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pulse Sport Science Fall 2004 The Magazine of The Sport Medicine Council of Alberta The Magazine of The Sport Medicine Council of Alberta Special Issue Off Season Training for Rowers Will Trained or Elite Runners Win the Race? Egos, Anger & Canadian Football Players We “Whey” in on Resistance Training Another Win for Homefield Advantage?

Fall 2004 Pulse - revised version.qxp

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Special Issue Off Season Training for Rowers Egos, Anger & Canadian Football Players Will Trained or Elite Runners Win the Race? F a l l 2 0 0 4 T h e M a g a z i n e o f T h e S p o r t M e d i c i n e C o u n c i l o f A l b e r t a T h e M a g a z i n e o f T h e S p o r t M e d i c i n e C o u n c i l o f A l b e r t a 2 SMCA Pulse Fall 2004

Citation preview

Page 1: Fall 2004 Pulse - revised version.qxp

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SSppoorrtt SScciieennccee

F a l l 2 0 0 4

T h e M a g a z i n e o f T h e S p o r t M e d i c i n e C o u n c i l o f A l b e r t aT h e M a g a z i n e o f T h e S p o r t M e d i c i n e C o u n c i l o f A l b e r t a

Special Issue

Off SeasonTraining for

Rowers

Will Trained orElite RunnersWin the Race?

Egos, Anger &Canadian

Football Players

We “Whey” in onResistanceTraining Another Win for

HomefieldAdvantage?

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2 SMCA Pulse Fall 2004

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SMCA Pulse Fall 2004 3

Fall 2004 Vol. 17 No. 2

SMCABoard of Directors

PresidentKoralee Samaroden, BPE, PFLC

Past PresidentDr. Joel Weaver MD, CCFP, CASM

Vice PresidentDr. Gordon Bell, Ph.D.

TreasurerDarren Turchansky, CA

SecretaryJennifer Hanon

ASSM Rep.Dr. Joel Weaver MD, CCFP, CASM

SPC Rep.Gabrielle Cave, BSc, P.T., MCPA

AATA Rep.Dwayne Laing, BPE, CAT (c)

SSAA Rep.Dr. Gordon Bell, Ph.D.

SNS Rep.Jane Dawson - Edwards, RD

Member at LargeRay Kardas

SMCA Staff

Executive DirectorRyan Petersen, BPE

AccountsJanice Peters, BCom (Hons)

Programs, Services and FundraisingCoordinator

Michael Pugh, BPE

Special Projects CoordinatorJennifer Johnson, BPE

Published by Sport Medicine Council of Alberta 11759 - Groat Rd.

Edmonton, Alberta, CanadaT5M 3K6

Phone: (780) 415 - 0812Fax (780) 422 - 3093

Website: www.sportmedab.caEmail: [email protected]

Contents copyright 2004 by SMCA. Articles may not bereprinted without permission. The opinions are those of therespective authors ane not necessarily those of the SMCA.

ISSN: 1181-9812Publication agreement no. 40038086

Subscriptions: 1 year $14.99 plus GSTU.S. $28.99 CND

Send subscription request and changes via email to:[email protected]

We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of AlbertaCommunity Development and the Alberta Sport, Recreation,Parks and Wildlilfe Foundation, towards our editorial costs.

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Gordon J. Bell, Ph.D.Sport Science Association of Alberta

The 2003-2004 granting period was a greatsuccess for the Sport Science Association ofAlberta as evidenced by the high quality ofsport science research from all threeUniversities in Alberta. There were two differ-ent projects from the University of Lethbridge,five from the University of Calgary and anotherfive from the University of Alberta. Once againthis research covered the disciplines of sportpsychology, physiology, biomechanics, motorbehavior/control and medicine. Alberta scien-tists always seem to be pushing the bound-aries of science in sport and exercise.

This edition of Pulse features some of thisresearch and other project summaries can befound in the "publications" section of theSports Medicine Council of Alberta Web Site(www.sportmedab.ca). We hope to have ourown SSAA web page functioning over the nextfew months, so watch for this. Newly pro-posed research projects are currently beingconducted and we look forward to new andexciting findings over the next year.

The SSAA would like to thank all the hardwork by the Sport Medicine Council of Alberta,Alberta Sport, Recreation, Parks & WildlifeFoundation and of course all the athletes andsport organizations that support our researchmandate.

LLaatteesstt NNeewwss ffrroomm tthhee SSMMCCAA

~ The SMCA Athletic First Aid Manual hasfinally been updated with the latest informationand techniques from the world of SportMedicine. It is available to purchase online andfrom our office. The SMCA would like tothank everyone who contributed their time,knowledge and resources to the completion ofthe new manual.

~ The SMCA website is currently undergoingsome major changes. In addition to receivinga new look, the site will also be accessible at anew web address: www.sportmedab.ca. Lookfor these changes plus view the SMCA 2005Resource Directory online in January 2005.

~ A new partnership has formed between theSMCA and Willis/Aviva Traders! Memberbenefits include a voluntary home and autoinsurance plan with competitive premiums. Formore information, call the SMCA.

~ The SMCA encourages all sport & recreationboard members, coaches, officials and staff toattend the 2005 Alberta Sport and RecreationLeadership Summit, a training anddevelopment forum being held March 31- April2, 2005 in beautiful Banff, Alberta. The AlbertaAthletes, Sport Volunteers, Coaches andOfficials of the Year will be honoured during thesummit. For more information, please visit ourwebsite at www.sportmedab.ca and look underour conferences link.

~ The Annual Friendship Sport JapanExchange between Hokkaido and Edmontontook place in Alberta September 20 - 29, 2004.The exchange was a great success and wasmade possible through funding provided by theAlberta Sport, Recreation, Parks & WildlifeFoundation.

~ The SMCA would like to thank former SMCAemployee Jana McCubbin for all her efforts,hard work and dedication towards the council.We wish her the very best of luck with futureendeavors. A big welcome to JenniferJohnson, the SMCA’s new Special ProjectsCoordinator.

~ The Sport Nutritionists of the SMCA are inthe process of updating the Level I SNSCourse, offered through the SMCA. Contentwill include proper nutrition for everydayactivity and competition, hydration, vitamin andmineral use and much more. Workbooks willbe provided for all those registered in the class.Keep checking the SMCA website for anupdated list of course dates!

~ The new Sport Science Association ofAlberta website is currently being created!Check it out in December at www.ssaa.ca.

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4 SMCA Pulse Fall 2004

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Photograph provided by Alberta Rowing Association

G. Bell, D. Syrotuik, A. Game, R. JonesFaculty of Physical Education and Recreation andPulmonary MedicineUniversity of Alberta, Alberta, Canada

Introduction

One training adjunct that is gaining popularity in sport is respiratory(chest) muscle trainers. These are devices that athletes can use

to safely train the chest muscles supporting the pulmonary system in anattempt to enhance both inspiratory and expiratory pulmonary function. Arecent review by Sheel (Sports Med., 32:567-581, 2002) shows that themajority of research that has reported on chest muscle training usingdevices to control pul-monary pressure at the mouth only work to controlinspiratory pressure. Volianitis et al. (Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 33: 803-809, 2001) has shown that inspiratory (only) chest muscle training canproduce significant increase in inspiratory mouth pressure, less inspirato-ry muscle fatigue and improved performance. It is difficult to find reportsthat have combined inspiratory and expiratory chest muscle training andcertainly not in the rowing literature.

PowerLung® is a commercially available device that has the capacityto control inspiratory and expiratory breathing pressure and has beenused with runners and triathletes successfully to improve some aspectsof pul-monary function and performance. Chest muscle training hasgreat potential application to the sport of rowing as we have shown in ourlaboratory that the way in which rowers breathe during rowing exercisecan influence their metabolic and biomechanical efficiency (Bell et al.,Can. J. Appl. Physiol., 23: 466,1998; Gervais & Bell, Arch. Physiol Bio-chem, 141, 2000). The ability to provide adjunctive chest muscle trainingto a rower's regular off-season program may provide additional physio-logical benefits and some additional positive training adaptations.

ObjectiveTherefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of

adjunct supplementary inspiratory and expiratory chest muscle trainingon various spirometry measurements and rowing performance. It is

hypothesized that the group performing the supplementary chest muscletraining will have a significantly greater change in maximum inspiratoryand expiratory force, pulmonary function and respiratory effort comparedto the placebo group.

DesignQuasi-experimental design.

SettingUniversity of Alberta, Edmonton.

SubjectsThe subjects (n = 28) were a combination of on-water and indoor-only

rowers from the local rowing community. Attrition was 6 subjects.

Intervention/Main Outcome Measures After initial testing, males (n=10) and female (n=12) subjects were

matched on 2000 m performance time separately and randomly assignedto either a chest muscle-training group or a placebo group. The chestmuscle-training group performed combined maximal inspiration/expira-tion, 3 sets of 10 repetitions, twice a day using the PowerLung® trainingdevice. The placebo group will receive sham PowerLung® devices thatwere identical except that the inspiratory/expiratory resistance mecha-nisms were modified to provide a minimal resistance to air flow. Thechest muscle training was conducted in addition to a periodized com-bined strength and endurance off-season training program for rowers.Each subject also completed a maximal oxygen consumption test(VO2max), mRM strength test, a 2000 m rowing performance test, maxi-mal expiratory and inspiratory mouth pressure tests (PE, PI) before andafter exercise, pulmonary volumes and flows and an assessment of per-ceived respiratory effort. All testing was repeated after the 10-week pro-gram.

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CommentaryRowing during a 2000m competition requires an intensity of effort that

stresses the maximum oxygen carrying capacity and anaerobic capability ofthe athlete. This necessitates the ability to ventilate at a high rate to supplythe needed oxygen and remover the metabolic by-products such as carbondioxide. The rower must also couple their breathing in a coordinated fashionto the rowing stroke when performing a 2000m rowing race. Thus, the abili-ty to breathe as efficiently as possible is important. One training aid that hasbeen suggested to improve breathing ability, is a device that provides resist-ance to breathing in and/or out to strengthen the chest muscles that supportventilation. Our study showed that these devices are effective in promotingcertain aspects of breathing in rowers, but any transfer to performanceenhancement was not measurable in the present study. Further research isnecessary to completely examine the potential of breathing devices to aidsport performance.

Source of FundingSport Science Association of Alberta (SSAA) through a grant from the

Alberta Sport, Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation (ASRPWF).

For more information, Contact: Dr. Gordon BellFaculty of Physical Education and RecreationE424 Van Vliet CenterUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, Alberta, Canada

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From page 4

SMCA PulseSMCA Pulse Fall 2004 5

Main ResultsThere was a significant increase in VO2max, bench and leg press

mRM strength levels, as well as a significant decrease in 2000 m row-ing time after training. There were no significant differences betweenthe chest muscle training group and sham placebo group on any ofthese dependent measurements.

There was a significant increase in resting PE and PI pressure inthe chest muscle-training group. The increase in PE pressure was sig-nificantly higher than the sham placebo group after training. PE pres-sure during recovery from maximal exercise was higher than beforetraining in both groups. Recovery PI pressure as higher after trainingwith chest muscle training and when compared to the sham placebogroup. Perceived respiratory effort during the 2000 m test was lessafter chest muscle training only. There were no significant changes inforced vital capacity after training in either group.

ConclusionsOur results suggest that 10 weeks of chest muscle training using

devices designed to provide variable resistance to inspiration and expi-ration in conjunction with combined strength and endurance training inrowers was effective in enhancing resting and post exercise breathingpressures measured at the mouth and ratings of perceived breathingeffort during exercise. There was no beneficial effects of this greaterbreathing pressure capability on simulated 2000 m rowing performancebeyond that which occurs as a result of a 10 week off-seasons trainingprogram. Therefore, chest muscle training devices are effective inenhancing the maximum pressure that can be generated during inspi-ration and expiration at rest and during exercise recovery and canenhance the perceived effort of breathing during exercise. However,the potential benefits to sport performance require further investigation.

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Page 6: Fall 2004 Pulse - revised version.qxp

D.J. Smith & M.A. McGillivrayHuman Performance Labroratory, Faculty of Kinesiology

University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada

ObjectiveTo examine the association of maximal oxygen uptake, stroke volume,

and a-vO2 difference, to critical speed and 10 km running performance.

DesignObservational, comparative.

SettingHuman Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology,

University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Jack Simpson track, University ofCalgary, Alberta. Venue of the Forzanai Mother's Day run, Calgary, Alberta.

ParticipantsTwelve trained male runners (26.5 +/- 4.1yrs; 69.6 +/- 8.8 kg; 62.8 +/-

6.4 ml·kg-1 min-1) volunteered to participate in five separate testing ses-sions and a local 10km run. Six runners were classified "elite" (10 km in

34:43 ± 1:45 min) and six were classified "trained" (10 km in 40:22 ±

1:51).

Methodology

Max Determination: The subjects performed a standard incrementaltest to exhaustion on a treadmill. Expired air was collected and analyzedusing a metabolic measurement cart (Parvo-Med True Max).Critical Speed: The subjects performed three maximal effort timedruns of 960, 2160, and 4080m. Results were graphed and extrapolated topredict 10km race time.Cardiac Output: The subjects performed open-circuit acetylenebreathing at selected intervals during two incremental treadmill tests. Thistechnique involved breathing trace amounts of acetylene gas whileinspired and expired air was continuously monitored by a mass spectrom-eter.10 km Race Time: The subjects participated in a local 10km roadrace within three weeks of laboratory testing.

Main Outcome MeasuresCardiac Output (Q), oxygen consumption (VO2), and heart rate (HR),

were measured during two incremental treadmill tests. Stroke volume(SV) was calculated from the HR data; arterio-venous oxygen difference(a-vO2 diff) was calculated from VO2 and Q; and oxygen pulse (O2 pulse)

was calculated from VO2 and HR. Results for VO2, Q, HR, SV, a-vO2 diff,and O2 pulse were compared between groups. When appropriate, valuesfor each variable were compared to previously published values to assessvalidity.

Results Continued on the Next Page...

6 SMCA Pulse Fall 2004

TTrraaiinneedd oorr EElliittee??TTrraaiinneedd oorr EElliittee??Differences in 10 km Running Performance Predicted

from O2 Pulse in Elite and Trained Runners

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* SMCA Member Price

SMCA Pulse Fall 2004 7

The elite group had significantly faster 10km run times (p < 0.001), high-er max values (p < 0.01), faster critical speeds (p < 0.001), and higherO2 pulse (ml/bt/kg) (p < 0.05) than the trained group. 10 km perform-ance was correlated with max (r = 0.78) Critical speed, calculated from3 shorter distance maximal timed runs, was strongly correlated to 10 kmrace time (r = 0.93), but over-predicted by 1:39 min:s. There was a linearrelationship between and : = 5.76 + 5.61 (r = 0.84). These valuesare similar to those of Barker et al. (1999). There was no significant dif-ference between groups for SV, or a-vO2 difference measured at criticalspeed intensity. O2 pulse at race speed was only moderately correlatedwith 10 km race time (r = 0.57). Critical speed intensity occurred at 88 ±0.05% for both groups.

CommentaryThe results demonstrate that 10 km performance was correlated with

critical speed which supports previous studies. Thus, performance caneasily be predicted from shorter maximal runs. Physiologically, our datademonstrates that a high VO2 max is a fundamental requirement and that10 km performance occurs at a high percentage of VO2 max. Althoughwe could directly measure cardiac output, we could not demonstrate anassociation between stroke volume or a-vO2 difference and running per-formance. We have previously demonstrated a strong relationshipbetween stroke volume and 20 km cycling performance. However, inrunning, other factors, such as running economy and/or biomechanicalability may play significant roles in determining actual performance. Thecalculated values of stroke volume and a-vO2 difference were very simi-lar to data reported in the literature, however, differences in body sizemay have been a confounding factor in demonstrating a differencebetween groups. Further research is required with a larger sample size.

Source of FundingSport Science Association of Alberta (SSAA) through a grant from the

Alberta Sport, Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation (ASRPWF).

For more information, Contact:Dr. D.J. Smith or Meegan McGillivray 2500 University Drive NWFaculty of KinesiologyUniversity of CalgaryCalgary, AB, T2N 1N4

Group 10 KmTime(Min.)

VO2

Max(ml/kg/min.)

CriticalSpeed(M/min.)

O2

Pulse/kg(ml/bt/kg)

StrokeVol.

(ml/bt)

a-vO2Diff.

(ml/dL)

Trained 40:22±1:51

58.10±3.89

261.0±16.4

0.28±0.01

142.7±16.6

14.1±1.1

Elite 34:43±1:45

67.50±4.61

300.0± 8.5

0.31±0.02

147.2±31.0

14.3±1.1

Main Results (Mean ± Standard Deviation)

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Optimizing safe and healthy participation in sport, recreation and leisure

activities!

Page 8: Fall 2004 Pulse - revised version.qxp

8 SMCA Pulse Fall 2004

P e r c e p t i o n s o f A n g e r a s a F u n c t i o n o f

P e r f e c t i o n i s m a n d G o a l O r i e n t a t i o n

i n H i g h P e r f o r m a n c e C a n a d i a n Fo o t b a l l P l a y e r s

D o e s E G O E q u a l

A N G E R ?

Page 9: Fall 2004 Pulse - revised version.qxp

J.G.H. Dunn, J. Causgrove-Dunn, B. Babiak &D. SyrotuikFaculty of Physical Education & Recreation

University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta

Introduction

Relative to the general fields of social psychology, clinical psychology,and personality psychology, very little research attention has been

devoted to the personality trait of perfectionism in sport psychology(Anshel & Eom, 2003). Despite this relative paucity of research in thesport domain, of the few studies that have examined the construct withathletic populations, results have suggested that perfectionism is animportant personality variable to consider when examining the cognitive,affective, and behavioral characteristics of competitive athletes. Gould,Dieffenbach, and Moffett (2002) recently observed that a specific patternof perfectionist tendencies (referred to as adaptive or healthy perfection-ism) was present in a sample of ten U.S. Olympic gold medallists. In con-trast to the potentially adaptive nature of perfectionism, researchers havealso identified the potentially destructive nature of perfectionism in sport(referred to as maladaptive or unhealthy perfectionism). For example,maladaptive perfectionist tendencies among a variety of competitive sportpopulations have been associated with low self-esteem (Gotwals, Dunn,& Wayment, 2003), increased burnout (Gould, Udry, Tuffey, Loehr, 1996),heightened competitive anxiety (Hall, Kerr, & Matthews, 1998), and diffi-culties responding to mistakes (Frost & Henderson, 1991).

ObjectiveThis study was designed to determine if perfectionist orientations and

achievement goal orientations were related to anger dispositions in sport.In particular, this study was designed to determine if athletes with dys-functional motivational patterns (i.e., maladaptive perfectionist tendenciesand high ego-orientations) were prone to experiencing anger in competi-tive sport settings. Secondly, this study attempted to determine if typicalanger responses were deemed by athletes to be facilitative or debilitativetowards performance.

DesignCorrelational.

SettingCanadian Football Under-19 national championships (Football

Canada Cup).

ParticipantsOne hundred and thirty nine male high-performance Canadian

Football players from four provincial select teams (M age = 18.30 years;SD = .75) participated in the study.

Measures/Instruments Players completed self-report measures of perfectionism (MPS-Sport;

Dunn, Causgrove-Dunn, & Syrotuik, 2002), goal orientations (TEOSQ:Duda & Nicholls, 1992), trait anger, anger expression, and anger control(STAXI-2: Spielberger, 1999). Athletes were also asked to indicate if theyfelt that their typical anger responses in football were either facilitative ordebilitative towards performance. Some of the original items on the angermeasures were reworded to make them more relevant to the sport offootball.

Main ResultsBivariate correlations (r) revealed that the two dimensions of perfec-

tionism most closely related to anger in football were concern over mis-takes perfectionism (COM) and perceived coach pressure perfectionism(PCP). These two dimensions of perfectionism are generally associatedwith maladaptive or dysfunctional perfectionism (Dunn et al., 2002).Specifically, COM was significantly correlated with Anger Temperament (r= .18), Anger Reaction (r = .33) and the inward expression (i.e., inwardsuppression) of anger feelings (r = .32). The PCP dimension was signifi-cantly correlated with Anger Reaction (r = .26), the inward expression ofanger (r = .19) and the outward control of anger (r = .18). Task orienta-tion, which is generally viewed as an adaptive or functional motivationalorientation, was significantly correlated with the ability to inwardly controlanger feelings (r = .17) and outwardly control anger feelings (r = .20). Incontrast, ego orientation, which is primarily viewed as dysfunctional moti-vational orientation, was significantly correlated with both Anger Reaction(r = .30) and the inward control of anger (r = -.21). Bivariate correlationsalso revealed strong significant correlations between inward anger con-trol and facilitative performance (r = .54) and between outward angercontrol and facilitative performance (r = .52). In other words, high levelsof inward and outward control of anger were associated with more facili-tative performance perceptions (although it should be noted that the ath-letes also viewed the inward suppression of anger feelings as being facil-itative towards performance [r = .24] which goes against theoreticalexpectations). All of the aforementioned correlations were significant at p< .05 or lower.

ConclusionsOverall, the results indicate that athletes with higher maladaptive per-

fectionist tendencies (i.e., high COM and high PCP), and dysfunctionalgoal orientations (i.e., low task orientations and high ego orientations)tend to be (a) more prone to experiencing anger in competition, and (b)somewhat less able to control their anger responses in ways that arefacilitative towards performance. Having said this, it should be acknowl-edged that many of the correlations (although statistically significant)were relatively small in magnitude, therefore, some degree of caution isrequired when interpreting these findings.

CommentaryMaladaptive perfectionists almost always believe that they "could and

should do better" (Hamachek, 1978). Feeling that one could or should dobetter is also an antecedent condition of anger. Thus, we suggest thatcoaches and athletes develop competitive philosophies that provideallowances for mistakes in competition. In other words, we suggest thatcoaches and athletes recognize that mistakes are an integral part of theperformance environment, and to expect or demand "mistake free" per-formance in sport makes athletes vulnerable to anger responses.Although anger has the potential to facilitate performance if controlledand channeled in appropriate ways (Lazarus, 2000), it has even greaterpotential to hinder performance by distracting attention or by leading theindividual to engage in hostile or aggressive behaviors that may result ininjury to others or to undisciplined penalties in competition.

Source of fundingSport Science Association of Alberta (SSAA) through a grant from the

Alberta Sport, Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation (ASRPWF).

For more information, Contact:Dr. John DunnFaculty of Physical Education and RecreationUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AB.

SMCA Pulse Fall 2004 9

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10 SMCA Pulse Fall 2004

Body Composition and Performance ChangesFollowing 8-week of Whey Protein or Whey

Protein/Carbohydrate Supplementation and ConcurrentResistance Training

D. Syrotuik, G. Bell & D. StrideFaculty of Physical Education & Recreation

University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta

Introduction

Whey protein, a by-product of the dairy industry, has become a highlymarketed and popular supplement for weight trainers. Many ath-

letes are utilizing this "over the counter" product with the belief that it willenhance their strength and muscle mass over training alone. Sinceheavy resistance training does create a catabolic environment within thetrained muscle, the additional dietary protein may help to counteract thenet protein breakdown and thus speed adaptation and the overall trainingeffect.

In addition, it is generally accepted that skeletal muscle protein syn-thesis and degradation is sensitive to the presence and concentrations ofinsulin in the blood. Research findings report that higher amounts of cir-culating insulin have resulted in decreased markers of muscle degrada-tion or breakdown [Roy et al., J. Appl. Physiol., 82(6): 1882-1888, 1997].It has been speculated that ingesting a combined protein-carbohydratesupplement over an extended period of time with training would providean even greater ergogenic boost than either product taken by itself.

In light of the limited research that assesses the effects of whey pro-tein and/or whey protein-carbohydrate as a nutritional training supple-ment, further work is needed to help improve our understanding of poten-tial changes in body composition and physical performance associatedwith these supplements when combined with resistance training. It ishypothesized that the mixture of whey protein and carbohydrate will leadto significant increases in strength and lean body mass over whey pro-tein supplementation alone.

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Page 11: Fall 2004 Pulse - revised version.qxp

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to assess the changes in body compo-

sition and strength performance when combining resistance training withthe ingestion of whey protein or whey protein-carbohydrate in male recre-ational weight lifters.

DesignTreatment-control, double blind experimental design.

SettingUniversity of Alberta, Edmonton.

SubjectsThe subjects (n = 25) were experienced university male weight train-

ers (age 18-25) from the University of Alberta's general student popula-tion.

Intervention/Main Outcome MeasuresPrior to being matched on total lean body mass and randomly

assigned to either a whey protein (Pro) or whey protein/carbohydrateProCarb) training groups, each subject underwent measures of 1RMbench and leg press, body composition via dual energy x-ray absorptiom-etry (DEXA) and completed a 3-day dietary log. All participants thencompleted an 8 week, 4-day per week, split routine resistance trainingprogram, gradually increasing the initial volume of training from 3 sets of10-12 repetitions to 4 sets of 6-8 repetitions for each exercise. A typicaltraining week featured two days (Monday & Thursday) of lower body andarm exercises (squats, incline leg press, leg curls, leg extensions, bicepscurls, triceps extensions) and two days (Tuesday & Friday) of chest andback exercises (bench press, incline bench press, dumbbell rows, latis-simus pull-downs, military press, upright rowing). During training, theProCarb groups received 1.64g kg-1 d-1 of a whey protein isolate com-prised of ~33% protein and 67% carbohydrate while the Pro groupingested an isoenergenic carbohydrate of 2 g kg-1 d-1. Supplementswere mixed with water and consumed in 3 equal portions immediatelybefore training, within 30 minutes of completing training and ad libitumduring the day following the second portion. Following the 8 weeks oftraining and supplementation, 1RM bench and leg press, body composi-tion assessment and the 3-day dietary log measures were repeated.

Main ResultsTotal body mass (Carb,1.1 1.1kg; ProCarb, 1.0 1.2kg), total lean body

mass (Carb, 1431.7 944.8g; ProCarb, 1326.3 944.8g), including leg,upper body and arm lean tissue was significantly increased in both train-ing groups to a similar extent. 1RM bench and leg press scores signifi-cantly increased following training with no significant differences betweengroups. Compliance to training sessions was 96 and 93% for the Carb and ProCarb groups respectively. Neither experimental group reportednegative side effects during the 8-week supplementation and trainingperiod.

ConclusionsThe results suggest that 8 weeks of periodized resistance training

coupled with either a Pro or Pro Carb supplement resulted in similar improvements in strength and lean body mass. The hypothesis that aprotein-carbohydrate supplement might provide a better ergogenic train-ing effect than a simple protein supplement, is not supported. Whether

either supplementation group would have provided better increases in strength and body composition than training alone is difficult to determine, since a true control group was not utilized in this experiment.

CommentaryIn recent years, there has been growing interest in nutritional supple-

ments that enhance the effects of training. A few studies have examinedthe acute metabolic responses of ingesting amino acids, in the form ofcommercial "protein supplements", while training [Houston, M.E., Can. J.Appl. Physiol. 24(4): 305-316, 1999; Gibala, M.J., Cand. J. Appl. Physiol.25(6):524-535; 2000; Tipton, K.D., Wolfe, R.R. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc.Met. 11:109-132,2001]. Other researchers have reported significant ben-efits supplementing with commercially prepared amino acid/carbohydratemixtures while training [Tarnopolsky et al., J. Appl. Physiol. 73:1986-1995, 1992: Kraemer et al., J. Appl. Physiol. 85(4): 1544-1555, 1998]. Nostudies have specifically investigated the effects of popular whey proteinpowder or the combined effects of whey protein and carbohydrate sup-plementation with longer-term resistance training. Our study suggeststhat comparable increases in strength and lean body mass occur in bothsupplementation groups with no significant advantage utilizing awhey/carbohydrate mixture over whey protein powder alone.

Source of fundingSport Science Association of Alberta (SSAA) through a grant from the

Alberta Sport, Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation (ASRPWF).

For more information, Contact: Dr. D.G. SyrotuikFaculty of Physical Education and RecreationE424 Van Vliet CenterUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, T6G 2H9.

SMCA Pulse Fall 2004 11

WWhheeyy TTrraaiinniinngg SSttuuddyyFrom page 10

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12 SMCA Pulse Fall 2004

WWiillll tthhee LLaasstt BBaatt BBrriinngg VViiccttoorryy??WWiillll tthhee LLaasstt BBaatt BBrriinngg VViiccttoorryy??Batting Last as a Factor in the Homefield Advantage in

Competitive Amateur Baseball

S.R. BrayDepartment of KinesiologyUniversity of Lethbridge, Alberta

Introduction

The homefield advantage has been an area of intense interest in sportscience for over 25 years. Generally, findings indicate that sport

teams win more than 50% of their home games when playing a balancedhome and away schedule (Courneya & Carron, 1992) and show greatersuccess when their home records are compared to away (Bray, 1999).In their home advantage model, Courneya and Carron identified four pri-mary game location factors that should impact on the extent of the homeadvantage. The four factors are: crowd support, travel, familiarity withthe venue, and rules. While the former three factors have receivedextensive research attention, the latter remains relatively unexplored. Anexplanation for the lack of interest in the rules factor is that it mainly hasrelevance to only two major sports: ice hockey (where the home teamhas the last line change) and baseball/softball (where the home teambats last). A further complicating factor in examining the impact of vari-ous game location factors is that, by and large, they are present in com-bination at any contest and, consequently, assessing the independentcontributions of each factor to an observed effect is problematic.

The present study will take advantage of an environmental situationwhere all major game location factors except the rule of batting last inbaseball and softball are controlled. That is, data will be collected fromtournament play where the host team and visiting teams are designatedas both home team (bat last) for some games and away team (bat first)for other games.

For host teams, crowd, travel, and familiarity factors are constant (i.e.,favorable) regardless of batting first or last. Also, for away teams, crowd,travel, and familiarity factors are constant (i.e., unfavorable) regardless ofbatting first or last. Thus, in this naturally occurring experiment, the bat-ting last rule factor is manipulated by tournament design and the inde-pendent and interactive effects of batting first or last for home and visitingteams can be assessed.

ObjectiveThe objective was to examine game outcomes when teams batted

last compared to when they batted first. Home (host) teams were ana-lyzed separately from visiting

teams playing other visiting teams. Consistent with previous research, itwas hypothesized that there would be an effect for game location (i.e., onaverage, host teams will win a greater percentage of games than visitingteams). Because batting last represents an advantage in terms of havingthe last opportunity to score, it was also predicted that teams that battedlast would have a greater winning percentage than teams that battedfirst.

Design, Setting & SubjectsArchival data from Alberta provincial tournament round-robin games

played in the Mosquito, Pee Wee, Bantam, and Midget divisions of theAlberta Baseball Association 2003 season were retrieved from thewebsite:

http://24.65.170.78/Baseballalberta/Schedule/Tournament_results_bantam_a.asp.

A total of 742 games had sufficient records to allow analyses of thedata. Because games involved two teams, data from each game weresplit to yield 1484 team-games, which provided statistics for each teaminvolved. Each team-game was treated as the unit of analysis. Therewere 370 home team-games in which home teams batted last in 213 andfirst in 157. One-thousand, one-hundred and fourty two visiting team-games were played; 370 against host teams and 742 against other visit-ing teams. The data were categorized into one, three-category variable:type of team match-up (home team batting last vs. visiting team, visitingteam batting last vs. home team, or visiting team batting last vs. visitingteam) and three sets of binary variables according to: game location(home or visiting), batting order (first or last), and game outcome (win orloss.

Article Continued on the Next Page...

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SMCA Pulse Fall 2004 13

Main ResultsWinning and losing proportions and frequencies by game location,

batting order, and type of game match-up for the entire sample are pre-sented in Table 1. Results clearly showed a game location effect withhome teams winning 57.3% of the games in which they batted both firstand last. When two visiting teams played one another, the team battingfirst won 50.4% of the games, while the team batting last won only 49.6%of the time.

Table 1. Proportions and Frequencies of Victories forHome and Visiting Teams When Batting First and Last

Direct binary logistic regression analyses were performed on gameoutcome with game location and batting order specified as predictors. Atest of the full model with all predictors was statistically different from aconstant only model, x2 (2, N = 1484) = 10.534, p = 0.005, indicating thepredictors reliably distinguished between winning and losing outcomes.

Regression coefficients, Wald statistics, P-values, odds ratios, and 95%confidence intervals for odds ratios for each predictor are shown in Table2. Using the Wald criterion, these results show the significant effect ofgame location, z = 10.403, p = 0.001, but no effect for batting order.Examination of the odds ratios indicate that the odds of winning wereapproximately two-thirds for visiting teams compared to home teams (i.e.,0.68:1).

Table 2. Results of Binary Logistic Regression AnalysisPredicting Game Outcomes

Note: B = Unstandardized Beta Coefficient, S.E.B = Standard Error of B.

Article Continued on the Next Page...

Type of TeamMatch Up

Batting Last Victories

Batting FirstVictories

Host Teams vs.Visiting Teams

57.3%122/213

57.3%90/157

Visiting Teams vs.Host Teams

42.7%67/157

42.7%91/213

Visiting Teams vs.other Visiting Teams

49.6%184/371

50.4%187/371

Predictor Game LocationBattingPosition

BS.E.B

-.3920.121

-.0080.105

Wald Statistic 10.403 0.006

P .001 .940

Odds RatioExp(B)

.676 .940

95% C.I.Odds Ratio

.553 - .858 .808 - 1.128

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14 SMCA Pulse Fall 2004

It was hypothesized that there would be a batting order effect forhome teams and for visiting teams playing other visitors. Thus, datafrom host teams and visiting teams (playing visiting teams) were ana-lyzed separately. There was no evidence to support the hypothesis. Infact, the results showed home teams had a 57% chance of winningregardless of batting order. Visiting teams' chances of winning were alsono different when batting last (49.6%) compared to first (50.4%).

Although there was no effect for batting order when the sample wastreated as homogenous, the different age divisions were examined sepa-rately in further analyses.

Both batting order and game location effects were variable dependingon age division.

Results for Mosquito are shown in Table 3. There was no game loca-tion effect, but there was an effect for batting order (x2 (1, N = 258) =16.568, p < .001). The effect was clearly driven by the advantage of bat-ting last for visitors playing other visitors. Logistic regression analysespredicting game outcome from batting order produced a significant Waldstatistic (B = -2.15, S.E.B = 0.44, z = 24.10, p < .001). The odds ratio(OR = 0.12, 95% C.I. = 0.05 - 0.28) indicated that visiting teams battinglast were 8.5 times more likely to win games compared to teams batting

first.

Table 3. Proportions and Frequencies of Victories forHome and Visiting Teams When Batting First and Last forMosquito League

Table 4. Proportions and Frequencies of Victories forHome and Visiting Teams When Batting First and Last forPeeWee League

There were no significant effects for either game location or battingorder in the Pee Wee league. However, there were significant effects forboth factors in Bantam. As can be surmised from Table 5, the homeadvantage was 57%. Batting first was an advantage for both visiting andhome teams in this league. On average, teams who batted first were 2.5times more likely to win (OR = 0.39, 95% C.I. = 0.23 - 0.69) compared toteams batting last (B = -0.94, S.E.B = 0.28, z = 10.84, P = .001). For theMidget league (Table 6), the effect of game location was significant (B = -0.61, S.E.B = 0.22, z = 7.59, p = .006), with home teams winning 61%,but there was no effect for batting order.

Table 5. Proportions and Frequencies of Victories forHome and Visiting Teams When Batting First and Last forBantam League

CommentaryThe purpose of the study was to examine the effect of batting last on

game outcome in Alberta amateur baseball. The results obtainedshowed a home advantage effect and were consistent with previous find-ings by Courneya and Carron (1990), showing no effect for batting orderamong teams playing at a neutral site. Contrary to predictions, there wasno significant effect of batting last on game outcome for teams playing attheir home grounds either. However, results did show evidence that nei-ther the game location nor batting last effects were consistent acrossMosquito, PeeWee, Bantam, and Midget leagues.

Two findings that stand out are the significant effects of batting orderin the Mosquito and Bantam league results. In the Mosquito league,among visiting teams playing one another, the odds were greater than8.5 that teams who had the last bat would win. Conversely in theBantam league, teams were 2.5 time more likely to win if they battedfirst. Because the data otherwise showed no effect for batting order,these results may have been anomalies. However, given this study is

Type of TeamMatch Up

Batting Last Victories

Batting FirstVictories

Host Teams vs.Visiting Teams

46.7%14/30

71.4%15/21

Visiting Teams vs.Host Teams

28.6%6/21

53.3%16/30

Visiting Teams vs.other Visiting Teams

36.2%21/58

63.8%37/58

Type of TeamMatch Up

Batting Last Victories

Batting FirstVictories

Host Teams vs.Visiting Teams

58.7%27/46

57.1%16/28

Visiting Teams vs.Host Teams

42.9%12/28

41.3%19/46

Visiting Teams vs.other Visiting Teams

74.5%41/55

25.5%14/55

Type of TeamMatch Up

Batting Last Victories

Batting FirstVictories

Host Teams vs.Visiting Teams

44.7%34/76

47.2%25/53

Visiting Teams vs.Host Teams

52.8%28/53

55.3%42/76

Visiting Teams vs.other Visiting Teams

49.7%75/151

50.3%76/151

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SMCA Pulse Fall 2004 15

Coming December 2004...

The New Website of the Sport Science Association of Alberta!

www . s s a a . c a

~ View the Latest Sport Science Research ~ Search Archived Articles

~ Learn of Future SSAA initiatives

the first to examine the batting last rule in round-robin tournament play,future research is certainly warranted to examine these contextual effectsmore closely.

Considered in concert, the results raise definite questions as to theeffect of the batting last rule for the homefield advantage in amateur base-ball. Two explanations are offered. First, although the team batting lasthas the opportunity to substitute hitters and runners on base in efforts toscore, Courneya and Carron (1990) have pointed out that the team in thedefensive position also has a number of options at their disposal such asmaking pitching changes and intentionally walking strong batters. In theirwords, "the opportunities for offensive and defensive strategies may beequal, thereby eliminating any advantage for either team" (p. 315).

The second explanation requires ready acknowledgement that otherpotent factors such as familiarity, not traveling, and having home crowdsupport are all potentially contributory elements in the home advantagephenomenon. All of these factors would have been at work throughouteach game played by home teams, regardless of their batting order andindeed, a substantial home advantage of 57% was seen across all homegames played. Thus, the batting last effect may be subsumed by the com-bined effects of other potent home advantage factors when looking only atthe outcome of every game played.

The results obtained thus far support either of these conclusions regard-ing the batting last rule.

Source of FundingSport Science Association of Alberta (SSAA) through a grant from the

Alberta Sport, Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation (ASRPWF).

For more information, Contact:Steven R. Bray

Department of KinesiologyUniversity of LethbridgeLethbridge, Alberta, CanadaT1K 3M4

ReferencesBray, S. R. (1999). The home advantage from an individual team perspec-tive. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, 116-125

Courneya, K. S. and Carron, A. V. (1990). Batting first versus last: Implications for the home advantage. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 12, 312-316.

Courneya, K. S. and Carron, A. V. (1992). The home advantage in sport competitions: Aliterature review. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 14, 13-27.

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