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FamilyFamily
Basic ConceptsBasic Concepts
Family–A social institution found in all societies that unites people into cooperative groups to oversee the bearing and raising of children
Kinship–A social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption
Marriage–A legal relationship, usually involving economic cooperation, sexual activity, and childbearing
Families of affinity–People who think of themselves as a family and wish others to see them that way
Families: Global VariationsFamilies: Global Variations
Extended family–A family consisting of parents and children as well as other kin
◦Also called "consanguine families"
Nuclear family–A family composed of one or two parents and their children
◦Also called "conjugal family"
◦The predominant family form
Marriage PatternsMarriage Patterns
Endogamy–Marriage between people of the same social category
Exogamy–Marriage between people of different social categories
Monogamy–Marriage that unites two partners
Marriage PatternsMarriage Patterns
Polygamy–Marriage that unites a person with two or more spouses
◦Polygyny–Marriage that unites one man and two or more women
◦Polyandry–Marriage that unites one woman and two or more men
Residential PatternsResidential Patterns
Patrilocality◦With or near the husband’s family
Matrilocality◦With or near the wife’s family
Neolocality◦Setting up house apart from both families
Structural-Functional AnalysisStructural-Functional Analysis
The family performs many vital tasks◦Socialization–Creating well-integrated
members of society
◦Regulation of sexual activity–Maintenance of kinship order and property rights, incest taboos
◦Social placement–Births to married couples are preferred.
◦Material and emotional security–Home can be a haven.
Structural-Functional AnalysisStructural-Functional Analysis
Critical evaluation◦Glosses over great diversity of family life,
how other institutions are taking over its roles, and negative aspects like patriarchy and family violence
Social-Conflict &Social-Conflict &Feminist AnalysisFeminist Analysis
The family perpetuates social inequality.
◦Property and inheritance–Concentrates wealth and reproduces class structure
◦Patriarchy–To know their heirs, men must control women’s sexuality.
◦Racial and ethnic inequality–Racial and ethnic categories persist over generations because most people marry others like themselves.
Critical evaluation
◦Ignores that families carry out functions not easily accomplished by other means
Applying Theory Applying Theory FamilyFamily
Micro-Level AnalysisMicro-Level Analysis
Symbolic-Interaction◦Opportunities for sharing activities helps
build emotional bonds.Social-Exchange
◦Courtship & marriage as a negotiation to make the “best deal” on a partner.
Critical evaluation◦Misses the bigger picture; family life is
similar for people in similar social backgrounds and varies in predictable ways
Stages of Family LifeStages of Family Life
Courtship◦Arranged marriages vs. romantic love◦Homogamy–Marriage between people with
same social characteristicsSettling in
◦Ideal vs. real marriageChild rearing
◦Industrialization transformed children from assets to liabilities.
Later life◦Empty nest
Class, Race, and GenderClass, Race, and Gender
Social class◦Social class determines both a family’s financial
security and its range of opportunities.Ethnicity and race
◦American Indian Families◦Latino Families◦African American Families◦Ethnically and racially mixed marriages
Gender◦Bernard: Marriage benefits men more than
women.
Figure 18.2 Figure 18.2 Divorce Rate for the United Divorce Rate for the United States, 1890-2005States, 1890-2005
DivorceDivorce
In the US, nine out of 10 people will marry. Four in 10 marriages end in divorce. Why?◦Individualism on the rise◦Romantic love often subsides.◦Women are less dependent upon men.◦Many of today’s marriages are stressful.◦Divorce is socially acceptable.◦Legally, a divorce is easier to get.
Figure 18.3 Figure 18.3 Payment of Child Payment of Child Support after Support after DivorceDivorce..
RemarriageRemarriage
Four out of five people who divorce remarry, most within five years.
Remarriage often creates blended families.
Offer both young and old the chance to relax rigid family roles
Alternative Family FormsAlternative Family Forms
One-parent families◦Single parenthood increases a woman’s risk
of poverty because it limits work and education.
◦Poverty raises the odds that a young woman will be a single mother.
Cohabitation–The sharing of a household by an unmarried couple
Alternative Family FormsAlternative Family Forms
Gay and lesbian couples◦The trend in public opinion is toward greater
support for homosexual relationships.Singlehood
◦Increasing numbers of people are choosing to live alone.
Looking AheadLooking Ahead
Divorce rates remain high.◦More equality between sexes
All kinds of units will be called families.Men will continue to play a limited role
in child rearing.◦Many will remain absent from household
scenes.
Looking AheadLooking Ahead
Economic changes will affect families and reform marriage.◦Less quality time as work demands more
from parentsNew reproductive technologies
◦Ethical concerns about what can and what should be done
ReligionReligion
Basic ConceptsBasic ConceptsEmile Durkheim
◦Religion involves things that surpass the limits of our knowledge.
Profane–Ordinary elements of everyday life
Sacred–Set apart as extraordinary, inspiring awe and reverence
Religion–The social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the sacred
Ritual–Formal, ceremonial behavior
Religion and SociologyReligion and Sociology
Faith–Belief based conviction rather than scientific evidence
Sociology asks why religions take a particular form in one society or another.◦Asks how religious activity affects society as
a whole
Structural-functional AnalysisStructural-functional AnalysisDurkheim: Religion has 3 major
functions.◦Social cohesion
Totem–An object in the natural world collectively defined as sacred
◦Social control◦Provides meaning and purpose
Critical Evaluation◦Downplays religion’s dysfunctions such as
generating social conflict and violence
Symbolic-interaction AnalysisSymbolic-interaction Analysis
Religion is socially constructed. Berger: “Cosmic frame of reference” gives
us the appearance of “ultimate security and permanence.”
Critical Evaluation◦Downplays religion’s link to social inequality
Social-conflict AnalysisSocial-conflict Analysis
Religion serves the elites by legitimizing the status quo and diverting attention from social inequities.◦Disrupts cultures with attempts to “convert
heathens”◦Marx: “Opium of the people”
Critical Evaluation◦Downplays religion’s efforts to promote social
equality
Applying Theory Applying Theory ReligionReligion
Religious OrganizationsReligious OrganizationsChurch–A type of religious organization
that is well-integrated into the larger society
State church–Church formally allied with the state
Denomination–A church, independent of the state, that recognizes religious pluralism
Religious OrganizationsReligious OrganizationsSect–A type of religious organization
that stands apart from the larger society◦Charisma–Extraordinary personal qualities
that can turn people into followersCult–A religious organization that is
largely outside a society’s cultural traditions
Religion in HistoryReligion in HistoryIn pre-industrial societies
◦Animism–Elements of the natural world are conscious life forms that affect humanity
◦Belief in a single divine power responsible for creating the world began with pastoral and horticultural societies.
Religion in HistoryReligion in HistoryIn industrial societies
◦The Industrial Revolution introduced a growing emphasis on science.
◦Science: How does the world work?◦Religion: Why are we here?
Figure 19.1 Figure 19.1 Religiosity in Global PerspectiveReligiosity in Global Perspective
Table 19.1 Table 19.1 Religious Identification in the United States, 2004Religious Identification in the United States, 2004
Religion in the USReligion in the US
Religious affiliation◦New England, Southwest: Mostly Catholic◦South: Mostly Baptist◦Northern plains: Mostly Lutheran ◦Utah: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
SaintsReligiosity–The importance of religion in
a person’s lifeReligious affiliation is related to social
class, ethnicity, and race.
National Map 19.1 National Map 19.1 Religious Membership across the United StatesReligious Membership across the United States
National Map 19.2 National Map 19.2 Religious Diversity across the United StatesReligious Diversity across the United States
Figure 19.2 Figure 19.2 Religious Nonaffiliation among Religious Nonaffiliation among First-Year College Students, First-Year College Students, 1970-20061970-2006
Religion in a Changing SocietyReligion in a Changing Society
Secularization–Historical decline in the importance of the supernatural and the sacred
Civil religion–A quasi-religious loyalty binding people in a basically secular society
Religion in a Changing SocietyReligion in a Changing SocietyReligious revival
◦New Age spirituality flourishes◦Interests increases in fundamentalism–A
conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism and worldly accommodation in favor of restoring traditional, otherworldly religion
The Electronic Church◦“Prime-time preachers” on television
EducationEducation
Education vs. SchoolingEducation vs. Schooling
Education–The social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge, including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values
Schooling–Formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers
Global Map 20.1 Global Map 20.1 Illiteracy in Global PerspectiveIlliteracy in Global Perspective
Functions of SchoolingFunctions of SchoolingSocialization
◦Primary schooling: Basic language and mathematical skills
◦Secondary schooling: Expansion of basic skills to include cultural values and norms
Cultural innovation◦Educational systems create as well as
transmit cultureSocial integration
◦Brings a diverse nation togetherSocial placement
◦The enhancement of meritocracy
Table 20.1 Table 20.1 Educational Achievement in the United States, 1910-2006Educational Achievement in the United States, 1910-2006
Latent Functions of SchoolingLatent Functions of SchoolingSchools as child-care providersEngages young people at a time in their
lives when jobs are not plentifulSets the stage for establishing
relationships & networksLink between particular schools and
career opportunities
Critical AnalysisCritical Analysis
Functionalist approach overlooks that the quality of schooling is far greater for some than for others.
US educational system reproduces the class structure in each generation
System transforms privilege into personal worthiness and social disadvantage into personal deficiency.
Schooling and Social InequalitySchooling and Social InequalitySocial control
◦Schooling reinforces the status quo.
◦Bowles & Gintis: The 19th-century rise of public education came when factory owners needed obedient, disciplined workers.
Standardized testing
◦Biased based on race, ethnicity, or class?
Schooling and Social InequalitySchooling and Social Inequality
School tracking
◦Tracking–Assigning students to different types of educational programs
◦Disadvantaged students typically end up in lower tracks.
School inequality
◦Public vs. private schools
◦Even public schools are not all the same.
Critical AnalysisCritical Analysis
Social-conflict approach minimizes the extent to which schooling enhances upward social mobility for talented men and women from all backgrounds.
Today’s college curricula (including sociology courses) challenges social inequity on many fronts.
Access to Higher EducationAccess to Higher Education
Money is largest stumbling block to higher education.
Family income is still best predictor for college attendance.
Those with the most schooling are likely to come from relatively well-off families to begin with.
National Map 20.1 National Map 20.1 Teachers’ Salaries across the United StatesTeachers’ Salaries across the United States
Figure 20.1 Figure 20.1 College Attendance and Family College Attendance and Family Income, 2005Income, 2005
Figure 20.2 Figure 20.2 Educational Educational Achievement for Achievement for Various Various Categories of Categories of People, Aged 25 People, Aged 25 Years and Over, Years and Over, 20062006
Expanding Higher EducationExpanding Higher Education
The government makes money available to help certain categories of people pay for college.
Community colleges◦Low tuition◦Special importance for minorities◦Attract students from abroad◦Faculty focuses on teaching.
Applying Theory Applying Theory EducationEducation
Problems in SchoolsProblems in Schools
Discipline and violence◦Many believe schools need to teach
discipline because it isn’t addressed within the home setting.
◦Students and teachers are assaulted.◦Weapons are brought to school.◦Society’s problems spill into schools.
Student passivity◦Many students are bored.
BureaucracyBureaucracy
Rigid uniformity◦Insensitive to cultural character of community
Numerical ratings◦Success defined in terms of numbers on test
scores
Rigid expectations◦Age and grade-level expectations
Specialization◦Many courses, many teachers; no one teacher
knows a student
Little individual responsibility◦Students not encouraged to learn on their own
College: The Silent ClassroomCollege: The Silent Classroom
Passivity is also common among college and university students.
Karp and Yoels: Most students think classroom passivity is their fault.
Students find little value in classroom discussion.
Dropping OutDropping OutThe dropout rate has declined slightly in
recent decades.Dropping out is least pronounced
among non-Hispanic whitesResearchers: Actual dropout rates are
probably at least twice the government's numbers.
Some reasons for dropping out:◦Problems with the English language ◦Pregnancy◦Must work to help support their family
Academic StandardsAcademic Standards• Functional illiteracy–A lack of reading and
writing skills needed for everyday living
• The US spends more on schooling than almost any other country, but teens still show low science and math skills.
• US students generally are less motivated and do less homework than Japanese students.
• Japanese students spend 60 more days in school each year than US students.
Figure 20.3 Figure 20.3 Grade Inflation Grade Inflation in U.S. High in U.S. High SchoolsSchools
School ChoiceSchool ChoicePro: School choice creates a market for
schooling so parents and students can shop for the best value.
Con: Such programs erode national commitment to public education, especially in urban schools.◦Magnet schools–Schools that offer special
facilities and programs to promote educational excellence in a particular area.
◦Charter schools–Public schools with more freedom to try new policies and programs
◦Schooling for profit–School systems operated by private, for-profit companies
Home SchoolingHome Schooling
• Gaining popularity
• Involves more school-age children than magnet schools, charter schools, and for-profit schools combined
• Pro: Better results
• Con: “Takes some of the most affluent and articulate parents out of the system”
Schooling People Schooling People with Disabilitieswith Disabilities
About half of all children with disabilities are schooled in special facilities; the rest attend public schools.
Mainstreaming–Integrating students with disabilities or special needs into the overall educational program◦Works best for physically impaired students who
can keep up academically
The Teacher ShortageThe Teacher Shortage
Schools have adopted new recruitment strategies.
Incentives: Higher salaries and signing bonuses
States could make certification easier.
School districts are actively recruiting in such countries as Spain, India, and the Philippines.
Schooling: Looking AheadSchooling: Looking Ahead
The last decade has seen many new ideas about schooling.
Significant changes in mass education are likely.
New information technology will reshape schools
But it won’t solve all the problems, including violence and rigid bureaucracy
Health and MedicineHealth and Medicine
HealthHealth
Health is as much a social as a biological issue.
Patterns of well-being and illness are rooted in social organization.
A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being
Health and SocietyHealth and Society
1. Cultural patterns define health.2. Cultural standards of health change over
time.3. A society’s technology affects people’s
health.4. Social inequality affects people’s health.
Health: A Global SurveyHealth: A Global SurveyHealth in low-income countries
◦Relatively short life expectancy ◦Most die before reaching their teens.◦Poor sanitation is a killer.
Health in high-income countries◦By the early 20th century, death rates from
infectious diseases had fallen sharply.◦Now chronic illnesses cause most deaths,
usually in old age.
Table 21.1 Table 21.1
Leading Leading Causes of Causes of Death in the Death in the United States, United States, 1900 and 20041900 and 2004
National National Map 21.1 Map 21.1 Health across Health across the United the United StatesStates
Figure 21.1 Figure 21.1 Life Expectancy of U.S. Life Expectancy of U.S. Children Born in 2004Children Born in 2004
Who Is Healthy?Who Is Healthy?Social epidemiology–The study of how
health and disease are distributed throughout a society’s population
Factors include:◦Age◦Gender◦Social class◦Race
Age & GenderAge & Gender
Death is now rare among young people.
Across the life course, women fare better than men.
Our cultural conception of masculinity pressures men.
Social Class and RaceSocial Class and Race
Higher income and wealth boosts health:◦better nutrition◦better health care◦safer and less stressful surroundings
Infant mortality◦Twice as high for disadvantaged children as
for children born into privileged families.◦Poorest US children are as vulnerable to
disease as those in low-income nations
Cigarette SmokingCigarette Smoking
Most preventable health hazardBy 2005, only 21% of Americans smoke
◦ Smokers: Divorced, separated, unemployed, in the military, and less schooling
440,000 people die prematurely each year as a direct result of smoking◦ Exceeding the combined deaths from alcohol,
cocaine, heroin, homicide, suicide, auto accidents, and AIDS
ObesityObesityMany adults are overweight.
Obesity can limit physical activity and raises the risk of serious diseases
Odds of being overweight go up among people with lower incomes
Social causes of obesity
◦Lack of physical activity
◦Poor diet
National National Map Map 21.2 21.2 Obesity Obesity across the across the United United StatesStates
Sexually Transmitted DiseasesSexually Transmitted Diseases
1960s sexual revolution saw a rise in STD rates, generated sexual counter-revolution
Because our culture associates sex with sin, some people regard STDs as marks of immorality.
Gonorrhea & syphilisGenital herpesAIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome)
Figure 21.2 Figure 21.2 Types of Transmission for Reported U.S. AIDS Cases as of 2005Types of Transmission for Reported U.S. AIDS Cases as of 2005There are several ways in which people can be infected with HIV.There are several ways in which people can be infected with HIV.Source: CDC (2007).Source: CDC (2007).
Global Global Map 21.1 Map 21.1 HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS Infection of Infection of Adults in Adults in Global Global PerspectivePerspective
Ethics & DeathEthics & Death
When does death occur?◦When there is an irreversible state involving
no response to stimulation, no movement or breathing, no reflexes, and no indication of brain activity
Do people have the right to die?◦About 10,000 Americans are in a permanent
“vegetative state.”What about mercy killing?
◦Euthanasia–Assisting in the death of a person suffering from an incurable disease
◦Active euthanasia–Allowing a physician to help a sick person die
The Medical EstablishmentThe Medical Establishment
Medicine–The social institution that focuses on fighting disease and improving health.
The rise of scientific medicine◦American Medical Association founded in
1847◦Other healers kept tradition but occupy
lesser role. Chiropractors, herbalists, midwives
◦Conflict between scientific medicine and traditional healing continues today.
Holistic MedicineHolistic Medicine
Holistic medicine–An approach to health care that emphasizes prevention of illness and takes into account a person’s entire physical and social environment
Three foundations of holistic health care:1. Treat patients as people2. Encourage responsibility, not dependency3. Provide personal treatment
Medicine in Socialist NationsMedicine in Socialist Nations
China◦Government controls most health care
operations.◦“Barefoot doctors” in rural areas practice
traditional healing arts.Russian Federation
◦Medical care is in transition, but all citizens have a right to basic medical care.
◦Setbacks in health care, partly because of a falling standard of living
Medicine in Capitalist Medicine in Capitalist SocietiesSocieties
Sweden◦Socialized medicine–A medical care system
in which the government owns and operates most medical facilities and employs most physicians
Great Britain◦Also has socialized medicine, but citizens
may choose public or private health care.Canada
◦Single-payer model; government is like an insurance company
Japan◦Doctors operate privately, but government
pays most expenses.
Figure 21.3 Figure 21.3 Extent of Extent of Socialized Socialized Medicine in Medicine in Selected CountriesSelected Countries
Paying for Care in the USPaying for Care in the USDirect fee system–Medical care system in
which patients pay directly for the services of physicians and hospitals
Private insurance: Few programs pay all costs.Public insurance programs
◦Medicare for those over 65◦Medicaid for impoverished and veterans
Health maintenance organizations–An organization that provides comprehensive medical care to subscribers for a fixed fee◦No HMO provides full coverage
Nursing ShortageNursing Shortage
Shortage of nurses as fewer people enter the profession
Nurses cite heavy patient loads, too much overtime, stressful work environment, lack of respect.
Working nurses say they wouldn’t recommend the field to others.
Theoretical AnalysisTheoretical Analysis
Structural-functional analysis: Parsons’ role theory◦Sick role–Patterns of behavior defined as
appropriate for people who are ill◦Doctors expect patients to cooperate.
Social-conflict analysis: Health and inequality◦Access to medical care, the effects of the
profit motive, and the politics of medicine
Theoretical AnalysisTheoretical Analysis
Symbolic-interaction analysis: Meaning of health◦Ideas of health and stress are socially
constructed.◦How people define a condition might actually
affect how they feel.◦Surgery can affect social identity.
Figure 21.4 Figure 21.4
Self-Assessment Self-Assessment of Physical of Physical Health by First-Health by First-Year College Year College Students, 1985-Students, 1985-20062006
Future of Health and Future of Health and MedicineMedicineToday, Americans take good health and
long life for granted.Individuals taking responsibility of their
own healthDouble standard of health between rich
and poor peopleHealth problems are greater in low-
income countries.
Applying Theory Applying Theory HealthHealth