Research Methods and Procedures

Fall 2009Dr. Bobby Franklin

IN GOD WE TRUST!

ALL OTHERS MUST BRING DATA.

“. . . [the] systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena.” (Kerlinger and Lee, 1999)

systematic process of collecting and analyzing data or information in order to increase our understanding of the phenomena about which we are concerned or interested. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

What is Research?

Experience – may not have a complete understanding of the observed phenomenon

Authority – Use experts - limited◦ Customs◦ Traditions◦ Experience/knowledge

Ways of Knowing

Deductive reasoning – moving from general to specific◦ True deductions must have true premises◦ Comes from existing knowledge◦ Scientific inquiry can’t come from deduction alone◦ Can link theory and observation◦ Can help build hypothesis

Ways of knowing

All men are mortal The king is a man The king is mortal

All fish have gills My pet has gills My pet is a fish

Poor children are low performers Joe is poor Joe will be a low performer

Deductive examples

The conclusion can’t be stronger than the premises

To arrive at true conclusions the premises must be correct

Deductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning – using facts to make generalizations about the whole or population

Deduction Every mammal has lungs All rabbits are mammals Every rabbit has lungs

Induction Every observed rabbit has lungs Every rabbit has lungs

Ways of knowing

Perfect induction – every example must be observed

Imperfect induction – use observations from a sample to infer a characteristic of the entire group

Poor children are low performing A large percentage of poor children are low

performing Children born into poverty have a high probability of

being low performing students

Induction

“It’s not so much what folks don’t know that causes problems. It’s what they know that ain’t so.” (Artemus Ward)

Scientific approach – a systematic process for obtaining knowledge that is theory driven and centers around a testable hypothesis

Hypothesis – a statement that describes relationships among variables and is assumed to be true and testable

Ways of knowing

With the scientific approach one reasons what would be found if a hypothesis is true then through systematic observations you confirm or fail to confirm the hypothesis

Scientific approach

Research (traditional research) vary in complexity and duration, however, research typically has 8 distinct characteristics…

originates with a question or problem requires a clear articulation of a goal follows a specific plan of procedure divides the main problem into sub-problems guided by the specific research problem,

question or hypothesis accepts certain critical assumptions requires the collection and interpretation of

data in an attempt to resolve the problem by nature cyclical or helical

Research Characteristics

State the problem Hypothesize as to the cause of the problem Experiments to test each hypothesis Predict the results Observe results/collect data Draw conclusions from results about the

hypothesis

Scientific Method

Research is always problem solving based….Always should provide an answer to some question.

To avoid making error or drawing erroneous conclusions

Purpose

All natural phenomena have antecedent (preceding) factors called universal determinism. Under specified conditions certain events will occur

Reliable knowledge is derived only from direct and objective observations

Scientific assumptions

Be skeptical toward the data ◦ findings are tentative and must be verified.

Be objective and impartial◦ Avoid bias and trying to prove a point

Deal with facts◦ Don’t interject values just interpret the data

Integrate and systemize their findings◦ Create order from the data◦ Seek theories that explain observable phenomena

Characteristics of Researchers

Theory◦ Set of interrelated constructs and propositions that

presents an explanation of phenomena and allows one to make predictions about relationships among variables related to the phenomena

Law ◦ A statement of fact based on observable phenomena

Gravity, thermodynamics, gas Death is inevitable

Hypothesis ◦ Prediction about phenomena that can be tested

Terms

Theories can be a framework for research

Paradigms also affect research◦ A set of assumptions, concepts, values, and

practices that constitutes a way of viewing reality for the community that shares them, especially in an intellectual discipline

Subject matter & situations are very complex with many variables that interact

Observations are difficult and interpretations are often subjective by the observer

Difficult to replicate – never exact- can only be similar

Limitations of Scientific Method in the Social Sciences

Observer and subjects can inter act – Hawthorne effect

Control is difficult at best – restrictions involved in human research

Measurement difficult – ◦ Not always sure of what you are measuring◦ Must develop instruments to measure new

concepts◦ Even instruments that seem to measure the same

thing may not.

Limitations of Scientific Method in the Social Sciences

Good Research generates dependable data, being driven by practices that are conducted professionally and that can be used reliably for managerial decision making.

Characteristically: Purpose clearly defined (define the

scope, limitations, and precise meanings)

Research process detailed Research design thoroughly planned (

to avoid bias)

Good Research

High ethical standards applied Limitations frankly revealed Adequate analysis for decision maker’s

needs Findings presented unambiguously Conclusions justified Researcher’s experience reflected

Good Research