestions for communicating effectively with players, gaining their respect, and relating to parents was provided. Behavioural feedback was also obtained using the 12-category Coaching Behaviour Assessment System (CBAS). The coaches were observed during the first 2 weeks of the season by trained coders and were then mailed behavioural profiles showing behavioural patterns during the games. Self-monitoring forms relating to the behaviours in the guidelines were also completed by all of the coaches for the first 10 games of the season. Observed behaviours of the two groups of coaches were recorded through the CBAS. These were carried out by 16 undergraduates who had been trained over a 4 week period. Structured interviews at the end of the season measured player perceptions and attitudes. These were carried out in the children’s own homes by trained interviewers who didn’t know whether their coach was in the experimental or control group. The players also completed a self-esteem questionnaire which consisted of 14 statements which they rated from ‘not at all’ to ‘very much like me’. Examples of each of the 12 CBAS behaviours were also given to the boys, who indicated on a 7-point scale ranging from ‘never’ to ‘almost always’, how frequently the coach had demonstrated this behaviour. This was done to measure perception of coach’s behaviour. The boys were then asked to indicate reactions to their participation and ability-related perceptions on a 7-point scale in private. For example: ‘How much do you like playing baseball?’; ‘How good a baseball teacher is your coach?’ The scales ranged, for example, from ‘dislike a lot’ to ‘like a lot’ / ‘very poor’ to ‘excellent’. Results: Observed CBAS behaviour showed that the two groups did not differ significantly on either any of the 12 behaviour categories or the total of the combined categories. Reinforcement was the significant major discriminator between the two groups. In terms of players’ perceptions of coaching behaviours, the experimental group coaches were rated as more frequently engaging in Reinforcement, Encouragement and General technical instruction, and less frequently engaging in Non-reinforcement, Punishment and Punitive technical instruction. Children with trained coaches indicated greater enjoyment in having played for their coaches and a stronger desire to play for them in the future, and the coaches were rated as better teachers of baseball. They also evaluated the relationships among team-mates more positively. No significant group difference was found in levels of self-esteem or in evaluations of their own baseball ability. However, children who played for the trained coaches felt that both their coach and their team-mates evaluated their skills

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significantly more highly. No difference was found in the children’s perception of their parents’ evaluation of their skills. Self-esteem data obtained in similar interviews conducted the previous year were available for 75 of the children who played for the untrained coaches and for 112 children who played for the trained coaches. Analysis showed a significantly higher level of self-esteem in the children who had played for the trained coaches. Furthermore, a significant increase in scores for the children who had played for trained coaches and not for the control group was found. Children who played for the trained coaches rated their teams as higher in intra-team attraction, as did children high in self-esteem. The trained coaches also had a mean winning percentage of 54%, compared to 44.7% for the untrained coaches. Conclusions: Training programmes exert a significant and positive influence on overt coaching behaviours, player-perceived behaviours, children’s attitudes towards their coach, team-mates and many other aspects of their sporting experience. Children who play for trained coaches develop more positive self-esteem and rate their coach and the climate of the team more positively than children who play for untrained coaches. Self-esteem is an important moderator of attitudinal responses to coaching behaviours Evaluation Usefulness of research: These findings are useful, as Coach Effectiveness Training (CET) led to a significant positive influence on the coaching and the effects on the boys that were coached. Therefore, it is recommended that strategies used as part of CET, such as reinforcement and encouragement, should be more widely used to create positive sporting environments for young people and to even improve a team’s performance. Validity: As this was a field study investigating the coaching of real baseball teams, there were high levels of ecological validity and mundane realism. Causal conclusions can be made by comparing the experimental group with the control group, in that CET improved team performance. This study was also well controlled in that variables such as age, gender and number of years of coaching experience were matched. The study therefore has high internal validity. Debates: The positive effects from the coaches who used CET strategies including increased self-esteem in boys with low levels would support the situational explanations and nurture sides of the debates, suggesting that positive sporting experiences, environments and situations may be more important to self-esteem than individual, biological factors. Exam Style Questions Using the research by Smith et al. (1979), explain the relationship between teams, coaching and leadership. (10) Explain how the research by Smith et al. (1979) could be used for improving team performance. (10)

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Zajonc et al. (1969) Social enhancement and impairment of performance in the cockroach.

Background and aim: Drive theory suggests that poor performance in group situations can be attributed to distraction and the presence of others. However, the presence of others can also lead to improvements in performance in a well-learned or easy task (Gates and Allee, 1933). Zajonc et al. proposed that if a situation in which the cockroach’s response tendencies would be ‘correct/appropriate’ could be contrived, an increase rather than a decrease in performance should be obtained under social conditions. They

proposed that in comparison with maze performance, this situation would provide a ‘stringent test’ of the drive theory of social facilitation. This study investigated the performance of cockroaches in a maze and in a runway under various social conditions, with the aim being to provide evidence to support Drive Theory. Method: Two laboratory experiments were conducted. In the first experiment the IVs were whether the cockroaches performed alone or in pairs (co-action), or in pairs with an audience and if they had to traverse a maze or a straight runway. The DV was the time taken to reach the goal box. In experiment 2 the IVs were if the cockroaches had to traverse a maze (complex task) or a straight runway (simple task), whether the cockroaches had to traverse a maze/runway with mirrors alongside the vertical walls, whether they had to traverse a maze/runway stimulated by the smell of other cockroaches, or whether the cockroaches had to traverse a maze/runway alone, in socially neutral conditions. The DV was again the time taken to reach the goal box. In experiment 1, 72 adult female cockroaches participated. For the week before the study they were kept in individual mason jars with screened lids, in the dark with a temperature of 75 degrees, with food of apples being available at all times. In experiment 2, 180 female cockroaches were in the mason jars for 4 days before the study – 60 were in the mirror condition, 60 in the odour condition and 60 in the solitary condition. Cockroaches were chosen to take part because they are afraid of light. When the light was turned on, a sliding door in the start box opened and the time it took them to get to the goal box was recorded. After each trial, the runs were cleaned. Results: Cockroaches running in the maze co-action condition took longer to reach the goal box than cockroaches running alone. However, cockroaches in the runway co-action condition took less time to reach the goal box than the cockroaches that ran alone. The same results were found in the audience condition. Running times were significantly shorter in the co-action cockroaches than in the audience groups. So, in both co-action and audience conditions maze performance was impaired, but runway performance improved in comparison to solitary performance. The interactions between conditions and tasks were not significant.

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Conclusions: The presence of an audience of the same species is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of dominant responses – performance in a one-alternative task is improved and the performance in a multi-alternative task is impaired. The presence of those of the same species provides general arousal that enhances the emission of dominant responses. Enhancement and impairment of performance is shown with cockroaches, depending on whether it is a simple (straight run) or a complex task (a maze). For drive effects to take place the audience must be present; partial presence, such as smell traces, is not enough to produce effects consistent with the drive theory and in fact may be distracting. The presence of others can enhance performance in well learned or instinctive behaviours.

Evaluation Usefulness of research: These research findings are useful as they support the idea that the presence of others increases arousal, which therefore may facilitate or inhibit performance. If tasks or the environment are familiar, then performance will be better. This has implications for sports players and teams and can explain why playing at home may be advantageous. However, if a new task is being performed then performance will be inhibited; therefore, it would be useful for sports people not to be observed in these circumstances. Sampling Bias: The participants in the study were cockroaches, who were running between two boxes. It is very difficult to generalise these findings to professional footballers playing a match in the Premier League, for example, as there are obvious differences between the two groups in terms of physiology and cognitions and the importance of the tasks (running away from a phobia and winning an important match). Furthermore, we could even argue the sample was not even representative of cockroaches, as only females were used. Free will/Determinism: Zajonc’s findings suggest that audience effects either facilitate or inhibit performance because of arousal and the nature of the task. However, although both individual and situational factors are considered, the drive theory is still somewhat deterministic and ignores individual’s personality, training and preparation and ability to perform well, regardless of the audience, arousal, or task. Exam Style Questions Using the research by Zajonc et al. (1969), explain how an audience can facilitate or inhibit sports performance. (10) Explain how the research by Zajonc et al. (1969), could be used to influence a strategy for training for and playing spectator sports. (10)

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