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Faculty of Economics and Business
A STUDY OF GENERATIONAL COHORT EFFECT
ON ATTITUDE TOWARDS ADVERTISING:
A TWO-DIRECTIONAL STUDY OF ADVERTISING IN GENERAL
AND CONTROVERSIAL ADVERTISING
Ting Huong Yiew
Doctor of Philosophy
Marketing
2015
2
A STUDY OF GENERATIONAL COHORT EFFECT
ON ATTITUDE TOWARDS ADVERTISING:
A TWO-DIRECTIONAL STUDY OF ADVERTISING IN GENERAL
AND CONTROVERSIAL ADVERTISING
Ting Huong Yiew
A thesis submitted
in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Economics and Business
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
2015
i
DEDICATION
Dedicated to Rebecca, my beloved wife
My kids: Carlyne, Henna and Chrisman, precious gifts from God
And my dearest parents and family
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
If someone were to tell me three years ago that I would write Acknowledgement one day, I
would have cringed away. Little did I know I actually wrote this section earlier than expected.
It is not because I submit my thesis within three years. Instead I feel obliged to express my
truest gratitude to the following people in words when I can still remember vividly what they
have done to make this journey possible. Hence, I do not want this section to be something
customary for my thesis proper. I want it to be a true memorial of their guidance, assistance
and care in various manners and at different times. Although unexpected things happened
which have substantially delayed the completion of study and submission of thesis, I will
always regard this particular journey and all its experiences meaningful and rewarding.
I would like to express my unparalleled gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Dr Ernest Cyril
de Run, for his supervision, guidance and support throughout the course of this study. His
professionalism, dedication to better the students in research despite heavy workload,
directness, and sincerity are what drives me to keep moving on. More significantly, I also
appreciate the friendship that we share, and the fatherhood and brotherhood (due to our faith)
that we have in common, as these things make the entire experience even more enjoyable.
I would also like to thank the Dean of the Faculty of Economic and Business (FEB), Dr.
Mohamad Affendy Arif, and the Deputy Dean of FEB, Associate Professor Dr Puah Chin
Hong, for their unwavering support. My gratitude also goes to Dr Harry Entebang and
Associate Professor Dr Lo May Chiun for their guidance during the intial stages of the study.
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Special thanks go to Professor Thurasamy Ramayah for his invaluable guidance on research
methodology and data analysis. In hindsight, I was fortunate to have attended his workshop in
2012, as it proved to be the right one for me. His dedication to research and persistence in
helping graduate students, including myself, are second to none. These are also some of the
key reasons why I am willing to „invest‟ in my research.
Special thanks also go to Mr Jonathan Lee, my lifelong mentor. There is simply no way to
describe the manner he has helped me throughout the years. If I were to graduate, he would be
among the first to congratulate me. Despite all the favours from him, he expects no return
from me. I am grateful to him eternally.
I also owe my gratitude to my enumerators and individuals who have assisted me during data
collection process: Kong Wen Keit, Wahap Abu Bakar, Edward Ngui, Yip Ping, Emerald
Ting, Terick Tee, Shulammite Chieng, Sally Lau, Missz Lily, Hafizan Yussop, Lina Yek,
Raymond Kiu, Jacinth Kiu, Nelson Kiu, Ah Yao, Jane Ang, Angelina Wong and Ruth Lee. If
I were to describe what they did, that would be a long chapter by itself. That being the case, I
would like to thank all my respondents in Sarawak. Without all of them, the completion of
this thesis and the extention of knowledge in my study will not materialize.
A big thank you to my fellow researchers and colleagues, whom I know in person: Dr Winnie
Wong Poh Ming, John Ch‟ng, Chong Chaw Boon, Solomon Ting, Ezra Sim, Rackford Bong,
Peter Yek, Steward Ling, Jeffrey Jee Teck Weng, Ting Hui Boon, Lau Wee Ming and Thien
Fung Thai, and also whom I know via social networking sites, such as Doctorate Support
Group on Facebook. So many times have I heard someone say PhD journey is a lonely
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journey. I beg to differ. While being independent is important, being able to work with others
and get help from them is indispensable. Like my supervisor, my graduate fellows make this
transitory journey more rewarding.
I would have struggled financially if it were not for Zamalah Postgraduate Scholarship and
the projects that I was given opportunities to participate in. For that I am thankful to relevant
personnel at FEB, Centre for Graduate Studies (CGS) and Research and Innovation
Management Centre (RIMC). Besides, I am also thankful to those who have facilitated
registration, form submission, postgraduate colloquium and other relevant matters.
Last but not least, my thanks go to my family for their continual support. I owe my sincerest
gratitude to my wife, Rebecca, for her understanding and unreserved care. She gave birth to
Carlyne when I wrote my proposal, and Henna when I began to collect data for the second
phase of study; and now she is pregnant with our third child. I thought it was a great challenge
for me to juggle church activities, family matters, study and work at the same time. In
retrospect, it has actually been a greater challenge for her to take care of the family. I am glad
to have learnt from her to always take my family as priority.
I thank God for preserving me and leading me from the beginning until now. Over the years I
have realized that human achievement counts for nothing if it is not for continual learning
unto the fulfilment of His purpose in me. I pray for His leading and supply of grace to make
me a purposeful person and a channel of blessing to the society, no matter what I do and
where I go.
Hiram Ting (written in 2013, revised in 2015)
v
ABSTRAK
Tesis ini bertujuan untuk menyelidiki sikap terhadap iklan (Aad) melalui kesan model tiga
konstruksi perilaku (kepercayaan, sikap dan niat perilaku) di antara dua jenis iklan, iaitu iklan
umum dan iklan berkontroversi khusus. Oleh itu, hubungan di antara penyebab-kepada-akibat
dan hubungan umum-kepada-khusus ditentukan serentak. Semua hubungan dikaji selanjutnya
bagi kohot generasi di dalam model. Meskipun pada umumnya kepustakaan tentang
pengiklanan umum dan perkaitannya dengan pengiklanan khusus di negara Barat adalah
berlimpah-limpah, namun kesahihan penemuan ini di negara Timur, terutamanya dalam
pasaran yang baru muncul, sentiasa dipertikaikan. Bukti atas perkaitan antara Aad umum dan
Aad bagi produk khusus, terutamanya produk kontroversi, amat berkurangan. Terdapat jurang
kerangka teori yang ketara di antara kepustakaan yang bersesuaian dengan penyebab Aad bagi
produk kontroversi. Berpunca daripada itu, pengaruh Aad umum ke atas Aad produk
kontroversi masih belum terjawab. Selain itu, penyelidikan empirik untuk menghuraikan
kohot generasi yang sebenar dalam konteks yang berbeza adalah jarang. Kebanyakan
kepustakaan berkenaan pemasaran dengan pendekatan pensegmenan menggunakan kohot
generasi adalah berdasarkan sumber negara barat. Penerapan penemuan negera-negara barat
tanpa menghiraukan penerapan teori telah diberi tumpuan yang serius. Akibatnya, bilangan
yang tahu tentang penggunaan kohot generasi untuk memahami Aad dalam pasaran yang baru
muncul adalah sedikit.
Kajian ini terbahagi kepada dua fasa dengan menerapkan reka bentuk tinjauan berurutan
(exploratory sequential design) untuk menyelidik iklan daripada kohot generasi di Sarawak.
Fasa pertama terdiri daripada dua bahagian yang bersifat kualitatif. Bahagian pertama
vi
bertujuan untuk mencungkil kepercayaan terhadap pengiklanan parti-parti politik dan
pengiklanan pencegahan penyakit seks sementara bahagian kedua bertujuan untuk menerokai
kohot generasi dengan meninjau pengaruh peristiwa bersejarah dan pengaruh peristiwa
masyarakat yang utama ke atas individu semasa tempoh pembentukan mereka. Oleh yang
demikian, empat puluh tiga wawancara dijalankan di seluruh negeri untuk bahagian pertama,
dan empat puluh lapan wawancara dijalankan untuk bahagian kedua. Semua wawancara
dicatat dan disalin untuk penganalisisan. Kemudian, penemuan-penemuan digabungkan ke
dalam fasa kedua untuk memastikan kesahihan dan perkembangan model.
Pendekatan kuantitatif melalui borang soal selidik yang berasaskan tinjauan/pemerhatian
dijalankan di seluruh negeri. Sebanyak 1,410 salinan yang boleh digunakan dengan respons
berkadar 70% telah dikutip untuk analisis inferens. Teknik analisis Model Persamaan Struktur
(Structural Equation Modelling, SEM) melalui kaedah Partial Least Squares (PLS) diterapkan
untuk memaparkan analisis pembolehubah dan analisis pelbagai kumpulan (MGA).
Pendekatan ini bertujuan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara konstruk perilaku di antara
pengiklanan secara umum dan pengiklanan berkontroversi khusus dalam satu model. Model
Tujuh Faktor yang Boleh Dipercayai untuk mengukur iklan yang umum dan pengiklanan
khusus yang boleh dipercayai yang diperlihatkan dalam fasa pertama digunakan untuk
menelaah Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). Tambahan pula, kohot generasi disepadukan ke
dalam model untuk menaksir kesan yang sederhana/wajar/munasabah dalam setiap
perhubungan.
Penemuan dalam fasa pertama menunjukkan bahawa terdapat sebelas faktor dan enam faktor
yang boleh dipercayai untuk menghuraikan pengiklanan khusus bagi parti-parti politik dan
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pencegahan penyakit seks masing-masing. Kedua-dua pengiklanan ini didapati berbeza
daripada pengiklanan umum. Tambahan pula, lima kohot generasi, iaitu Pewaris-moden
(Neoteric-inheritors), Pengejar-jangkaan (Prospective-pursuers), Usahawan-sosial (Social-
strivers), Pejuang-keunggulan (Idealistic-strugglers), dan Banduan yang bergelut seumur
hidup (Battling-lifers) diperhatikan berdasarkan latar peribadi mereka terhadap peristiwa yang
utama dalam tempoh pembentukan mereka. Kohot generasi yang dilabel adalah berbeza di
negara barat. Berikutan daripada itu, penemuan kuantitative dalam fasa kedua mengesahkan
empat faktor yang boleh dipercayai berkenaan pengiklanan umum, lapan faktor yang boleh
dipercayai berkenaan pengiklanan parti-parti politik dan empat faktor yang boleh dipercayai
berkenaan pengiklanan pencegahan penyakit seks. Semua faktor yang boleh dipercayai ini
didapati mempengaruhi Aad secara positif. Begitu juga, semua hubungan di antara konstruksi
perilaku didapati bermakna dan positif dalam model. Walau bagaimanapun, kesan hubungan
umum-kepada khusus adalah kurang berbanding dengan hubungan penyebab-kepada-akibat.
Penemuan kuantitatif juga mengesahkan pengasingan lima kohot generasi dalam fasa
pertama. Tambahan pula, kesan dalam hubungan umum-kepada-khusus dan hubungan
penyebab-kepada-akibat didapati berbeza mengikut kohot generasi. Justeru, kajian ini bukan
sahaja menjangkau penelaahan TRA dengan model iklan dua hala, kajian ini juga
menyediakan satu dimensi yang sama sekali baru untuk pemasaran dan pengurus juga
memperoleh wawasan berkenaan Aad umum dan Aad bagi produk khusus, serta hubungan
dua hala oleh kohot generasi. Pembatasan dan hala tuju kajian masa depan dilakarkan pada
kesudahan tesis.
viii
ABSTRACT
The thesis aims to investigate attitude towards advertising (Aad) by delving into the modeling
effect of three behavioural constructs (belief, attitude and behavioural intention) between two
forms of advertising, namely advertising in general and specific controversial advertising. As
such, the antecedent-to-consequence and general-to-specific relationships are determined
simultaneously. All relationships are then further examined across generational cohorts in the
model. Despite the abundance of literature on advertising in general and its association with
specific advertising in the West, the validity of these findings in the East, especially the
emerging markets, is continually being questioned. Evidence on the relevance of Aad in
general to Aad of specific products, particularly controversial products, is found greatly
wanting. There is an obvious theoretical gap in literature pertaining to the antecedent of Aad
of controversial products. As a result, the effect of Aad in general on Aad of controversial
products remains largely unanswered. There is also a lack of empirical research to explicate
the actual generational cohorts in different contexts. Marketing literature on segmentation
approach using generational cohorts is predominantly based on western sources. Generalizing
western findings in void of theoretical implication remains a matter of serious concern.
Consequently, little is known about use of generational cohort in understanding Aad in
emerging markets.
Two phases of study, utilizing exploratory sequential design, were adopted to investigate Aad
by generational cohort in Sarawak. The first phase was composed of two parts, and was
qualitative in nature. The first part was to elicit beliefs about the advertising of political
parties and sexual diseases prevention while the second part was to explore the formation of
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generational cohort by looking into the impact of major historical and societal events on
individuals during their formative years. Accordingly, forty-three interviews were
administered throughout the state for the former, and forty-eight interviews for the latter. All
interviews were recorded and transcribed for content analysis. The findings were then
incorporated into the second phase for validation and model development.
A quantitative approach via survey-based questionnaire was administered throughout the
state. 1,410 usable copies with more than seventy percent response rate were collected for
inferential analysis. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) using Partial Least Squares (PLS)
was utilized to perform latent variable analysis and multi-group analysis (MGA). The
objective was to determine the relationships between behavioural constructs of advertising in
general and specific controversial advertising in a single model. The Seven-factor Belief
Model for measuring Aad in general and the beliefs about specific advertising elicited from
the first phase were adopted to decompose the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA).
Additionally, generational cohort was integrated in the model so as to assess its moderating
effect on every relationship.
The findings in the first phase show that there are eleven and six belief factors to describe the
specific advertising of political parties and sexual diseases prevention respectively. They are
found to be dissimilar from that of advertising in general. Moreover, five generational
cohorts, namely Neoteric-inheritors, Prospective-pursuers, Social-strivers, Idealistic-
strugglers and Battling-lifers, are observed based on their personal attachment to major events
during the formative years. They are also found to be different from the cohort labels in the
western sources. The quantitative findings in the second phase, in turn, validate four belief
x
factors about advertising in general, eight belief factors about the advertising of political
parties and four belief factors about the advertising of sexual diseases prevention. All belief
factors are found to have positive effect on Aad. In like manner, all relationships between
behavioural constructs are found to be significant and positive in the model. Nevertheless, the
effect in general-to-specific relationships is less than that of antecedent-to-consequence
relationships. The quantitative findings also confirm the segregation of five generational
cohorts in the first phase. Moreover, the effect in general-to-specific relationships and
antecedent-to-consequence relationships is found to be different by cohorts. Hence, the study
not only extends the decomposed TRA with a two-directional Aad model, it also provides a
whole new dimension for marketers and managers alike to gain insights into Aad in general
and of specific products, and the two-directional relationship by generational cohort.
Limitations and direction of future studies are outlined at the end of the thesis.
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRELIMINARY PAGES
DEDICATION i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
ABSTRAK v
ABSTRACT viii
TABLE OF CONTENT xi
LIST OF TABLES xvii
LIST OF FIGURES xviii
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS xix
LIST OF AWARDS xxi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of the Study 4
1.3 Problem Statement 8
1.4 Research Objectives 14
1.4.1 General Objectives 15
1.4.2 Specific Objectives 15
1.5 Research Questions 17
1.5.1 First Phase Questions 17
1.5.2 Second Phase Questions 17
1.6 Scope of the Study 18
1.7 Significance of the Study 19
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms 23
1.8.1 Advertising and Advertisement 23
1.8.2 Specific Controversial Advertising 23
1.8.3 Attitude, Belief and Behavioural Intention towards Advertising 24
1.8.4 Generational Cohort 25
1.8.5 Formative Years 25
1.8.6 Historical and Societal Events 26
xii
1.9 Structure of the Thesis 26
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 29
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Advertising in General 29
2.2.1 Attitude towards Advertising in General 31
2.2.2 Antecedent of Attitude towards Advertising in General 34
2.2.2.1 Product Information 35
2.2.2.2 Social Role/Image 36
2.2.2.3 Hedonism/Pleasure 37
2.2.2.4 Good for the Economy 37
2.2.2.5 Materialism 38
2.2.2.6 Falsity 38
2.2.2.7 Value Corruption 39
2.2.3 Consequence of Attitude towards Advertising in General 40
2.3 Specific Controversial Advertising 40
2.3.1 Controversial Products 43
2.3.1.1 Advertising of Political Parties 45
2.3.1.2 Advertising of Sexual Diseases Prevention 48
2.3.2 Attitude towards Specific Controversial Advertising 51
2.3.3 Antecedent of Attitude towards Specific Controversial Advertising 52
2.3.4 Consequence of Attitude towards Specific Controversial Advertising 53
2.4 Generational Cohort 54
2.4.1 Definition of Generational Cohort 54
2.4.2 Impact of Events during Formative Years 54
2.4.3 Studies of Generational Cohort 56
2.4.4 Relevance of Generational Cohort in Marketing 60
2.5 Theoretical Consideration 63
2.5.1 Theory of Reasoned Action 63
2.5.2 Theories of Generational Cohort 66
2.5.3 Market Segmentation Theory 67
2.5.4 Competing Theories 68
2.6 Research Framework 71
2.6.1 First Phase Study 71
xiii
2.6.2 Second Phase Study 73
2.7 Gaps in the Literature 75
2.8 Development of Research Propositions and Hypotheses 78
2.8.1 Development of Research Propositions for the First Phase 78
2.8.1.1 Beliefs about Specific Controversial Advertising 78
2.8.1.2 Formation of Generational Cohort 79
2.8.2 Development of Research Hypotheses for the Second Phase 81
2.8.2.1 Effect of Belief on Attitude towards Advertising in General and 81
Specific Controversial Advertising
2.8.2.2 Effect of Attitude on Behavioural Intention towards Advertising in 82
General and Specific Controversial Advertising
2.8.2.3 Effect of General Attitude on Specific Attitude towards 83
Advertising in General and Specific Controversial Advertising
2.8.2.4 Effect of General Behavioural Intention on Specific Behavioural 84
Intention towards Advertising in General and Specific
Controversial Advertising
2.8.2.5 Effect of Belief on Attitude towards Advertising in General 84
and Specific Controversial Advertising by Generational Cohorts
2.8.2.6 Effect of Attitude on Intention towards Advertising in General 85
and Specific Controversial Advertising by Generational Cohorts
2.8.2.7 Effect of General Attitude on Specific Attitude towards 86
Advertising in General and Specific Controversial Advertising
by Generational Cohorts
2.8.2.8 Effect of General Behavioural Intention on Specific Behavioural 87
Intention towards Advertising in General and Specific
Controversial Advertising by Generational Cohorts
2.8.3 Summary of Research Propositions and Hypotheses 87
2.9 Chapter Summary 90
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 91
3.1 Introduction 91
3.2 Research Overview 91
3.3 Research Paradigm 93
3.4 Research Design 94
3.5 First Phase Study 97
3.5.1 Population 98
3.5.2 Sample 99
3.5.2.1 Sampling Strategy 99
xiv
3.5.2.2 Sample Size 100
3.5.2.3 Sample Characteristics 101
3.5.3 Preliminary Decision 102
3.5.4 Instrument Design 104
3.5.4.1 Research Instrument 104
3.5.4.2 Enumerators 106
3.5.4.3 Pilot Study 107
3.5.4.4 Finalization of Interview Protocol 108
3.5.5 Data Collection 109
3.5.5.1 Conducting of Interview 109
3.5.5.2 Transcription 110
3.5.5.3 Translation and Back-translation 111
3.5.6 Data Analysis 113
3.5.6.1 Selection of Analytical Method 113
3.5.6.2 Coders and Coding Procedures 113
3.5.6.3 Inter-coder Agreement 115
3.6 Second Phase Study 116
3.6.1 Population 116
3.6.2 Sample 117
3.6.2.1 Sampling Strategy 117
3.6.2.2 Sample Size 118
3.6.2.3 Sample Characteristics 119
3.6.3 Preliminary Decision 120
3.6.4 Instrument Design 121
3.6.4.1 Research Instrument 121
3.6.4.2 Questionnaire Design 122
3.6.4.3 Questionnaire Measurement 125
3.6.4.4 Questionnaire Translation 127
3.6.4.5 Pilot Study 127
3.6.4.6 Finalization of Questionnaire 129
3.6.5 Data Collection 130
3.6.5.1 Distribution of Questionnaire 130
3.6.5.2 Collection of Questionnaire 131
3.6.5.3 Data Screening and Cleaning 131
3.6.6 Data Analysis 133
xv
3.6.6.1 Descriptive Analysis 133
3.6.6.2 Reliability Test 133
3.6.6.3 Validity Test 134
3.6.6.4 Structural Equation Modelling 135
3.6.6.5 Partial Least Squares 135
3.6.6.6 Multi-group Analysis 137
3.7 Chapter Summary 138
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS 139
4.1 Introduction 139
4.2 First Phase Study 139
4.2.1 Respondent Profile 140
4.2.1.1 Part One Sample for the Beliefs about Specific Controversial 140
Advertising
4.2.1.2 Part Two Sample for the Formation of Generational Cohort 142
4.2.2 Objectivity and Reliability 143
4.2.3 Findings using Content Analysis 144
4.2.3.1 Beliefs about the Advertising of Political Parties 145
4.2.3.2 Beliefs about the Advertising of Sexual Diseases Prevention 150
4.2.3.3 Formation of Generational Cohort 153
4.2.4 Decisions of Findings 162
4.3 Second Phase Study 162
4.3.1 Respondent Profile 162
4.3.2 Research Model 167
4.3.3 Measurement Model 169
4.3.3.1 Convergent Validity 169
4.3.3.2 Discriminant Validity 171
4.3.3.3 Convergent Validity by Generational Cohort 171
4.3.3.4 Discriminant Validity by Generational Cohort 173
4.3.4 Structural Model 174
4.3.4.1 Bootstrapping 174
4.3.4.2 Predictive Relevance 176
4.3.5 Multi-group Analysis 177
4.3.6 Decisions of Findings 182
4.4 Chapter Summary 185
xvi
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION 186
5.1 Introduction 186
5.2 First Phase Study 186
5.2.1 Beliefs about Specific Controversial Advertising 186
5.2.1.1 Beliefs about the Advertising of Political Parties 188
5.2.1.2 Beliefs about the Advertising of Sexual Diseases Prevention 191
5.2.2 Formation of Generational Cohort 193
5.2.2.1 Sarawakians Recalling Different Major Events 193
5.2.2.2 Different Age-groups Recalling Different Major Events 194
5.2.2.3 Attachment to Events during Formative Years Determining 196
Generational Cohorts
5.3 Second Phase Study 197
5.3.1 Attitude towards Advertising in Two-directional Relationships 197
5.3.2 Attitude towards Advertising from the Perspective of Generational Cohorts 202
5.3.3 Attitude towards Advertising Moderated by Generational Cohorts 207
5.3.3.1 Between Neoteric-inheritors and Prospective-pursuers 207
5.3.3.2 Between Neoteric-inheritors and Social-strivers 209
5.3.3.3 Between Neoteric-inheritors and Idealistic-strugglers 210
5.3.3.4 Between Prospective-pursuers and Social-strivers 212
5.3.3.5 Between Prospective-pursuers and Idealistic-strugglers 214
5.3.3.6 Between Social-strivers and Idealistic-strugglers 215
5.4 Implication 216
5.4.1 Theoretical Implication 216
5.4.2 Managerial Implication 220
5.5 Limitations of the Study 227
5.6 Directions of Future Research 233
5.7 Conclusion 235
REFERENCES 237
APPENDICES 266
APPENDIX A: Pilot Study Questionnaire on the Product‟s Level of Controversy 267
APPENDIX B: Interview Protocol for Beliefs about Controversial Advertising 268
xvii
APPENDIX C: Interview Protocol for the Formation of Generational Cohort 269
APPENDIX D: Annotation Lists of Beliefs about Controversial Advertising 270
APPENDIX E: Coding Lists of Beliefs about Controversial Advertising 279
APPENDIX F: Annotation List of Major Events in Sarawak 284
APPENDIX G: Coding List of Major Events in Sarawak 295
APPENDIX H: Questionnaire in English, Bahasa Malaysia and Chinese 301
xviii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Controversial Products in Four Categories 44
Table 2.2: Summary of Generational Cohorts in the U.S. 58
Table 2.3: Summary of Research Propositions and Hypotheses 88
Table 3.1: Overview of Research Plan 92
Table 3.2: Measurement of Constructs 126
Table 4.1: Part One Respondent Demographic Information 141
Table 4.2: Part Two Respondent Demographic Information 142
Table 4.3: Beliefs about the Advertising of Political Parties 145
Table 4.4: Beliefs about the Advertising of Sexual Diseases Prevention 150
Table 4.5: Impactful Events Recalled 154
Table 4.6: Summary of Events by Generational Cohorts 157
Table 4.7: Summary of Decisions for Research Propositions 162
Table 4.8: Respondent Demographic Information 163
Table 4.9: Revised Respondent Demographic Information 166
Table 4.10: Mean and Standard Deviation Values 168
Table 4.11: Convergent Validity and Reliability Test 170
Table 4.12: Discriminant Validity 171
Table 4.13: Convergent Validity and Reliability Test by Generational Cohort 172
Table 4.14: Discriminant Validity by Generational Cohort 173
Table 4.15: Path Coefficients 175
Table 4.16: R2 and Cross-validated Redundancy 177
Table 4.17a: Multi-group Comparison between Neoteric-inheritors and Prospective-pursuers 178
Table 4.17b: Multi-group Comparison between Neoteric-inheritors and Social-strivers 179
Table 4.17c: Multi-group Comparison between Neoteric-inheritors and Idealistic-strugglers 179
Table 4.17d: Multi-group Comparison between Prospective-pursuers and Social-strivers 180
Table 4.17e: Multi-group Comparison between Prospective-pursuers and Idealistic-strugglers 180
Table 4.17f: Multi-group Comparison between Social-strivers and Idealistic-strugglers 181
Table 4.18: Summary of Multi-group Analysis 182
Table 4.19: Summary of Decisions for Research Hypotheses 183
xix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Theory of Reasoned Action 65
Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework for Beliefs about Specific Controversial Advertising 72
Figure 2.3: Conceptual Framework for the Formation of Generational Cohorts 73
Figure 2.4: Conceptual Framework for A Two-directional Relationship Aad Model 74
Figure 2.5: Conceptual Framework for Aad Model Moderated by Generational Cohort 75
Figure 2.6: Major Gaps in the Literature 77
Figure 3.1: Formula for Multi-group analysis 137
Figure 4.1: Formula to Calculate Respondent‟s Average Total Score 164
Figure 4.2: Research Model for Second Phase Study 167
Figure 5.1: Two-directional Relationship Model 218
xx
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Conference Proceedings
1. Ting, H. and de Run, E. C. (2012). Attitude towards Advertising: the Perspective of Generational
Cohort. Postgraduate Conference of Social Sciences and Humanities, Faculty of Economics and
Business, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, July 9-10, 2012.
2. Ting, H. and de Run, E. C. (2012). Identifying Generational Cohorts in Sarawak: A Comparison
between Three Races, e-Proceedings from TBS-CLSG International Conference Series
2012, Consumer Behavior and Marketing: New Approaches in Consumer Research and
Prospects, Malaysia: Taylor‟s University Lakeside Campus, 24th-25th, September. ISSN 978-
967-0173-08-5.
3. Ting, H., de Run, E. C. and Fam, K. S. (2012). Identifying Generational Cohorts in Sarawak.
Proceedings from the 5th International Borneo Business Conference, jointly organized by the
School of Business and Economics, Sabah and Faculty of Economics and Business, Sarawak,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Tawau, Sabah, December 19-21, 2012. ISBN: 978-983-2641-97-1.
4. Fam, K. S., Jozsa, L., Solyom, A., de Run, E. C., Ting, H. (2012). Chinese Generation Xers‟
Attitude toward Advertising: Evidence from Hong Kong and Shanghai Consumers. Proceedings
from the 5th International Borneo Business Conference, jointly organized by the School of
Business and Economics, Sabah and Faculty of Economics and Business, Sarawak, Universiti
Malaysia Sabah, Tawau, Sabah, December 19-21, 2012. ISBN: 978-983-2641-97-1. Best Paper
Award.
5. de Run, E. C. and Ting, H. (2013). Exploring Belief Factors about Controversial Advertising.
Proceedings from MAG Scholar Global Business, Marketing and Tourism Conference in Dubai,
UAE in Nov 11-14, 2013.
6. de Run, E. C. and Ting, H. (2013). Attitude of Marketing and Non-marketing Students towards
Advertising. e-Proceedings from Global Conference on Business, Economics and Social Sciences
Research in Kuala Lumpur, June 25-26, 2013. e-ISBN 978-967-12022-0-3.
7. de Run, E. C., Ting, H., Jee, T. W. and Lau, S. Y. C. (2013). Attitude towards Advertising: A
Comparison between Marketing and Non-marketing Students at A Private University.
Proceedings from Asia Pacific Marketing and Management Conference (APMMC), 20-22
November at Hilton Hotel, Kuching.
8. Ting, H. and de Run, E. C. (2013). How Young Adults Perceive Advertising: A Comparative
Study of Three Ethnic Groups. Proceedings from Asia Pacific Marketing and Management
Conference (APMMC), 20-22 November at Hilton Hotel, Kuching. Best Paper Award.
9. de Run, E. C., Ting, H. and Liew, S. L. (2014). How Adolescents View Advertising: The Effect
of Beliefs and Personal Values. Proceedings from International Borneo Business Conference
2014, 20-21 August at Riverside Majestic, Kuching. Best Paper Award.
10. de Run, E. C. and Ting, H. (2014). Beyond Demographic Boundary: Determining Generational
Values by Cohorts. Presented at MAG Scholar Conference in Yogyakarta, 22-25 November 2014,
Hyatt Regency, Yogyakarta.
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Journal Articles
1. Ting, H. and de Run, E. C. (2012). Generations X and Y Attitude towards Controversial
Advertising, Asian Journal of Business Research, 2(2), 18-32.
2. de Run, E. C. and Ting, H. (2013). Generational Cohorts and Their Attitudes toward Advertising,
Trziste/Market Journal, 25(2), 143-160. (Scopus-indexed).
3. de Run, E. C. and Ting, H. (2013). Generational Cohorts and Their Beliefs and Attitudes towards
Advertising, Research Update UNIMAS, 9(2), 10.
4. Kashif, M. and Ting, H. (2014). Service-orientation and Teaching Quality in Pakistan: Business
Degree Students‟ Expectations of Effective Teaching. Asian Education and Development Studies,
3(2). (Emerald Insights).
5. de Run, E. C. and Ting, H. (2014). Determining Attitudinal Belief about Controversial
Advertising. To be published in International Journal of Business and Society, 5(3). (Scopus-
indexed)
6. de Run, E. C. and Ting, H. (2013). The Impact of Societal and Historical Events on the
Formation of Generational Cohort. Full paper submitted to Journal of Social Science, and
accepted for double-blind review. (ISI-indexed)
7. Ting, H., de Run, E. C. and Ramayah, T. (2013). Young Adults‟ Attitude towards Advertising: A
Multi-group Analysis by Ethnicity. Full paper submitted to Review of Business Management
(RGBN) and accepted for double-blind review. (ISI-indexed)
8. Ting, H. and de Run, E. C. (2014). Attitude towards Advertising among Young Adults: A
Comparative Study by Ethnicity. Full paper submitted to International Journal of Business and
Society (IJBS) and accepted for double-blind review. (Scopus-indexed)
9. Kashif, M., de Run, E. C. and Ting, H. (2013). Beliefs about Tabligh: A Theory of Reasoned
Action Perspective. Full paper submitted to Journal of Islamic Marketing and accepted for
double-blind review. (Scopus-indexed)
10. Ting, H., de Run, E. C. and Sahdan, M. (2014). Attitude towards Advertising: A Young
Generation Cohort‟s Perspective. Full paper submitted to Young Consumers. (Scopus-indexed)
11. Ting, H., de Run, E. C., Wong, P. M. and Lau, S. Y. C. (2014). Beliefs about the Use of
Instagram: An Exploratory Study. Full paper submitted to International Journal of Independent
Research Studies.
12. de Run, E. C. and Ting, H. (2013). View of Malaysian Adolescents on Controversial Advertising:
The Impact of Gender, Race and Religiosity. Working paper.
13. Ting, H., Ang, J., Yong, A. and de Run, E. C. (2013). Beliefs about Political Advertising:
Malaysians‟ View. Working paper.
14. Ting, H., Lim, W. K., and de Run, E. C. (2014). Attitude towards Political Advertising: the
Perspective of Two Generational Cohorts. Working paper.
15. Ting, H. (2014). Validating Generational Cohort in Sarawak: the Psychographic Viewpoint.
Working paper.
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LIST OF AWARDS
1. Full Zamalah Postgraduate Scholarship at Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (Scholarship Grant
Scheme), from Aug 2010 until Aug 2013. (Status: Completed)
2. Co-investigator of a Dana Principal Investigator/DPI research (project leader: Prof Dr Ernest
Cyril de Run) (Grant no. 03/DPI07/823/2011 (07)), from July 2011 until July 2013. (Amount
approved: RM29,100; Status: Completed)
3. Member of a Faculty Funded Research (project leader: Prof Dr Ernest Cyril de Run) (Grant no.
FPI (F01)/125/2012 (85)), from December 2012 until November 2014; Status: Completed).
4. Won Best Paper Award with Prof Dr Kim-shyan Fam and Prof Dr Ernest Cyril de Run on a
paper entitled “Chinese Generation Xers‟ Attitude toward Advertising: Evidence from Hong
Kong and Shanghai Consumers” at the 5th International Borneo Business Conference, Tawau,
Malaysia, December 19-21, 2012.
5. Won Silver Award for poster entitled “Defining and Creating a Generational Cohort Scale”
with Prof Dr Ernest Cyril de Run at UNIMAS R&D Expo 2013, March 20-21, 2013.
6. Won Bronze Award for poster entitled “Attitude towards Advertising and Controversial
Advertising” with Prof Dr Ernest Cyril de Run at UNIMAS R&D Expo 2013, March 20-21, 2013.
7. Invited speaker on “Sharing Experience among Us” at Business Seminar Series at the Faculty of
Economics and Business of UNIMAS on 13 June 2013.
8. Member of a Fundamental Research Grant Scheme/FRGS research (project leader: Prof Dr
Ernest Cyril de Run), from December 2013 until November 2016. (Amount approved:
RM56,100; Status: Ongoing).
9. Won Best Marketing Paper Award with Prof Dr Ernest Cyril de Run on a paper entitled “How
Young Adults Perceive Advertising: A Comparative Study of Three Ethnic Groups” at the 5th Asia
Pacific Marketing and Management Conference, Kuching, Malaysia, November 20-22, 2013.
10. Won Two Intellectual Properties Incentive Awards for papers entitled “Investigating Attitude
towards Controversial Advertising from the Perspective of Generational Cohorts” and “An
Exploratory Study of the Formation and Defining of Generational Cohort: A Sarawakian Case”
with Prof Dr Ernest Cyril de Run on Intellectual Properties Day organized by CTTC, UNIMAS
on December 2, 2013.
11. Won Best Paper Award with Prof Dr Ernest Cyril de Run and Siew Ling Liew on a paper
entitled “How Adolescents View Advertising: The Effects of Beliefs and Personal Values” at the
6th International Borneo Business Conference, Kuching, Malaysia, August 20-21, 2014.
