FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture - Hippocampus Comes

8/17/2019 FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture - Hippocampus Comes

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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

for a world without hunger Fisheries and

Aquaculture Department

Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme

Hippocampus comes (Cantor, 1849)

I. Identitya. Biological Features

b. Images Gallery

II. Profilea. Historical Background

b. Main Producer Countries

c. Habitat And BiologyIII. Production

a. Production Cycle

b. Production Systems

c. Diseases And Control Measures

IV. Statisticsa. Market And Trade

V. Status And Trends

VI. Main Issuesa. Responsible Aquaculture Practices

VII. Referencesa. Related Links

Identity

Hippocampus comes Cantor, 1849 [Syngnathidae]

FAO Names: En - Tiger tail seahorse, Fr - Hippocampe à queue tigrée, Es - Caballo de mar

oceánico

Biological features

Trunk compressed, more or less elevated, belly gibbous. Coronet small and rather low, with five rounded

knobs. Anal minute. Pectoral short and broad. Dorsal moderate, situated on two trunk rings and one tail ring.

Spines range from knob-like and blunt to well-developed and sharp; often with dark band near tip. Cheek

spines are double. Double spines below and sometimes above eyes. Prominent, sharp nose spine; long, slendersnout. Colour yellow and black body, sometimes alternating; striped tail; mottled or blotched pattern on body;

may have fine white lines radiating from eye.

Images gallery

FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

http://www.fao.org/fi/website/FIRetrieveAction.do?dom=topic&fid=16064&lang=en


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Hippocampus comes

(courtesy: Truong Si Ky. 2009)

Large scale production of seahorses

Nha Trang, Viet Nam

Large scale production of seahorses

Nha Trang, Viet Nam

Fry production tanks (Viet Nam)

Profile

Historical background

Seahorses are under threat worldwide because of the global demand for them and products arising from them.

It is claimed that nearly 80 nations trade 24 millions seahorses annually. Currently the largest threat to

seahorses is their use in traditional Chinese medicines. Dead seahorses are milled and used as cures or remedies

for human skin ailments, high cholesterol levels, excess throat phlegm, goitres, heart disease, lymph node

disorders, incontinence and impotence. As seahorses retain their shape after being dried many are also sold as

souvenirs. The largest markets for these products are North America, Europe, Japan and Taiwan Province of China. Many are also taken for home aquaria but, being difficult to rear, most are lost. The tiger tail seahorse

Hippocampus comes is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 2004. This species is particularly targeted by

fishers for medicinal and aquarium purposes; it is also incidentally caught by trawlers. In the Philippines the

population of this species has been reported to have decreased by up to 70 percent over the decade 1985-1995.

Culturing seahorses is one of the measures being taken to sustainably recruit this species and also to meet the

demand for Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCM) and the aquarium trade. In Viet Nam, for conservation

reasons, F1 broodstock are kept in cages where they produce a lot of fry daily for release into the sea.

Main producer countries

Although many countries, including Australia, China, India, Indonesia, New Zealand and the United States of

America are reported to culture seahorses, primarily for the aquarium trade, the tiger tail seahorse is currently

cultured only in Viet Nam.



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Habitat and biology

Tiger tail seahorses are mainly found in coral reefs, sponges and seagrasses, at a depth of 10-20 m. Juveniles

prefer to live amonst Sargassum and move to corals and sponges when they become older. Seahorse fry are

pelagic and settle to the bottom when they are 35-40 mm. The fry feed on zooplankton, mainly copepods,

while adults prefer to catch benthic organisms (Amphipoda, Palaemonidae).

This species is found in the Western Central Pacific area, in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,

Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam.

In its natural environment, Hippocampus comes spawns throughout the year but the peak spawning season varies

according to their distribution. In Viet Nam, peak spawning lasts from August to November, but in Philippines

it is later - from September to December. The first maturing size of H. comes is 119 mm in Viet Nam and 102

mm in Philippines. Eggs diameter averages 1.2-1.5 mm; gestation duration is 10-14 days; length at birth

averages 8-9 mm. In captivity the life cycle has been closed.

The von Bertalanffy equation shows H∞ = 165.9 mm and k = 0.78/year (Viet Nam) and SL∞ = 205 mm, k =

1.7/year (Philippines).

Production

Production cycle

Production cycle of Hippocampus comes

Production systems

Seed supply

Broodstock are obtained by divers from the wild or from F1 generation animals maintained in captivity. TheFAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department


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broodstock animals are kept in cages (2 x 2 x 4 m), located in calm sea in a bay or in indoor tanks (2 x 2 x 1.5

m). The feeding regime is the same as the maintenance feeding, but some vitamin A, C and E is added to the

food. Broodstock become mature after six or seven months. In captivity, H. comes spawns many times per year

(5-8 times) and the brood size ranges from 195 to 626 eggs (average 360). In the spawning season, females

transfer their ripe eggs to the pouch of the males. Embryo development takes place in this pouch within 10-20

days, depending on the temperature of the water, the optimum being 26-28 oC.

One day after spawning, the fry are transferred, using a 1 mm mesh net, to 0.5 m3 plastic indoor tanks supplied

with a biofilter, combined with UV and ozone treatment. The fry are stocked at 1-2/litre and the environmentalconditions are maintained at 30-35‰; 4-5 ppm DO2; pH 8.0-8.3; light 12D/12L and 1 000-2 000 lux; zero

ammonia-N and nitrite-N; 80 percent survival.

Ongrowing techniques

After 40 days of fry rearing the seahorses are transferred by net for rearing to commercial size in larger indoortanks (2-4 m3) or outdoor cages placed in calm bay waters with high transparency. Initially the stocking rate is

500/m3 but is decreased as the fry grow to 200/m3 by the end of the rearing period. Tiger tail seahorses grow

rapidly, reaching commercial size for aquaria (6-8 cm) in three months. The survival rate from birth to adult is

>70 percent. It takes 10-12 months to rear them to their maximum size (12-16 cm).

Feed supply

During the grow-out phase the seahorses are weaned to frozen feed (Mysis and Acetes collected from the wild)

twice per day fed ad libitum. If available, adult enriched live Artemia can be used, giving good growth and survival.

Harvesting techniques

All seahorses are harvested by net (typically with a 40 cm diameter and a 1 mm mesh size).

Handling and processing

All cultured seahorses in Viet Nam are packed in seawater with additional oxygen and transported at 3-5/litre

for live sale to exporters, who sell them in the United States of America, European Union, Taiwan Province of

China and Canada.

Production costs

Production costs to rear live 8-10 cm seahorses in Viet Nam is ~ USD 1.00 (2009).

Diseases and control measures

In some cases antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals have been used in treatment but their inclusion in this table does not imply an FAO

recommendation.

DISEASE AGENT TYPE SYNDROME MEASURES

Ciliate infestation Zoothamnium

sp. ProtozoanOccurs on seahorse tail; appears

like cotton

Dip in 100-200 ppm

formaldehyde for 12 hours,

repeating daily for 3 days

White spot Ichthyophthirus

sp.

Protozoan White spots on body

Dip in 100-200 ppm

formaldehyde for 12 hours,

repeating daily for 3 days

External Gas

Bubble Disease

(EGBD) and

Said to be

caused by gas

saturation in the

Interferes with bouyancy and

swimming; stresses the fish,

Submerge below 2m; or

use Diamox 250 mg at a



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Internal Gas

Bubble Disease

(IGBD)

water or by

infected

bacteria

weakening them and eventually

causing death

,

repeating treatment daily

for 5 days

Vibriosis Vibrio harveyi Bacterium

External haemorrhages;

haermorrhagic liver; ascitic fluid

accumulation in intestinal cavity

Improve environment by

using probiotic ( Baccilus

spp.) or using UV and

ozone; antibiotic treatment

(Ciprofloxin 5-10 ppm)

Snout and tail rotCostia spp.;Saprolengia

spp.

Bacteria and

fungi

First symptoms are

discolouration and swelling in

snout and tail; refusal to eat and

swim; lethargy; later, tip of snout

becomes inflamed and eroded


using probiotic ( Bacillus spp.)

or using UV and ozone;

antibiotic treatment

(Ciprofloxin 5-10 ppm)

Lymphocystis;

cauliflower disease Iridovirus Virus

Variably sized white to yellow

lumps (appear cauliflower

shaped) on skin


using probiotic ( Bacillus spp.)

or UV and ozone; antibiotic

treatment (Ciprofloxin 5-10

ppm)

Statistics

Market and trade

Dried seahorses are used for traditional medicine and as curios. Live seahorses are sold for aquarium or

hobbyist purposes. For aquaria the seahorses are marketed at >6 cm, but for TCM (Traditional Chinese

Medicine) at 12-16 cm. Most dried seahorses are exported to China and to China, Hong Kong SAR. The value

is USD 100-300/kg (2008), depending on the size and species; the larger animals are the most valuable. Live

seahorses are exported to the United States of America and the European Union, mainly from Asian countries.

The value of live seahorses ranges from USD 100-900/animal (www.seahorse.com), depending of their colour,

size and type of market. Annual live production has been relatively static at 2 millions individuals, while the

dried seahorse production is said to be >20 millions (70 tonnes). Viet Nam and China are the major producers.

This species has been bred successfully only since 2006 and only in Viet Nam. Until 2009, specific trade data

on tiger tail seahorses is lacking but it is clear that most of the estimates 2 millions live animals destined for the

aquarium trade come from the wild. Viet Nam is currently exporting about 50 000 live seahorses, of which

about 10 000 are cultured.

Status and trendsThe demand for live seahorses for aquarium use, as well as dried seahorses for TCM, is increasing globally;

until now (2009) demand exceeds supply. The demand fo aquaria is relatively small but for TCM is

considerable.

The following developments are required:

Selective breeding programmes for improving disease resistance.

Improved techniques of aquaculture, in order to avoid overfishing.

Increased awareness on the importance of seahorse conservation in communities to encourage the

sustainable exploitation of seahorse resources.

Main issues

Seahorses are mainly caught from the wild but these are threatened by overfishing and the degredation of theirhabitat. Seahorse resources have been reported to have declined by significant amounts during the first half of

the 1990s (15-50 percent, depending on the specific areas or countries). Demand up to now exceeds supply

and now many seahorse species are listed in CITES, Apendix II.



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Responsible aquaculture practices

Hippocampus comes is included in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable.

There are some programmes in Viet Nam releasing seahorses produced through aquaculture to the sea for

enhancement. However, this may cause disease transfer to the wild seahorse population if not carefully

controlled. Using many broodstock seahorses for aquaculture may also affect the recruitment population.

About 1 000-2 000 juveniles are released annually in Viet Nam to marine areas where wild seahorses were

formally found but have now disappeared.

References

Bibliography

Belli, M., Driscoll, C., Lamont, M. et al. 2006. Working notes: a guide to seahorse diseases. Creative Licence

Publishers, USA.160 pp.

Foster, S.J. & Vincent, A.C.J. 2004. Life history and ecology of seahorses: implications for conservation and

management. Journal of Fish Biology, 65:1-61.

Lourie, S.A., Pritchard, J.C., Casey, S.P., Ky, T.S., Hall, H.J. & Vincent, A.C.J. 1999a. The taxonomy of Vietnam’s exploited seahorses (family Syngnathidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 66:231–256.

Lourie, S.A., Vincent, A.C.J. & Hall, H.J. 1999b. Seahorses: an identification guide to the world's species and

their conservation. Project Seahorse, London. 214 pp.

Morgan, S.K. & Lourie, S.A. 2006. Threatened fishes of the world: Hippocampus comes, Cantor 1850

(Syngnathidae). Environmental Biology of Fishes, 75:311-313.

Morgan, S.K. & Vincent, A.C. 2007. The ontogeny of habitat associations in the tropical tiger tail seahorse

Hippocampus comes Cantor 1850. Journal of Fish Biology, 71:701-724.

Perante, N.C., Pajaro, M.G. & Vincent, A.C.J. 1998. Demographics of the seahorse Hippocampus comes inthe Central Philippines. In B. Morton (ed.), The marine biology of the South China Sea. Proceedings of the

Third International Conference on the Marine Biology of the South China Sea, Hong Kong, 28 October - 1

November 1996, pp. 439-448. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong.

Perante, N.C., Pajaro, M.G., Meeuwig, J.J. & Vincent, A.C.J. 2002. Biology of a seahorse species

Hippocampus comes in the central Philippines. Journal of Fish Biology, 60:821–837.

Salin, K.R., Yohannan, T.M. & Nair, C.M. 2005. Fisheries and trade of seahorses, Hippocampus spp., in

southern India. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 12:269-273.

Truong, S.K. 1998. Prospects for community-based seahorse aquaculture in Viet Nam. In B. Morton (ed.) The

marine biology of the South China Sea. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Marine

Biology of the South China Sea, Hong Kong, 28 October - 1 November 1996, pp. 465 – 474. Hong Kong

University Press, Hong Kong.

Truong, S.K., Ho, T.H., Hoang, D.L. & Pham, V.L. 2009. The effect of different kind of feed on the growth

and survival rates of adult tiger tail seahorse (Hippocampus comes, Cantor, 1885). Journal of Marine Science

and Technology, 2:71-80.

Vincent, A.C.J. 1996. The International trade in Seahorses. Cambridge, UK: TRAFFIC International. 163 pp.

Vincent, A.C.J. 2004. Summary of the 2003 IUCN Red listings for family Syngnathidae. Proceedings of

International wookshop on CITES implementation for seahorse conservation and trade. February 3 – 5. 2004.Mexico.

Related links

FishBaseFAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

http://new_window%28%27http//www.fishbase.org/home.htm','biblio',tl,lo,di,st,mn,sc,rs,wd,hi);


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FAO FishStatJ – Universal software for fishery statistical time series

Project Seahorse

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

Seahorse

Vietnamese academy of science and technology

http://new_window%28%27http//www.vnio.org.vn','biblio',tl,lo,di,st,mn,sc,rs,wd,hi);http://new_window%28%27http//www.seahorse.com','biblio',tl,lo,di,st,mn,sc,rs,wd,hi);http://new_window%28%27http//www.redlist.org/apps/redlist/details/41008/0','biblio',tl,lo,di,st,mn,sc,rs,wd,hi);http://new_window%28%27http//www.projectseahorse.com','biblio',tl,lo,di,st,mn,sc,rs,wd,hi);http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en

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FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture - Hippocampus Comes