Fatiguea ssignement strength of materials 3

7/28/2019 Fatiguea ssignement strength of materials 3

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L . E . C i e r e n b e r g

2 1 2 0 4 0 6 9 3

S t r e n g t h o f M a t e r i a l s I I I

4 / 8 / 2 0 1 3

Fatigue

This report covers the basic meaning, factors influencing and

other elements concerning fatigue in materials.

A report on fatigue in

materials


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Table of Contents

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 42. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 4

2.1 Fatigue: ..................................................................................................................................................... 4

2.2 Fatigue Limit: ........................................................................................................................................... 4

2.3 Fatigue Notch Factor: ............................................................................................................................... 4

2.4 Fatigue Ratio: ........................................................................................................................................... 4

2.5 Fatigue Strength: ...................................................................................................................................... 4

2.6 S-N Diagram: ........................................................................................................................................... 5

2.7 Stress-Strain Diagram .............................................................................................................................. 5

2.8 Fatigue Test: ............................................................................................................................................. 5

2.9 Persistent Slip Bands (PSBs) ................................................................................................................... 5

3. Fatigue fracture of materials ...................................................................................................................... 64. S-N Diagram .............................................................................................................................................. 7

4.1 Examples of S-N curves ........................................................................................................................... 7

5. Fatigue limits for ferrous metals ................................................................................................................ 86. Factors influencing fatigue ....................................................................................................................... 11

6.1 Cyclic stress state: .................................................................................................................................. 11

6.2 Geometry: ............................................................................................................................................... 11

6.3 Surface quality: ...................................................................................................................................... 11

6.4 Material Type: ........................................................................................................................................ 12

6.5 Residual stresses: ................................................................................................................................... 12

6.6 Size and distribution of internal defects: ................................................................................................ 12

6.7 Direction of loading: .............................................................................................................................. 12

6.8 Grain size: .............................................................................................................................................. 12


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6.9 Environment: .......................................................................................................................................... 12

6.10 Temperature: ........................................................................................................................................ 13

6.11 Surface treatment: ................................................................................................................................ 13

Mechanical Treatments ............................................................................................................................ 13

Thermal Treatments ................................................................................................................................. 13

Plating ...................................................................................................................................................... 14

6.12 Frequency of stress intervals. ............................................................................................................... 14

7. Comparison of stress at fillet radius and bending stress at uniform sections........................................... 148. Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................. 15


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1. IntroductionFatigue in materials is a factor which is of utmost importance to take into consideration when designing and

manufacturing parts. It is the cause of failure of parts due to continues loads within a number of cycles.Various factors influence fatigue and thus the lifespan of parts. This paper gives an in depth report on the

factors that influence fatigue as well as the systems whereby fatigue is tested and represented.

2. Definitions

2.1 Fatigue:

In materials science when a material which is subjected to cycling loading both progressive and localized

structural damage occurs and this is referred to as fatigue. The nominal maximum stress values are less thanthe ultimate tensile stress limit, and may be below the yield stress limit of the material.

2.2 Fatigue Limit:

A number of test specimens fatigue life is represented on an S-N diagram and a asymptote draw at the locus

of the corresponding fatigue life. This is also called the endurance limit and denotes the maximumfluctuation stress a material can endure for an infinite number of cycles.

2.3 Fatigue Notch Factor:

A ratio between a specimen with a stress concentration factor, as a notch or other stress raiser, compared to aspecimen with no stress raiser. It is also known as the strength reduction ratio and this value is usually lower

than the theoretical calculated value as plastic deformation causes some stress relief.

2.4 Fatigue Ratio:

This is the difference between the fatigue limit and tensile strength, given in the form of a ration. When this

value is available it can be used to estimate the fatigue properties from tensional test data.

2.5 Fatigue Strength:

A value obtained directly from the S-N diagram that denotes the magnitude of fluctuation stress required to

cause failure in a fatigue test specimen after a defined number of cycles under load.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science


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2.6 S-N Diagram:

A diagram obtained by plotting the number of cycles required to produce failure in a specimen against the

cyclic stress amplitude developed during testing.

2.7 Stress-Strain Diagram

Graph obtained by plotting data, obtained from a mechanical test where continues measurements of stress

and strain is recorded in a material where a load is applied to a specimen. The stress is then represented as a

function of strain. This graph is constructed using compression, tension and torsion tests.

2.8 Fatigue Test:

The recorded data obtained by subjecting a specimen to a specified mean load (which may be zero) and an

alternating load and the number of cycles required to produce failure. The tests are repeated with identical

specimens and varying loads. Loads may be applied axially, in torsion, or in flexure. Stress in the specimenmay be in one direction through the loading cycle, or may reverse direction. Most fatigue tests are conducted

in flexure, rotating beam, or vibratory type machines.

2.9 Persistent Slip Bands (PSBs)

Persistent slip bands are the areas of intensive cyclic plastic strain in the shape of thin lamellae arising incyclic straining of crystalline materials.
http://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2146155.html?s=350267&t=plastic+strainhttp://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2144753.html?s=350267&t=straininghttp://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2144753.html?s=350267&t=straininghttp://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2146155.html?s=350267&t=plastic+strain


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3. Fatigue fracture of materialsWhen a material is subject to repeated loading and unloading fatigue occurs. Microscopic cracks begin to

form when the loads rise above a certain threshold. These cracks form at stress concentrators such as thesurface, persistent slip bands and grain interfaces. Sudden fracture occurs when these cracks reach a critical

size.

Fracture of an aluminum crank arm. Dark area of striations: slow crack growth. Bright granular area:sudden fracture.

When there are no macroscopic or microscopic discontinuities in metals and alloys, fatigue starts

with dislocation movements, eventually forming persistent slip bands that create short cracks.

The preferred location for starting the fatigue process is macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities as wellas component design features which cause stress concentration as keyways & sharp changes of direction etc.

Even in controlled environments, fatigue shows considerable scatter and thus it is fatigue isa stochasticprocess.

Life is shortened by an increase in the applied stress range.

Fatigue life scatter tends to increase for longer fatigue lives.

When the loads are removed, even for a long period, the effects remain as damage is cumulative.

Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as working temperature, surface finish, microstructure,

shape of component, residual stresses, contact (fretting), surface finish etc.

Some materials have a theoretical fatigue limitbelow which continued loading does not lead to structural

failure.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_finishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frettinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pedalarm_Bruch.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pedalarm_Bruch.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pedalarm_Bruch.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frettinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_finishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocation


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4. S-N DiagramAlso known as a Whlercurve, the S-N diagram characterizes material performance in high-cycle fatigue

situations. This is a graph of the magnitude of a cyclic stress (S) against the logarithmic scale of cycles to

failure (N).

4.1 Examples of S-N curves

Samples of materials, often called coupons, are tested and the S-N curves are derived from the data obtained.These tests are done by applying a regularsinusoidal stress, with testing machine which also counts thenumber of cycles to up until failure. Each coupon test generates a point on the plot. In some cases there is

a runout where the time to failure exceeds that available for the test.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_W%C3%B6hlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BrittleAluminium320MPA_S-N_Curve.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BrittleAluminium320MPA_S-N_Curve.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_W%C3%B6hler


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5. Fatigue limits for ferrous metals

The following values have been obtained from

http://www.matweb.com

Material Name FatiguStrengt

(MPa)

AISI 4000 Series Steel 138 - 772

AISI 8000 Series Steel 205 - 485

Low Alloy Steel 138 - 772

Low Carbon Steel 758 - 772

Medium Carbon Steel 138 - 614

Cast Iron 68.9 - 510

Alloy Cast Iron 68.9 - 510

Ductile Iron

207 - 510Duplex 450 - 550

Gray Cast Iron 68.9 - 207

Martensitic 400 - 621

Stainless Steel 85.0 -1070

T 300 Series Stainless Steel 180 - 605

T 400 Series Stainless Steel 85.0 - 772

AISI 4118 Steel, direct quenched from pot, carburized, 150C (300F) temper 758 - 772

AISI 4118 Steel, direct quenched from pot, carburized, 230C (450F) temper 758 - 772

AISI 4118H Steel, direct quench, 150C (300F) temper, 1.6 mm case depth 758 - 772

AISI 4118H Steel, direct quench, 230C (450F) temper, 1.6 mm case depth

758 - 772AISI 4340 Steel, oil quenched 830C (1525F), 540C (1000F) temper, not nitrided 205 - 505

AISI 4340 Steel, oil quenched 830C (1525F), 540C (1000F) temper, pseudonitrided 180 - 470

AISI 4340 Steel, oil quenched 830C (1525F), 540C (1000F) temper, nitrided 350 - 595

AISI E4340 Steel, oil quenched 845C, 650C (1200F) temper 138 - 510

AISI E4340 Steel, oil quenched 845C, 425C (800F) temper 338 - 614

AISI E4340 H Steel, oil quenched 845C, 650C (1200F) temper 138 - 510

AISI E4340 H Steel, oil quenched 845C, 425C (800F) temper 338 - 614

AISI 8630 Steel, normalized 315

AISI 8630 Steel, oil quenched 845C (1550F), 455C (850F) temper 205 - 485

AISI 8630H Steel, normalized 315

AISI 8630H Steel, oil quenched 845C (1550F), 455C (850F) temper 205 - 485

AISI 86B30H Steel, normalized 315

AISI 86B30H Steel, oil quenched 845C (1550F), 455C (850F) temper 205 - 485

20 Standard gray iron test bars, as cast 69




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Material Name Fatigu

Strengt

(MPa)



ASTM 897/A897M-06 Grade 110-70-11 Austempered Ductile Iron 450

Austempered Ductile Iron (Obsolete with ASTM A897/A897M-06) 450

ASTM 897/A897M-06 Grade 130-90-09 Austempered Ductile Iron 450

ASTM 897 Grade 2 (150-100-07) Austempered Ductile Iron 385 - 485

ASTM 897 Grade 3 (175-125-04) Austempered Ductile Iron 380 - 415

302 Stainless Steel, 25% hardened strip 485 - 550

302 Stainless Steel, after cold work 485 - 550

303 Stainless Steel, annealed 240 - 330

303 Stainless Steel, annealed bar 240 - 330

303 Stainless Steel, cold drawn bar 240 - 330

347 Stainless Steel, cold drawn wire, 75% hard, 0.05-0.51 mm diameter 605



348 Stainless Steel, cold drawn wire, 75% hard 605

403 Stainless Steel, annealed, sheet 275 - 380

403 Stainless Steel, annealed, strip 275 - 380

403 Stainless Steel, soft tempered, wire 6.4 mm diameter 275 - 380

403 Stainless Steel, annealed, bar 275 - 380

403 Stainless Steel, tempered, bar 275 - 380

AK Steel 409 Ferritic Stainless steel 324

AK Steel 410 Martensitic Stainless steel 400

Carpenter Gall-Tough PLUS Stainless, Annealed, 0% Cold Work 293

Carpenter Gall-Tough PLUS Stainless, Annealed 293

Carpenter Custom 455 Stainless Steel, Condition H900 (Age Hardened 482C) 772Carpenter Custom 455 Stainless Steel, Condition H950 (Age Hardened 510C) 680

Carpenter Custom 455 Stainless Steel, Condition H1000 (Age Hardened 538C (1000F)) 630

Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, 25 mm Bar, Condition H1050 (Age Hardened 566C) 590

Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, Annealed 517

Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, Condition H900 (Age Hardened 482C) 660

Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, Condition H1000 (Age Hardened 538C (1000F)) 94

Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, Condition H1150 (Age Hardened 621C) 85

Carpenter 20Cb-3 Stainless Steel, Bar, Annealed at 1750F (955C) then Water Quenched 330

Carpenter 20Cb-3 Stainless Steel, Strip, Annealed at 1750F (955C) then Water Quenched 330

Carpenter AerMet 100 Aged at 900F

945Carpenter AerMet 100 Aged at 875F 945

Carpenter AerMet 310 1030

Carpenter AerMet 340 986

Crucible Steel 430F Stainless Steel 207

Crucible Steel 17Cr-4Ni Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steel 531 - 621

Crucible Steel 17Cr-4Ni Super-X Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steel 531 - 621

Dura-Bar 65-45-12 Continuously Cast Ductile Iron Bar Stock ASTM A536 290

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Material Name Fatigu

Strengt

(MPa)


Dura-Bar G2 Continuously Cast Gray Iron Bar Stock ASTM A48 138

Dura-Bar G1 Continuously Cast Gray Iron Bar Stock ASTM A48 68.9

Dura-Bar G1A Continuously Cast Gray Iron Bar Stock ASTM A48 68.9

International Mold Steel DC53 General-Purpose Cold Work Die and Mold Steel 833

Allegheny Ludlum 430 Ferritic Stainless Steel 159 - 243

Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 301, annealed (UNS S30100) 241

Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 301, 1/4 Hard (UNS S30100) 303

Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 301, 1/2 Hard (UNS S30100) 379

Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 301, Full Hard (UNS S30100) 552

Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 303, Annealed (UNS S30300) 285

Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 321 (UNS S32100) 180



Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 416, Tempered at 482C (UNS

S41600) 590Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 416, Tempered at 538C 470

Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 416, Tempered at 593C 410




Meehanite AQ Flake Graphit Cast Iron 207

Meehanite GM-60 Flake Graphit Cast Iron 172

Meehanite GA-50 Flake Graphit Cast Iron 152

Meehanite GC-40 Flake Graphit Cast Iron 121

Meehanite GE-30 Flake Graphit Cast Iron

93.1Meehanite GF-20 Flake Graphite Cast Iron 75.8

Meehanite Ductliron SP-80 Nodular Graphite Ductile Iron 269

Meehanite Ductliron SH-100 Nodular Graphite Ductile Iron 296

Meehanite Ductliron SF-60 Nodular Graphite Ductile Iron 207

Meehanite Ductliron AQS Nodular Graphite Ductile Iron 365

Meehanite K-295 Austempered Ductile Iron 269 - 434



Outokumpu LDX 2101 Duplex Stainless Steel 500

Outokumpu SAF 2304 Duplex Stainless Steel

450Outokumpu 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel 510

Outokumpu SAF 2507 Duplex Stainless Steel 550

Outokumpu 4404 Cr-Ni-Mo Austenitic Stainless Steel 360

QuesTek Innovations Ferrium C61 Case-hardened Gear Steel with Ultrahigh-strength Core 931 - 1340

Sandvik 13RM19 Strip Steel 1000 -

1070

American Utility Metals Cromgard Stainless Steel 296 - 441
http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=ef5e7aa003c2424cae83a02a1daa3a60http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=ef5e7aa003c2424cae83a02a1daa3a60http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=05f0795918314796a689d72341c96e90http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=05f0795918314796a689d72341c96e90http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=c2dd8c93ba7a439282552f41bcf35adfhttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=c2dd8c93ba7a439282552f41bcf35adfhttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=7c683c0f44b5414594407955abe58724http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=7c683c0f44b5414594407955abe58724http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=01aeae31fba1405eac1e73a8cf7290f7http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=01aeae31fba1405eac1e73a8cf7290f7http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=ee75d12c97b04b83bbc39af4d7bc5189http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=ee75d12c97b04b83bbc39af4d7bc5189http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=67693347248744d7a15fb79e033dc49dhttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=67693347248744d7a15fb79e033dc49dhttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=040774305ac34296a004cb3292660055http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=040774305ac34296a004cb3292660055http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a218b28dd6184a8790bfa9349d375202http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a218b28dd6184a8790bfa9349d375202http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=185eb07a8afd464bb4045246ccc12948http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=185eb07a8afd464bb4045246ccc12948http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=555ed14ba686415e8da93c115af98110http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=555ed14ba686415e8da93c115af98110http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=b5b743e7195340d7a00e22cc87050499http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=b5b743e7195340d7a00e22cc87050499http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=48910055e3444c20bee79f1b68e3dba7http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=48910055e3444c20bee79f1b68e3dba7http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=17e1b42b3dbc41bbbdf1b460656b41bbhttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=17e1b42b3dbc41bbbdf1b460656b41bbhttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=056ba72f546e43ee8281749b9694bedehttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=056ba72f546e43ee8281749b9694bedehttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=3423406edd924c48ad8e60c9136e4187http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=895bf058605d4e82891455d91a2fa982http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=25f6a3c7136f4004b8bc832e4bc50217http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=801341dcff79428cb2f47bd0383d618ahttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=41df1b56126c4442a5c44ea07b89efd8http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=e33659ec881046adaea99710bf62b3dehttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=e33659ec881046adaea99710bf62b3dehttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a1d16849eb1f4ffb86a5c64154e2f546http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a1d16849eb1f4ffb86a5c64154e2f546http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=1b0a79b06249414fba7bdf4a4b0c1600http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=1b0a79b06249414fba7bdf4a4b0c1600http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=243e2dd2bdb5448eb8c3adfda0017ffbhttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=243e2dd2bdb5448eb8c3adfda0017ffbhttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=0cbcab2d4ba94a509f2c88def4de7212http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=0cbcab2d4ba94a509f2c88def4de7212http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a24ef9293a5241c3968a92a6ec3c8e37http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a24ef9293a5241c3968a92a6ec3c8e37http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=63666ee96eca4927bf4915541e4aec2ehttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=63666ee96eca4927bf4915541e4aec2ehttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=7fb1d2ef34bc45f58f97510597a7a443http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=7fb1d2ef34bc45f58f97510597a7a443http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=54023124d5ac460a99b3c58874018969http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=54023124d5ac460a99b3c58874018969http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=038d116c695f44afa23301f9e8033ba2http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=038d116c695f44afa23301f9e8033ba2http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=f94ed095c6be433585a92ee4974b35e2http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=f94ed095c6be433585a92ee4974b35e2http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=d6174d82eee242c0a983168da768fafehttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=d6174d82eee242c0a983168da768fafehttp://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?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6. Factors influencing fatigue

6.1 Cyclic stress state: One or more properties of state need to be considered, depending on thecomplexity of the geometrical proportions, such as stress amplitude, mean stress, biaxiality, in-phase or out-of-phase shear stress, and load sequence.

6.2 Geometry: Fatigue cracks are initiated at stress concentrations caused by notches and variations incross section throughout the component.

The theory is that failure starts at the weakest link, the most favorably orientated metal crystal for example,

and then grows through less favorably orientated grains until final failure. Logically it suggests that the

larger the component the higher probability of a weaker part for fatigue to initiate. This theory has been

confirmed by actual test data, especially in the case of bending and torsion.

More than 95% of the maximum stress is concentrated in a thin layer of surface tension by the stress gradientbuilt up through the section, in bending and to a lesser extent in torsion. So it is safe to assume that if thevolume of material available that could contain a critical flaw is greater, it will lead to reduced fatigue

strength. The stress gradient is absent in axial tension and thus the effect of size is small.

Any bends or changes in shape produce concentrated stress areas that lower the fatigue life as there is a

greater chance of flaws within the components material.

The shape of the structure will significantly affect the fatigue life. Square holes or sharp corners will lead to

elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets are

therefore important to increase the fatigue strength of the structure.

6.3 Surface quality: Microscopic stress concentrations are produced by surface roughness and lower thefatigue limit.

A very high percentage of all fatigue failures have their origin at the surface of parts. From this we can

deduce that surface type is an extremely important factor influencing fatigue strength. Polished laboratoryspecimen standards are compared to various surface conditions. Additional stress raisers are produced by

scratches, pits, machining marks etc and lower fatigue strength.

High strength steels are affected more by a rough surface finish than softer steels (see diagram below). Thesurface finish correction factor used to calculate diameters of shafts is strongly related to tensile strength.

Here the surface finish correction factor categorizes by terms such as polished, machined, and forged.


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Note that other factors also play a role in above curves as a result of the manufacturing process. For example

the forged and hot rolled curves include the effect of decarburization.

Other diagrams present the surface finish correction factor in a more quantitative way by using a quantitative

measure of surface roughness such as RA(the root mean square) or AA (the arithmetic average). The

following diagram shows the effect of surface roughness on the surface finish correction factor.

6.4 Material Type: Fatigue life, as well as the behavior during cyclic loading, varies widely for differentmaterials.

6.5 Residual stresses: Fatigue strength is greatly decreased by processes such as welding, cutting, casting,and other manufacturing processes involving heat or deformation.

6.6 Size and distribution of internal defects: The fatigue limit is lower drastically by casting defectssuch as gas porosity, non-metallic inclusions and shrinkage voids.

6.7 Direction of loading: Fatigue strength depends on the direction of the main stress in non-isotropicmaterials.

6.8 Grain size: Smaller grains produce longer fatigue lives in most metals but are affected more by surface

defects and scratches than larger grained alloys.

6.9 Environment: Fatigue life can be affected by environmental conditions as it can cause erosion,corrosion, or gas-phase embrittlement.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_porosity_(casting)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-metallic_inclusionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-metallic_inclusionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_porosity_(casting)


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6.10 Temperature: Extreme temperatures or large temperature changes can decrease fatigue strength.

6.11 Surface treatment: Fatigue life can be increased by producing compressive residual stresses in thesurface by e.g. shot peening. Low plasticity burnishing, laser peening, and ultrasonic impact treatment can

also produce this surface compressive stress. This increase in fatigue life by means of surface treatment isnormally observed only for high-cycle fatigue. Surface treatment can have a large influence on fatigue

strength, especially the endurance limit. The remaining stress at the free surface is altered by of surfacetreatment.

Residual stress can be replaced by stresses produced by an external force for some calculation purposes.

Fatigue failure can be reduced by the presence of residual stresses at the surface.

Mechanical, thermal, and plating processes are the categories in which surface treatments are usually divided

into. The first two processes provide a compressive layer. Plating provides a tensile residual stress.

Mechanical Treatments: Commercially the main methods for producing residual compressive stresses are

cold rolling and shot peening. These processes do alter the strength of the material but the fatigue limit

increase is due mainly to compressive surface stresses. Crankshafts and high load axles are usually subjectedto surface rolling as they are large parts

Shot peenin consists of firing fine steel or cast iron shot against the surface of a component. This method is

well suited to processing small mass produced parts.

Thermal Treatments: These processes rely on either carbon or nitrogen being diffused onto and into the

surface of the component. Both types of atoms occupy the space between iron atoms.

Carburizing is typically a three-step process:

1. Inserting the steel components within boxes which contain carbonaceous solids2. Sealing to exclude the atmosphere3. Heating to about 900 degrees Celsius for a period of time that depends on the depth of the case

required

An alternative method is heating the components in a furnace in the presence of a carburizing gas and is afaster and more accurate method.

The nitriding: This process is very similar to gas carburizing except that ammonia gas is used and the

process takes place at lower temperatures. A nitrided case depth of about 0.5 mm can be obtained by a 48

hour soak at about 550 degrees Celsius. Below is an example of the effect of nitriding.

Limit (MPa)

Geometry Not Nitrided Nitrided

Un-notched 310 620

Semicircular notch 175 600

V notch 175 550
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_peeninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_plasticity_burnishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_peeninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_impact_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_impact_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_peeninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_plasticity_burnishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_peening


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Plating: The endurance limit is decreased chrome and nickel plating of steel components due to the

creation of tensile residual stresses at the surface. Shot peening or nitriding prior to plating will reduce theharmful effect of plating. The stress induced by plating can also be relieved bu means of annealing

The Quantitative Effect of Surface Treatments on the Endurance Limit (Steels)

Surface finish affects the final effect of surface treatment on fatigue strength as shown below.

Increase in Limit

Finish Shot Peened Cold Rolled Nitrided

Polished +15% +50% +100%

Ground +20% +0% +100%

Machined +30% +70% +100%

Hot Rolled +40% +0% +100%

Cast +40% +0% +100%

Forged +100% +0% +100%

6.12 Frequency of stress intervals.

At higher frequencies more cycles of stress occur in less time. For higher frequencies a smaller load isneeded to produce a fracture in the material for a given time. In low frequency cycles fracture occurs slower

than in high frequency cycles. From the S-N diagrams we can see that the higher the frequency of the loads

the lower the amount of stress that the component can handle. Thus an increase in frequency is directly

proportional to a lower life span.

7. Comparison of stress at fillet radius and bending stress at uniform sectionsThe fillet radius is the radius of a curve which has been cut on a beam or gear tooth and its purpose is to

evenly distribute the forces that would have acted on a sharp point of a rotating structure there by reducingthe wear of the component and allowing it to last longer because the force acting on it is not as close to the

endurance limit. Therefore a component with a correct fillet radius is able withstand a greater number of

cycles of the load than a component without a fillet radius. Bending moment at uniform section refers to a

materials resistance to bending when load are applied to beam usually. It uses the second moment of area to

determine the yield strength of materials and it allows us to understand how different forces atvarying distances affect the stresses in a beam and how the beam will handle cycles of different forces.


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8. Bibliographyhttp://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Limit.aspx

http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Test.aspx

http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Strength.aspx

http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Ratio.aspx

http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Notch-Factor.aspx

http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Stress-Strain-Diagram.aspx

http://academic.uprm.edu/pcaceres/Courses/INME4011/MD-6B.pdf

http://www.mw-ind.com/pdfs/GoodmanFatigueLifeEstimates.pdf

http://www.ux.uis.no/~hirpa/KdB/ME/S-N%20diagram.pdf

http://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/me471/thompson/handout/class13_2005SFatigue.pdf

http://www.asminternational.org/content/ASM/StoreFiles/05224G_Chapter14.pdf

http://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/me471/thompson/handout/class10_2005SFailureTheory.pdf

http://clic-meeting.web.cern.ch/clic-meeting/2003/06_26sh.pdf

http://www2.hcmuaf.edu.vn/data/phamducdung/thamkhao/Mark's%20Standard-

Handbook/Strength%20of%20Material.pdf

http://www.eng.auburn.edu/users/marghitu/chapter3.pdf

http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1172&context=icec&sei-

redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Furl%3Fsa%3Dt%26rct%3Dj%26q%3Dhow%2520does%2520shape%2520of%2520component%2520influence%2520fatigue%26source%3Dweb%26cd%3D9

%26cad%3Drja%26ved%3D0CE8QFjAI%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fdocs.lib.purdue.edu%252Fcg

i%252Fviewcontent.cgi%253Farticle%253D1172%2526context%253Dicec%26ei%3DX0hbUYjrB-

iN7AashIHgBg%26usg%3DAFQjCNHvW8KFPqyNibuhcgWfb-

fM6LiSYw%26sig2%3DhT5b3yugEUmZBCaDxWjSeg%26bvm%3Dbv.44697112%2Cd.ZGU#search=%22how%20does%20shape%20component%20influence%20fatigue%22

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/350267.html

http://www.scielo.br/img/fbpe/mr/v5n2/11039f2.gif

http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/cad/proewild3/usascii/proe/promec/online/fatigue.htm
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Fatiguea ssignement strength of materials 3