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Fallacy
It came from the Latin word “fallo” which means “I deceive”
and “fallere” which means
“to deceive”
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TWO GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Fallacies of a Languagea. Equivocation
b. Amphiboly
c. Composition
d. Division
e. Accent
f. Figures of Speech
2. Fallacies not of a Language
a. Accident
b. Confusion of Absolute Statement
c. Begging the Question
d. False Cause
e. Consequent
f. Many Questions
g. Non-Sequitur
h. Ignoratio Elenchi
1. Argumentum ad hominem 2. Argumentum ad populum3. Argumentum ad misericordiam 4. Argumentum ad verecundiam5. Argumentum ad baculum 6. Argumentum ad ignorantiam
Equivocation
It is a fallacy consisting of using a word that has the same spelling or sound but the meaning is different, in different parts of the inference.
EXAMPLES1. Every water is in liquid form.
We should water the plant everyday.Ergo, we should plant everyday in liquid form.
2. Every pen is a writing instrument. The cage of a pig is a pen. Ergo, the cage of a pig is a writing instrument.
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Amphiboly
It is a fallacy expressed in using a statement whose meaning is ambiguous exposing it to various interpretations.
EXAMPLES
1. My wife Jenny said to her sister Eva that she has to go to the mall.
Due to this formulation of the argument, we are at the lost of who is actually being referred to as “she”. Is it Jenny or Eva?
2. “While standing one leg, the boy played with his dog”
Who is standing on one leg: the boy or the dog?
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Composition
It is a fallacy of considering words or statements as a whole when they should be considered separately. In other words, it is an error of stating that what is true of the parts is also true of the whole.
EXAMPLE:
Those who topped the 1999 Bar Exam are from Cebu
Jose of UST is the 1999 Bar Topnotcher
Ergo, Jose of UST is from Cebu
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Division
• It is a fallacy of considering words or statements separately when they should have been considered as a whole.
EXAMPLE:
X University is vital to Catholic Education
Mr. Y is a professor of X University
Ergo, Mr. Y is vital to Christian Education
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Accent
This kind of fallacy arises due to difference in interpretation brought about by misplaced emphasis on a phrase, word or syllable in a proposition.
EXAMPLE:
You may laugh as you like.
(Meaning: Others may laugh)
You may laugh as you like.
(Meaning: You are not prohibited from laughing)
You my laugh as you like.
(Meaning: It is permissible that you laugh or not to laugh)
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Figures of Speech
This kind of fallacy is a special type of false analogy that consist in wrongly inferring similarity of meaning from similarity of word structure
EXAMPLE
What is immaterial is not material
and what is insoluble is is not soluble;
ergo, what is inflammable is not flammable.
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Accident
This fallacy is involved in affirming or denying of a thing what has been affirmed or denied only of some accidental modification or condition of the thing or vice versa
EXAMPLE
“You say that you ate what you bought;
but you bought a raw meat;
ergo, you must have eaten raw meat.
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Confusion of Absolute Statement
This fallacy uses a principle that uses absolutely true statements but restricted by practical limitations
EXAMPLE
“Water boils at 212 Fahrenheit
ergo, water boils at 212 Fahrenheit on the top of Mt. Everest
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Begging the Question
This fallacy is a.k.a.as petitio principii is involved when we assume a conclusion is proving what is not known in the premises
EXAMPLES
All in this room are wearing shoes
but Martha is in this room
ergo, Martha is wearing shoes
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False CauseAlso known as “non causa pro causa”This fallacy is involved from a conclusion of causal with a
non-causal relationship under the form of “post hoc, ergo propter hoc” (after this, therefore because of this)
EXAMPLENight comes before the dayergo, night causes the day
Don’t look directly at the sunotherwise, the sun will punish you
A man cannot think without his brainErgo, a man’s brain is the cause of his thought back
Consequent
This fallacy is involved when we infer that an antecedent is true because the consequent is true
EXAMPLE
A dog is an animal
but Moby Dick is an animal
ergo, Moby Dick is a dog
A dog is an animal
but Moby Dick is not a dog
ergo, Moby Dickis not an animal
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Many Question
This is also known as Complex QuestionThis fallacy is involved when we are asking either a multiple
question as though it were a single question demanding a yes or no answer
EXAMPLE
Have you not given up the habit of cheating in my class?
Have you stopped beating your wife?
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Non Sequitur
It is the Latin of “it does not follow”
This fallacy is involved to true but unrelated propositions without any connections
EXAMPLES
Cows give milk
but sheep have wool
ergo, goats chew their cud
As a student of a Catholic school, I will become a minister later.
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Ignoratio elenchi
It came from the Latin ignoratio = irrelevant
elencho = conclusion
This fallacy is involved when we prove other conclusions not the issue t be concluded
It has various minor forms as presented below:
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1. Argumentum ad hominem 2. Argumentum ad populum3. Argumentum ad misericordiam 4. Argumentum ad verecundiam5. Argumentum ad baculum 6. Argumentum ad ignorantiam
Argumentum ad hominem
This fallacy is the Latin for “attack or appeal to the man”
This fallacy is involved in court hearings when the defense or prosecution is attacking the dignity of the person or witness instead of weighing the evidences presented
EXAMPLE
“Your honor, it would be very difficult for us not to believe that the accused of this murder case is not guilty, because his father and grandfather has been convicted of murder several years ago. And besides, the accused is of bad moral reputation.”
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Argumentum ad populum
This is known as “appeal to people” where popular prejudice is preferred rather than truth and reason where an argument may be believed by most, if not by all people, although that argument may not be true
EXAMPLE• “Clinically proven safe and effective…”• “The only earth structure visible in space is the
Great Wall of China.”• Save the user, jail the pusher• “If you will vote for me…”
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Argumentum ad misericordiam
This is “appeal to pity” a kind of fallacious argument that arises when an appeal to evidence is replaced by an appeal to pity, mercy or sympathy
EXAMPLE
“Please, just give me a 3.0 grade. Ishould not receive a failing grade since it is my 3rd time to take this Logic subject”
“The accused in robbery case must not be put to jail, because he is a father of 12 children and his wife is in the hospital suffering from stage 3 cancer.”
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Agumentum ad vericundiam
This is “appeal to awe, modesty, shame, respect or authority” committed by overawing people by the dignity of those who hold the opinion without special reference to the truth they hold
EXAMPLE• The Roman Catholic Church… “The earth is the center
of the Universe.”
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Argumentum ad baculum
This is “appeal to force or appeal to might” arises when one appeal to intimidation, or use of force in order to gain acceptance of his propositions
EXAMPLE
President of a state to the citizens: “Commit heinous crimes and you will surely enjoy the lethal injection.”
Father to his son: “If you will not be serious with your studies, your future will be bleak. And you can never expect me to lift finger to help when you need me.”
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Argumentum ad ignorantiam
The “appeal to ignorance” is committed when we infer a false statement because it cannot be proved, true because it cannot be refuted.
EXAMPLE
This evidence must be accepted
because it cannot be refuted
You cannot declare me guilty
since you cannot prove it.
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