FACULTY OF EDUCATION & SOCIAL WORK Foundations of social research Introduction to theories of...
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FACULTY OF EDUCATION & SOCIAL WORK Foundations of social research Introduction to theories of knowledge and foundations of social research 8 August 2013
FACULTY OF EDUCATION & SOCIAL WORK Foundations of social
research Introduction to theories of knowledge and foundations of
social research 8 August 2013 Opening seminar of the lecture series
Foundations of social research CoCo research centre Lina
Markauskaite
Slide 2
Outline 1.The nature of inquiry Ontology, epistemology,
axiology, etc. 2.Disciplined inquiry understanding methodological
choices 3.From methodology to method understanding instruments
4.Putting science back into the society disciplines, societies
& policies From ideal paradigms to skilful improvisation From
science, technology, & evolution to intuition, craft, &
creativity Note: improvisation based on Ingold, 2000
Slide 3
Key messages 1.The notion of knowledge that underpins modern
research is more creative than the traditional positivist vs.
interpretativist debate suggests: -Modern interpretative thought is
more than a plain subjectivism -Modern scientific method is more
than a simple quantification & computation 2.Not to turn away
from the fundamental tensions between sciences, practices &
policies, but to search for meaningful explanations: -To look
deeper into the ideas that emerged at the intersection of modern
philosophy, psychology, science & technology -To seek skilful
meshing of different research methodologies, methods, techniques
and tools 3
Slide 4
Nature of inquiry Approaches in social inquiry This section is
based on Cohen et al, 2002; Neuman, 2006; Denzin & Lincoln,
2005
Slide 5
How do we know? 1.Experience common sense knowing -Hunches
2.Reasoning logic -Deductive formal logic -Inductive from
observation to generalisation 3.Research empirical science
-Systematic, controlled, inductive-deductive -Empirical
-Theoretical -Public, critical, self-reflective and self-correcting
Rene Descartes 1596-1650 Francis Bacon 1561-1626 Based on Cohen et
al, 2002; Neuman, 2006
Slide 6
How do we know social reality? Objectivist view Social
phenomenon is similar to natural phenomenon Logic of science
discovering existing laws of human behaviour Origins Auguste Comte
(1798-1857) Emile Durheim (1858-1917) Experiments, quasi-
experiments, survey research, etc Based on Cohen et al, 2002,
Neuman, 2006
Slide 7
Objectivist: Logic of scientific method Main steps:
1.Experience: hunches & hypothesis 2.Conceptualisation &
quantification 3.Design of experiment 4.Systematic & controlled
manipulation 5.Discovery of cause-effect relationships 6.(Dis)proof
of hypothesis Main research principle - logic & experiment
Based on Cohen et al, 2002
Slide 8
Against scientific method Classroom episode Teacher: Wilson, we
will have to put you away, if you dont change your ways, and do
your homework. Is that all youve done? Student: Strawberries,
strawberries (Laughter) Coding [7: Teacher criticises] [4: Teacher
asks question] [9: Pupil irritation] [10: Silence or confusion]
Context. The teacher used to say: Pupils work is like strawberries
good as far as it goes, but it doesnt last nearly long enough. Why
did students react in such odd way? Dealmont 1976, cited in Cohen
et al, 2002, 21
Slide 9
How do we know social reality? Subjectivist view Social
phenomenon is different from inanimate natural phenomenon Research
logic accounts for subjectivity & individuality Origins Max
Weber (1864-1920) Willem Dilthey (1833-1911) Phenomenology,
ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism Based on Cohen et al,
2002; Neuman 2006
Slide 10
Subjectivist principles of inquiry Key emphasises: Knowledge
& knowing is situated Individuals as constructors Process of
negotiation is constructed Multiple components interact Main
research principle structuring, analysing, & interpreting
situations & events Based on Cohen et al, 2002
Slide 11
Approaches & underlying assumptions 1.Ontology
2.Epistemology 3.Axiology 4.Human nature 5.Methodology Logic &
rigor Research Logic & rigor Objectivist Subjectivist Based on
Cohen et al, 2002; Neuman, 2006
Slide 12
What is social reality? Objectivist External to individuals
Subjectivist Product of individual consciousness
RealismONTOLOGYNominalism Based on Cohen et al, 2002
Slide 13
What is knowledge? Objectivist Objective Discovered
Subject-object relationship Subjectivist Subjective Personally
experienced Subject-subject relationship
PositivismEPISTEMOLOGYAnti-positivism Based on Cohen et al, 2002;
Neuman, 2006
Slide 14
How do we act? Objectivist Respond to environment Action a
mechanic product of environment Subjectivist Create our environment
Action a free will Determinism HUMAN NATURE Voluntarism Based on
Cohen et al, 2002; Neuman, 2006
Slide 15
What is valued, right & moral? Objectivist Value free
science Knowledge is instrumental Subjectivist Relativistic inquiry
Knowledge is transcendental, practical ExternalAXIOLOGYInternal
Based on Cohen et al, 2002; Neuman, 2006
Slide 16
How do we research? Objectivist Discovering universal laws in
behaviour Quantification Deductive reasoning Subjectivist
Understanding of social forms created by people Interpretation
Inductive reasoning NomotheticMETHODOLOGYIdeographic Based on Cohen
et al, 2002; Neuman, 2006
Slide 17
Some layers of social inquiry What kind of conclusions will we
be able to draw? Where do we focus? What kind of evidence do we
collect? What things do we choose to notice? How do we know &
research? What kinds of questions do we ask? How do we see things?
ONTOLOGY EPISTEMOLOGY METHODOLOGY INSTRUMENTATION DATA ANALYTICAL
TECHNIQUES Realism Positivism Nomothetic Segregation Numerical
Statistical Nominalism Anti-positivist Ideographic Integration
Qualitative Interpretative
Slide 18
How do we choose methodology? Research Focus &
QuestionMethodology Causal relationships What is the relationship
between A and B? Experiment Meaning What is the meaning of this
experience? Phenomenology Patterns, descriptions What is the
culture of this group of people? Ethnography Single phenomenon What
are characteristics of the phenomenon? Case study Partly based on
Richards & Morse, 2007
Slide 19
What kinds of data do we collect? MethodologyLikely data
sources/types Experiment (causal relationship) Tests, behavioural
measurement, etc. Phenomenology (meaning) In-depth conversations,
phenomenological literature, etc. Ethnography (patterns,
descriptions) Observations, field notes, interviews, focus groups,
documents, artefacts, etc. Case study (phenomenon) Interviews,
observations, focus groups, documents, evidences, etc. Partly based
on Richards & Morse, 2007
Slide 20
How do we choose analytic techniques? MethodologyAnalysis
techniques Experiment (causal relationship) Statistical:
comparison, correlation, etc. Phenomenology (meaning) Themeing,
reflective writing, etc. Ethnography (patterns, descriptions)
Sorting, identifying topics and patterns, thick description, etc.
Case study (phenomenon) Structural, interpretational, reflective
analysis, etc. Partly based on Richards & Morse, 2007
Slide 21
Research question and methodology A question about causation:
may be before and after or comparison A general question about a
whole population Points to a quantitative study perhaps with a
quasi-experimental research design A question about meanings,
experiences and practices A question about a particular place and
particular phenomenon Points to a qualitative study, perhaps an
ethnographic case study Will the use of laptops affect students
writing skills? How does this school use laptops in their daily
practices? But this is not so black and white
Slide 22
Two kinds of social sciences PositivistInterpretivist
Purposediscover lawsunderstand social meanings in context
Realityempirically evidentsocially constructed Humansrational,
individualistic beings interacting beings & create meanings
Human agencydeterministicVoluntaristic Scientific
knowledgedifferent & superiordifferent, not superior
Explanationsbased on causal laws, deductive based on description,
inductive Resultscan be verified using replication can be verified
with people being studied Evidenceuniversal,
intersubjectivitecontingent, contextualised
KnowledgeInstrumentalpractical & transcendental Researchvalue
free & objectiverelativistic regarding values 22 Based on
Neuman, 2007, 87, 94
Slide 23
How do we know: The third paradigm: Reality has multiple
layers, & observations on surface level do not reflect deeper
structures and mechanisms that causes them. Social research must be
reflective and it is necessary political. The goal is not to study,
but demystify ordinary events. Origins Karl Marx (1818-1883)
materialist tradition Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002) Jurgen Habermas
(1929) Critical social science Based on Cohen et al, 2002, Neuman
2006
Slide 24
Critical social science: Principles of inquiry Emphasis
Political & ideological context Understand & change Main
steps 1.Description: What I am doing? 2.Information: What does it
mean? 3.Confrontation: How did I come to be like this?
4.Reconstruction: How might I do differently? 5.Evaluation: How did
I succeed? Key principle realism, revealing hidden levels of social
life Based on Cohen et al, 2002, Neuman 2006
Slide 25
Two kinds of social sciences PositivistCriticalInterpretive
Purposediscover lawsreveal hidden, liberate, empower understand
social meanings in context Realityempirically evidenthas multiple
layerssocially constructed Humansrational, individualistic beings
have unrealised potential & life is relational interacting
beings & create meanings Human agencydeterministicbounded
autonomyVoluntaristic Scientific knowledge different &
superiorimperfect, liberatingdifferent, not superior
Explanationsbased on causal laws, deductive Critique is based
trying alternative explanations based on description, inductive
Resultscan be verified using replication can be verified through
praxis can be verified with people being studied Evidenceuniversal,
intersubjectivite theory dependentcontingent, contextualised
KnowledgeInstrumentalreflective-dialectical & transformative
practical & transcendental Researchvalue free &
objectivecontains a moral-political dimension relativistic
regarding values 25 Based on Neuman, 2007, 87, 94, 102
Assemblage science Gilles Deluge Realist Assemblages vs.
totalities Social reality as emergent Emergent ontology Properties
Capacities Tendencies Epistemology Population thinking Intensive
thinking Topological thinking 27 New Materiality: Assemblage theory
Simon McIntyre, in progress
Slide 28
Performative science Ontology Materialist Phenomenological
Psychology of perception Epistemology Performative: centrality of
raw perception, skill, body and action [Anthropology] is not a
study of at all, but a study with. Anthropologists work and study
with people. Immersed with them in an environment of joint
activity, they learn to see things (or hear them, or touch them) it
educates our perception of the world, and opens our eyes and minds
to other possibilities of being. (Ingold, 2010, 238) 28 Material
ecology It is NOT an eclectic constellation of different
ontologies, epistemologies and methodologies NEXT
Slide 29
Example from my research 29 How do concepts become actionable?
Model view Culture (Formal concepts) Module view Context
(Functional concepts) Modality view Experience (Situated concepts)
C C C C Markauskaite & Goodyear (in progress) Epistemic fluency
and professional action. Springer Based on Greeno, 2012; Barsalou,
2009
Slide 30
How do concepts become actionable? S2: You could have a jigsaw
kind of thing happening. () Where you take, so if youve got groups,
youve got everyone in their individual groups and then you switch
it around so that you share it with the other people that were not
in your group. (.) S2: It could get messy, I know, I know, but just
as theoretical it sounds like it could work, but I dont know in
practice. (.) S2: Yeah, but kids, I dont think theres gonna be that
much discussion, I just think thats gonna be more show me your
thing and then ((shows writing gesture)) copy, copy, copy ((all
laugh)). You know how it is. (.) S3: But maybe [4 seconds] () cause
I remember with when we did jigsaw like the kids d actually test,
like we were tested like when we did it in a tutorial, we were
tested on it, so it wasnt just procrastination. They must have
actually done something. 30 How do pre-service teachers learn
conceptual knowledge? [Formal] [Functional] [Situated]
[Functional]
Slide 31
Ontological and epistemological foundations 31 Ontology:
realist, dynamic Axiology: internal-external Epistemology: manifold
Human nature: grounded Methodology: interpretative Immanuel Kant
1724-1804 Thomas S. Kuhn 1922-1996 David Hume 1711-1776 Lawrence
Barsalou Stephen Toulmin 1922-2009 Atkinson & Shriffin Grounded
cognition & manifold view of human conceptual understanding It
is NOT an eclectic constellation
Slide 32
Theory & methodology a system of interconnected ideas that
condenses and organizes knowledge and presents a systematic view
about a phenomenon: concepts, definitions, propositions,
relationships, etc E.g., feminist theory, complexity theory,
conflict theory, consensus theory Kinds of theories Grand theories
broad narratives, ontological and epistemological postulates that
define a field of inquiry. Empirical theories empirically testable
theories Critical theories knowledge via interpretation or
self-reflection 32 Theory Based on Cohen et al, 2002, Neuman
2006
Slide 33
How do we reason? Deductive theorisingInductive theorising A.
Theory B. Hypothesis C. Methodology Sample Variables Methods/
techniques Units of analysis D. Fieldwork E. Results B. Fieldwork
B. Results A. Methodology Participants Phenomena Methods/
techniques Units of analysis D. Conclusions E. Theory Based on
Lewins, 1992
Slide 34
Nature of inquiry Method, instruments & data
Slide 35
Research methods Though this be madness, yet there is method in
it From Shakespeares, Hamlet [Polonius comment on Hamlets
behaviour] Methodology - theoretical, political and philosophical
approaches to systematic inquiry Know why Method systematic
procedures that underpin knowledge production cycle, particularly
data gathering and analysis Know how
Slide 36
Power of instruments: Seeing invisible Data is only a very tiny
representation of the actual thing Instruments are not equal Choice
of instruments & data is a big choice Determines, what is
included and what is lost forever Images from Dimper, eResearch
Australasia, 2007
Slide 37
Power of instruments: Large picture Structured
Slide 38
Power of instruments: In depth picture Individuals Change over
time Space Same data can have multiple meanings Analytical tools
& techniques are key for getting results Images from Hopkin
2002, 90-94
Slide 39
Data & interpretation Same data can have multiple meanings
Analytical tools & techniques are key for getting results
Focus, consistency & transparency are essential! Image from
http://www.teachnet.com/powertools/entertain/puzzles/001907illusions/illusion3.html
Slide 40
Evolution of scientific & social methods Scientific
research 1.Empirical: Aristotle 2.Logical-theoretical: Newton,
Kepler 3.Computational: modelling 4.Exploratory: data-driven Social
research 1.Descriptive: qual & quan. 2.Theory-oriented:
interpretative & experimental 3.Constructivist-critical:
action, design-based, cybernetics 4.?Social data mining,
performative Cutting-edge discoveries emerge at the edges of
disciplinary domains from the synthesis of theories, experiments
and computation using large integrated datasets Based on Szalay,
2007
Slide 41
Data mining in a nutshell Data mining is the process of
discovering hidden messages, patterns and knowledge within large
amounts of data and of making predictions for outcomes or
behaviours It is different from canonical statistical thinking What
could be mined: Administrative records Digital learning traces
Texts & numbers Lots of data
Slide 42
Data mining vs. statistics in a nutshell An example: Peter is a
PhD student who will do his fieldwork in a remote area. What kind
of support might help him to succeed? Possible statistical
question: Which kinds of support are related to the success of PhD
students in remote areas? Possible data mining question: What kinds
of support were successful (and not) for PhD students similar to
Peter? PhD students in rural areas Peter Background Learning
history Thesis aims Rural school Etc Rural area
Slide 43
Statistics vs. data mining StatisticsData mining Data samples*
Purposeful, structured, ideally experimental Realistic,
opportunity, messy ApproachConfirmatoryExploratory Inquiry process*
Starts from theory/ hypothesis Starts from data TheoryInforms
hypothesisInforms mining process Assumptions about population*
HomogenityVariation GeneralizabilityCommonalityIdiosyncratic
behaviour TargetInform theoryInform action
Slide 44
Nature of inquiry Putting social research back into the
society
Slide 45
Key qualities of good research 1.Technically good 2.Show
something new 3.Meaningful Judgements include: Research How well
was it done? Education What was achieved? Based on Yates, 2004 Not
all counts as research
Slide 46
Awful reputation of educational research Failures: Rigour &
coherence Commensurability of findings Society expectations
Ideological bias Knowledge for decision-making Practical benefit
for teachers Research How well was it done? Education What was
achieved? Policy What does matter? Based on Whitty, 2006
Slide 47
Research: Commensurability & Epistemological awareness
Education is field of study, rather than a discipline Advantages:
Different research questions Multiplicity of perspectives
Multiplicity of methodologies Challenges: Different findings
Commensurability? Epistemological awareness Disciplinary roots:
Anthropology Ethology Linguistic Psycholog(ies) Sociology(ies)
History Policy studies Genetics Artificial intelligence Etc
Slide 48
Education: Imperatives & inquiry approaches Functions of
schooling Pastoral Skilling Regulative Human capital Individual
expression Cultural heritage Political Political Pastoral Cultural
heritage Skilling Regulative Human capital Individual expression
Functions of schooling Based on Freebody, 2003
Slide 49
Educational discourses & inquiry approaches Functions of
schooling 1.Traditionalism knowledge, culture & heritage
2.Progressivism humanism, growth & engagement
3.Transformationalism change of social life 4.Corporatism equity
combined with sensitivities to local needs, managerial logic
Inquiry approaches 1.Normative objective knowledge, prediction
& maintenance of status quo 2.Interpretative - understanding
& interpretation 3.Critical - emancipation & freedom
4.?Social-realist, ?Scientifically-based research Partly based on
Freebody, 2003
Slide 50
Purpose of research: Pasteur's quadrant Everyday curiosity
Image from:
http://publishingarchaeology.blogspot.com.au/2011/05/is-there-archaeology-in-pasteurs.html
Design based research Action research, evaluation studies
Theory-oriented research: cognition, brain, etc
Slide 51
Research as method and Research as craft 51 Design Data
Analysis Findings Hypothesis Design Data Analysis Findings
Hypothesis Design Data Analysis Hypothesis Data Analysis Hypothesis
Findings Method Epistemic craft Improvisation based on Patton
(2011) Developmental evaluation
Slide 52
How do we know? 1.Experience common sense knowing -Hunches
2.Reasoning logic -Deductive formal logic -Inductive from
observation to generalisation 3.Research empirical science
-Systematic, controlled, inductive-deductive -Theoretical
-Empirical -Public, critical, self-reflective and self-correcting
4.Craft knowledge, intelligent perception, skill &
improvisation Rene Descartes 1596-1650 Francis Bacon 1561-1626
Improvisation based on Ingold (2000)
Slide 53
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