familia Caesarisfamilia Caesaris

Imperial Slaves and Imperial Slaves and Freedmen/womenFreedmen/women

Review: slave and freed Review: slave and freed hierarchyhierarchy

freed – full citizen status (formally freed – full citizen status (formally manumitted)manumitted)

Latini IunianiLatini Iuniani – Iunian Latins – Iunian Latins (informally manumitted(informally manumitted

dediticiidediticii - could never become - could never become Roman citizensRoman citizens

Social Hierarchy among Social Hierarchy among slaves slaves

Different status groups among slavesDifferent status groups among slavesSlaves with free mastersSlaves with free mastersSlave Slave vicariivicarii – with slave masters – with slave mastersLegal and social status of master Legal and social status of master Imperial slaves to penal slaves in Imperial slaves to penal slaves in

mines mines

Familia CaesarisFamilia Caesaris

Most important group of slaves and Most important group of slaves and ex-slaves in early Empireex-slaves in early Empire

Long period of time - Augustus – Long period of time - Augustus – early 3early 3rdrd century (epigraphic century (epigraphic evidence ceases)evidence ceases)

Each emperor inherited ownership of Each emperor inherited ownership of slaves and patronal rights over ex-slaves and patronal rights over ex-slaves of predecessorslaves of predecessor

Our sourcesOur sources

Well evidenced by inscriptions Well evidenced by inscriptions some careers of freedmen can be some careers of freedmen can be

traced over several reigns following traced over several reigns following that of manumitting emperorthat of manumitting emperor

Longest career we have evidence of: Longest career we have evidence of: the father of Claudius Etruscus, from the father of Claudius Etruscus, from reign of Tiberius to Domitianreign of Tiberius to Domitian

A certain C. Iulius Aug. L. Samius was A certain C. Iulius Aug. L. Samius was freed by Gaius and held a freed by Gaius and held a procuratorial post under Claudius procuratorial post under Claudius and Neroand Nero

The evidence - nomenclatureThe evidence - nomenclature

Imperial slaves and freed easy to Imperial slaves and freed easy to identifyidentify

Ordinary slaves had one single nameOrdinary slaves had one single name Imperial slaves added their status to Imperial slaves added their status to

their slave name: their slave name: Caes(aris) ser(vus) or Aug(usti) Caes(aris) ser(vus) or Aug(usti)

vern(a) or Aug(usti) or Caes(aris)vern(a) or Aug(usti) or Caes(aris) i.e. Onesimus Caes(aris) ser(vus)i.e. Onesimus Caes(aris) ser(vus)

Imperial freedmen Imperial freedmen

Received Received tria nominatria nomina of a Roman citizen: of a Roman citizen: praenomen, nomen (gentilicum), cognomenpraenomen, nomen (gentilicum), cognomen

Then added status: Aug(usti) lib(ertus) or Then added status: Aug(usti) lib(ertus) or Aug(usti) l(ibertus).Aug(usti) l(ibertus).

Example: Ti. Claudius Aug. l. OnesimusExample: Ti. Claudius Aug. l. Onesimus T. Flavius Aug. lib. OnesimusT. Flavius Aug. lib. Onesimus M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Onesimus M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Onesimus Imperials freedmen/women very proud of status Imperials freedmen/women very proud of status

and continued to display it even after most and continued to display it even after most private freed and citizens gave up to display private freed and citizens gave up to display status on funerary inscriptions – end of first status on funerary inscriptions – end of first century ADcentury AD

Hierarchy within Hierarchy within familia familia CaesarisCaesaris

Not a homogeneous groupNot a homogeneous group Spread throughout the EmpireSpread throughout the Empire Great variety of opportunities for Great variety of opportunities for

professional and social advancementprofessional and social advancement Vast status differences depending on Vast status differences depending on

branch of imperial service, professional branch of imperial service, professional grade, rate of advancement achieved in grade, rate of advancement achieved in serviceservice

Division into familia urbana and familia Division into familia urbana and familia rustica does not apply to familia Caesarisrustica does not apply to familia Caesaris

Divisions of Familia CaesarisDivisions of Familia Caesaris

A) slaves and freed working in daily A) slaves and freed working in daily maintenance, provisioning, supervision maintenance, provisioning, supervision of residence and properties for of residence and properties for emperor’s personal upkeepemperor’s personal upkeep

B) slaves and freed working in B) slaves and freed working in supervising the revenue-producing supervising the revenue-producing imperial properties or in financial imperial properties or in financial administrative functions of civil serviceadministrative functions of civil service

A – domestic groupA – domestic group

Included staff of Imperial Palace in Included staff of Imperial Palace in Rome, palace of the Augusta, other Rome, palace of the Augusta, other villas in Rome and other Italian villas in Rome and other Italian towns, Imperial gardens in Rome and towns, Imperial gardens in Rome and elsewhereelsewhere

Range of dutiesRange of duties

Custos Custos – guard, aedituus – keeper,– guard, aedituus – keeper,Lectiarius Lectiarius – litter-bearer, – litter-bearer, With more responsibilities or skill: With more responsibilities or skill:

topiariustopiarius – ornamental gardener – ornamental gardenerTricliniarchus Tricliniarchus - in charge of dining - in charge of dining

roomroomPraegustatoPraegustato Imperial taster Imperial tasterArchimagiurArchimagiur - head chef - head chefand countless more …and countless more …

Influential posts:Influential posts:

CubiculariusCubicularius - in charge of bedroom - in charge of bedroomAd admissioneAd admissione - both positions - both positions

controlled access to emperor - had controlled access to emperor - had close contact with emperorclose contact with emperor

Unofficial and thus uncontrolled Unofficial and thus uncontrolled influence outside their domestic influence outside their domestic spheresphere

Late empireLate empire

Ex-slave eunuchs – under absolutist Ex-slave eunuchs – under absolutist regimeregime

Highest positions in palace service - Highest positions in palace service - in charge of Imperial bedchamber - in charge of Imperial bedchamber - were very powerfulwere very powerful

The two chief posts: The two chief posts: praepositus praepositus sacri cubiculisacri cubiculi

Primicerius sacri cubiculi Primicerius sacri cubiculi

B Slaves and ex-slaves in B Slaves and ex-slaves in Imperial AdministrationImperial Administration

Wide range of departments – all Wide range of departments – all aspects of receipts and payments of aspects of receipts and payments of funds under emperor’s controlfunds under emperor’s control

Public services: aqueducts, libraries, Public services: aqueducts, libraries, post, roads, public works and post, roads, public works and buildings, buildings,

Imperial mines and quarries, the Imperial mines and quarries, the mintmint

Range of positionsRange of positions

Wide rangeWide range Sub-clerical:Sub-clerical: pedisequipedisequi (foot attendant), (foot attendant),

costodiuscostodius (guard), (guard), nomenclator, tabellarii,nomenclator, tabellarii, Intermediate clerical grades: Intermediate clerical grades: adiutor, adiutor,

vicariusvicarius, dispensator, , dispensator, a commentarius, a commentarius, tabulariustabularius

Senior clerical ranks: Senior clerical ranks: tabularii a rationibus, tabularii a rationibus, proximiproximi

Senior administrative positions: Senior administrative positions: procurator, procurator, a rationibus, ab epitulis, a libellisa rationibus, ab epitulis, a libellis

Wide range of statusWide range of status

Variation in same rank in different Variation in same rank in different departments: example: central departments: example: central finance bureaux of finance bureaux of a rationibusa rationibus to to department responsible for minor taxdepartment responsible for minor tax

Other factors, location: head office in Other factors, location: head office in Rome had higher rank attached than Rome had higher rank attached than branch office in provincebranch office in province

Other Imperial SlavesOther Imperial Slaves

Working in private commercial and industrial Working in private commercial and industrial enterprises either on own account: enterprises either on own account: vestifex vestifex or vestificaor vestifica (tailor, dressmaker) (tailor, dressmaker)

CaelatorCaelator (engraver), (engraver), argentariusargentarius (silver- (silver-smith) smith)

Working in emperor’s building projects Working in emperor’s building projects including supplies of building materialsincluding supplies of building materials

Lapidarii Lapidarii (stonemasons) (stonemasons) marmorariimarmorarii (marble (marble cutters) cutters) structuresstructures (carpenters) (carpenters) architecti architecti (( master-builders) - master-builders) -

Recruitment into serviceRecruitment into service

Predominantly from within the Predominantly from within the familia:familia: children of Imperial slaves children of Imperial slaves and freedmen (and freedmen (verna verna – houseborn – houseborn slaveslave

First century AD many also from First century AD many also from outside the outside the familiafamilia

Marriage and StatusMarriage and Status

High proportion of ‘marriage’ between High proportion of ‘marriage’ between Imperial slaves and freeborn womenImperial slaves and freeborn women

S.C. ClaudianumS.C. Claudianum 52 AD (framed by 52 AD (framed by Claudius’ freedman Pallas) Claudius’ freedman Pallas)

Exception to rule regarding children Exception to rule regarding children born outside legal marriage: children born outside legal marriage: children of free women and imperial slaves of free women and imperial slaves took status of father - thus would be took status of father - thus would be imperial slaves. imperial slaves.

Manumission of Imperial Manumission of Imperial SlavesSlaves

Relatively high chance of manumission Relatively high chance of manumission for slaves in upper grades of Imperial for slaves in upper grades of Imperial serviceservice

No informal manumission for Imperial No informal manumission for Imperial slavesslaves

Emperor’s interest to get best work out Emperor’s interest to get best work out of slave and then have manumission of slave and then have manumission purchased by slave from peculiumpurchased by slave from peculium

Special department - Special department - Fiscus libertatis Fiscus libertatis et peculiorumet peculiorum

Manumission of Imperial Manumission of Imperial SlavesSlaves

Higher chance of manumission, but less Higher chance of manumission, but less chance before age 30chance before age 30

Average age of manumission between 30 – Average age of manumission between 30 – 4040

Slaves seemed to have tried to be Slaves seemed to have tried to be manumitted as soon as possiblemanumitted as soon as possible

Unskilled later 20% over 40, 15% over 50Unskilled later 20% over 40, 15% over 50 In contrast – large proportion of female slaves In contrast – large proportion of female slaves

owned by Imperial freedmen manumitted owned by Imperial freedmen manumitted before 30 (for marriage purpose)before 30 (for marriage purpose)

General manumission General manumission reviewed:reviewed:

Lex Aelia Sentia AD 4: age requirements Lex Aelia Sentia AD 4: age requirements – 30 for slave, 20 for owner – 30 for slave, 20 for owner

Slaves manumitted under 30 became Slaves manumitted under 30 became Iunian LatinsIunian Latins

Significant number of exceptions (Significant number of exceptions (iusta iusta causacausa – just cause): blood relationship ) – just cause): blood relationship ) sons, daughters, brothers, sisters, foster sons, daughters, brothers, sisters, foster relations, relations, paedagoguspaedagogus ; future services ; future services (if slave was over 18); intended (if slave was over 18); intended marriagemarriage

Ways for Latins to get full Ways for Latins to get full citizenshipcitizenship

Augustus: Latins could receive full citizenship on Augustus: Latins could receive full citizenship on first birthday of first child for themselves and first birthday of first child for themselves and child: anniculi probationchild: anniculi probation

Subsequent emperors added more options: Subsequent emperors added more options: (Ulpian iii) services to state in emergencies: (Ulpian iii) services to state in emergencies: military service (rare), providing shipping for military service (rare), providing shipping for transport of corn, supply of bread, construction of transport of corn, supply of bread, construction of buildings (i.e. after great fire)buildings (i.e. after great fire)

Vespasian in AD 75 and Hadrian made changes to Vespasian in AD 75 and Hadrian made changes to lex Aelia Sentialex Aelia Sentia

Justinian abolished class of Latins and dediticii, Justinian abolished class of Latins and dediticii, and no age limit for manumission (Cod. Iust and no age limit for manumission (Cod. Iust vii.15.2)vii.15.2)

Imperial Civil ServiceImperial Civil Service

Majority of positions filled by imperial Majority of positions filled by imperial freedmen and slavesfreedmen and slaves

Upper-level posts used to be filled by Upper-level posts used to be filled by senators and equestrians in senators and equestrians in Republican periodRepublican period

Conclusions – Imperial Slaves Conclusions – Imperial Slaves and Freedmen/womenand Freedmen/women

Very privileged group among slavesVery privileged group among slaves Often imperial slaves and freed had higher Often imperial slaves and freed had higher

social and economic status than humble social and economic status than humble free-born Roman citizensfree-born Roman citizens

Exceptional status can be seen in practice Exceptional status can be seen in practice of marriage between Imperial slaves and of marriage between Imperial slaves and free-born womenfree-born women

Law responded to this practice by Law responded to this practice by changing natural law of slavery (slave-changing natural law of slavery (slave-children as taking status of mother) to children as taking status of mother) to children of such union to take slave status children of such union to take slave status of father.of father.