Fallacies of ArgumentFallacies of Argument

OrOr

Controversial Argument Controversial Argument HotspotsHotspots

Why fallacies are important to Why fallacies are important to recognize…recognize…

• They They instantly raise questionsinstantly raise questions about the ethics of about the ethics of argumentargument

• Provide information about whether the strategy is Provide information about whether the strategy is fair, accurate or principled.fair, accurate or principled.

• Help to determine if the argument is Help to determine if the argument is flawedflawed by its by its very nature.very nature.

• Helps to raise questions about whether argument Helps to raise questions about whether argument was organized improperly was organized improperly accidentallyaccidentally because because the writer didn’t know any better.the writer didn’t know any better.

• Or, was it Or, was it done on purposedone on purpose because the writer because the writer wanted to manipulate his audience?wanted to manipulate his audience?

Emotional FallaciesEmotional Fallacies

• Can be very Can be very powerful and convincingpowerful and convincing

• Most of the time Most of the time they violate an they violate an audience's “good faith”audience's “good faith” on which an on which an argument is basedargument is based

• An audience An audience can’t trust a writercan’t trust a writer who who can’t make a point without can’t make a point without frightening, provoking tears, or frightening, provoking tears, or stirring up hatred.stirring up hatred.

Scare TacticsScare Tactics

• Remarkably commonRemarkably common• Work because it’s easier to imagine something terrible Work because it’s easier to imagine something terrible

happening than to appreciate its statistical rarityhappening than to appreciate its statistical rarity• Used to scare people and exaggerate possible Used to scare people and exaggerate possible

dangersdangers• Used to stampede legitimate fears into panic or Used to stampede legitimate fears into panic or

prejudiceprejudice• Effect – closes off thinking because people who are Effect – closes off thinking because people who are

scared seldom think rationallyscared seldom think rationally• Example: Example:

– ““Either have safe sex or you will die.” – National Council on Either have safe sex or you will die.” – National Council on AIDSAIDS

Either – Or ChoicesEither – Or Choices

• Reduces the options for action to only two Reduces the options for action to only two choiceschoices

• Reduces a complicated argument to Reduces a complicated argument to excessively simple termsexcessively simple terms

• Designed to seduce those who don’t know Designed to seduce those who don’t know much about the topic much about the topic

• Example:Example:– ““Events can turn in one of two ways: If we fail Events can turn in one of two ways: If we fail

to act the people of Iran will live in submission; to act the people of Iran will live in submission; the regime will bully. If we meet our the regime will bully. If we meet our responsibilities the people of Iran can shake off responsibilities the people of Iran can shake off their captivity.” – George Bushtheir captivity.” – George Bush

Slippery SlopeSlippery Slope

• Casts today’s misstep as tomorrow’s Casts today’s misstep as tomorrow’s avalancheavalanche

• When an argument exaggerates the future When an argument exaggerates the future consequences of an actionconsequences of an action

• Example:Example:– In 1996, a school board requested that a young In 1996, a school board requested that a young

male student cut off his ponytail. This resulted in male student cut off his ponytail. This resulted in a law suit that claimed that they were trying to a law suit that claimed that they were trying to take away his freedom of expression and if they take away his freedom of expression and if they did this all freedoms would be taken away. did this all freedoms would be taken away.

SentimentalismSentimentalism

• Arguments that use emotions excessively Arguments that use emotions excessively to distract readers from the facts.to distract readers from the facts.

• Makes the audience guilty if they Makes the audience guilty if they challenge an idea or proposal.challenge an idea or proposal.

• Seldom gives a complete opinion of the Seldom gives a complete opinion of the complex issue.complex issue.

• Example:Example:– Using an image of a threatened species Using an image of a threatened species

(panda, wolf…) to make you give money to a (panda, wolf…) to make you give money to a charity. You don’t know where the money is charity. You don’t know where the money is going…is it really helping that panda?going…is it really helping that panda?

Bandwagon Bandwagon

• Used to urge people to follow the same Used to urge people to follow the same path that everyone else is taking.path that everyone else is taking.

• Americans are easily seduced by ideas Americans are easily seduced by ideas endorsed by the mass media.endorsed by the mass media.

• This appeal is the most dangerous to a This appeal is the most dangerous to a democratic society.democratic society.

• Example:Example:– All Americans should feel patriotic towards their All Americans should feel patriotic towards their

country, especially during wartime, even though country, especially during wartime, even though they may not agree with the policies involved.they may not agree with the policies involved.

Ethical FallaciesEthical Fallacies

• The idea is based on “Trust me” The idea is based on “Trust me”

• Most devices used to create trust Most devices used to create trust have some sort of biashave some sort of bias behind them. behind them.

• Be careful when you read “facts” Be careful when you read “facts” from people who from people who don’t represent don’t represent both sides fairlyboth sides fairly so that the audience so that the audience can actually choose a side.can actually choose a side.

False AuthorityFalse Authority

• Draws on the authority of a person to Draws on the authority of a person to create an expert.create an expert.

• ““Trust, but verify.” – Ronald ReganTrust, but verify.” – Ronald Regan

• Example:Example:– Christianity is the most popular religion in the Christianity is the most popular religion in the

Western world according to many Americans.Western world according to many Americans.

• Usually it boils down to:Usually it boils down to:– X is true because (he, she, it) says it’s true, X is true because (he, she, it) says it’s true,

therefore it must be true.therefore it must be true.

DogmatismDogmatism

• Asserting that a particular position is Asserting that a particular position is the only one conceivable.the only one conceivable.

• When someone suggests that simply When someone suggests that simply raising an issue is wrong (racist, sexist, raising an issue is wrong (racist, sexist, unpatriotic, sacrilegious) be wary.unpatriotic, sacrilegious) be wary.

• Example:Example:– ““It’s clear to any rational American that all It’s clear to any rational American that all

foreigners are bad for the United States.”foreigners are bad for the United States.”

Moral EquivalenceMoral Equivalence

• Suggests that serious wrongdoings don’t Suggests that serious wrongdoings don’t differ in kind from minor offenses, or it’s differ in kind from minor offenses, or it’s opposite, that minor offenses are raised to opposite, that minor offenses are raised to serious crimes.serious crimes.

• Differs from Differs from Slippery SlopeSlippery Slope because it because it compares (equivalence) two arguments.compares (equivalence) two arguments.

• Example:Example:– If smoking is almost criminal now, how can we If smoking is almost criminal now, how can we

not be concerned with those who abuse not be concerned with those who abuse chocolate? It’s abuse is also responsible for a chocolate? It’s abuse is also responsible for a host of health problems.”host of health problems.”

Ad HominemAd Hominem

• Attacking the character of Attacking the character of peoplepeople rather rather than attacking the substance of their than attacking the substance of their argumentsarguments..

• The theory is: destroy the credibility of The theory is: destroy the credibility of your opponent and destroy his your opponent and destroy his argument.argument.

• Example:Example:•““You think Eminem is a homophobic racist? Well, You think Eminem is a homophobic racist? Well,

you’re just a thumb-sucking, white-bread elitist.”you’re just a thumb-sucking, white-bread elitist.”

Logical FallaciesLogical Fallacies

• When When claims are invalid, insufficient claims are invalid, insufficient or disconnected.or disconnected.

• They They seem reasonableseem reasonable and full of and full of information, information, but but they they carefully hide carefully hide the insufficiencies.the insufficiencies.

Hasty GeneralizationHasty Generalization

• An inference drawn from insufficient An inference drawn from insufficient evidence.evidence.

• Forms the basis for most stereotypesForms the basis for most stereotypes• There is not a large enough body of There is not a large enough body of

information on which the claim is information on which the claim is made.made.

• Example:Example:– ““Because my Honda broke down, all Because my Honda broke down, all

Hondas are junk.”Hondas are junk.”

Begging the questionBegging the question

• An argument made on grounds that An argument made on grounds that cannot be accepted because those cannot be accepted because those grounds are in doubt.grounds are in doubt.

• Assuming as true the very claim that is Assuming as true the very claim that is disputeddisputed

• Examples:Examples:– ““You can’t give me a “C”! I’m an “A” student!”You can’t give me a “C”! I’m an “A” student!”– ““You can’t find my client guilty of You can’t find my client guilty of

embezzlement! He’s an honest person!”embezzlement! He’s an honest person!”

EquivocationEquivocation

• A half-truthA half-truth

• An argument that gives a lie an honest An argument that gives a lie an honest appearance.appearance.

• A trick of languageA trick of language

• Examples:Examples:– A girl who copies a paper word for word claims, A girl who copies a paper word for word claims,

“I wrote that paper all by myself!” (You know “I wrote that paper all by myself!” (You know she’s claiming to have she’s claiming to have physicallyphysically written it, not written it, not intellectuallyintellectually.).)

Non-SequiturNon-Sequitur

• An argument that doesn’t follow logicAn argument that doesn’t follow logic• Occur when writers miss a step in the Occur when writers miss a step in the

flow of evidenceflow of evidence• Example:Example:

– ““The poor performance of American The poor performance of American students on international math tests students on international math tests means the country should spend more on means the country should spend more on math education.” When in fact the math education.” When in fact the students’ poor performance could be students’ poor performance could be related to a variety of problems.related to a variety of problems.

Faulty AnalogiesFaulty Analogies

• Inaccurate comparisons between Inaccurate comparisons between objects or conceptsobjects or concepts

• When comparisons are pushed too farWhen comparisons are pushed too far

• Example:Example:– A mind is like a garden. When planted, A mind is like a garden. When planted,

fertilized, and cultivated properly it fertilized, and cultivated properly it thrives. (But aren’t gardens fertilized thrives. (But aren’t gardens fertilized with manure…?)with manure…?)

Look at the following and Look at the following and identify the fallacy type and identify the fallacy type and specific kind.specific kind.

Budweiser 9/11 adBudweiser 9/11 ad

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J3eQmzw6n3kv=J3eQmzw6n3k

7. You can never give anyone a break. If you 7. You can never give anyone a break. If you do, do, they'll walk all over you.they'll walk all over you.8.The sign said "fine for parking here", and since it 8.The sign said "fine for parking here", and since it was fine, I parked there. was fine, I parked there. 9.That parking attendant who gave me a ticket is 9.That parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as bad as Hitler. as bad as Hitler. 10. Interviewer: "Your resume looks impressive but 10. Interviewer: "Your resume looks impressive but I need another reference." I need another reference." Bill: "Jill can give me a good reference." Bill: "Jill can give me a good reference." Interviewer: "Good. But how do I know that Jill Interviewer: "Good. But how do I know that Jill is trustworthy?" is trustworthy?" Bill: "I can vouch for her." Bill: "I can vouch for her." 11."Bill claims that tax breaks for corporations 11."Bill claims that tax breaks for corporations increases development. Of course, Bill is the increases development. Of course, Bill is the CEO of a corporation." CEO of a corporation."

• Create an Create an ORIGINALORIGINAL example of an example of an

– Emotional fallacyEmotional fallacy– Ethical fallacyEthical fallacy– Logical fallacyLogical fallacy