Factors In Exobiology

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Factors In Exobiology

By

Ian Beardsley

© 2016 by Ian Beardsley

ISBN: 978-1-329-96021-3

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Climate Defined: Climate is the statistics of the weather including not just the average weather, but also the statistics of its variability, commonly calculated over periods of a year or more. The progression of seasons is not considered an example of climate variability. Separating signal from the noise is separating climate from the weather. That is we can say it will be warmer in the summer than in the winter, but we can’t forecast the weather for any particular day.

Climate is determined by (1) the energy balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation. That balance is affected by greenhouse gases, or the composition of the atmosphere, in other words. (2) atmospheric and oceanic convection, the flow or transfer of heat within various substances like, water (the ocean) or gases (the atmosphere). (3) Looking at climate change through geologic time, as a record of climate is embedded in the geological record, the substances that were in the atmosphere during an ice age in other words are recorded in the strata, which can be dated, so we can use this information to model where the climate is going.

Climate Cycles

Five billion years ago, when the earth and sun formed, the sun was much cooler than it is today, with an output of about 0.7 of its present output. Yet we know that water existed on the earth in liquid form, when it should have been ice. This is known as the Faint Young Star Paradox; the Earth should have been frozen up to 2.5 billion years ago.

Five hundred and fifty million years ago the Earth went through climate swings, being a snowball and then free of ice. Snowball Earth can be accounted for by positive feedback. Albedo is the percent of incoming radiation that is reflected into space. Snow has a higher albedo, so glaciation, or increased snow, increases the albedo of the earth making it emit more radiation back into a space making it cooler which, in turn, makes more snow, which increases the albedo still more, until you get a runaway icehouse, or Snowball Earth.

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Fifty million years ago the earth reached its thermal maximum (Paleocene-Eocene). It took 20,000 years to develop, and 100,000 years to go away. The earth is cooling from that thermal maximum 50 million years ago.

For the past three million years glacial cycles have been going on with a periodicity of about 20,000 to 100,000 years. They are due to orbital dynamics of the earth. They are the glacial-interglacial cycles caused by eccentricity of the Earth orbit, which is a cycle of one hundred thousand years, the obliquity of the earth or change in tilt which is a cycle of 41 thousand years, and precession or wobble of the earth’s spin, which has a cycle of 22 thousand years. The story of the earth has been a story of freezing over for 100,000 years, then briefly warming. We have been in one of these short warm periods for the past 10,000 years, called the Holocene, and it would seem it is responsible for the beginning of civilization 7,000 years ago. The last ice cover was about 18,000 years ago.

Composition Of The Atmosphere Through Time

The early Earth Atmosphere was probably predominantly hydrogen and helium (H2, He) but was lost to space. The later atmosphere was due to volcanic emissions, and impact by comets and meteorites (H20, CO2, SO2, CO, S2, Cl2, N2, H2, NH3, CH4). Oxygen came later as a by-product of living organisms. The origin of CO2 was volcanic emissions. It was absorbed by water forming carbonic acid, was deposited in the soil, then underwent reactions to become calcium carbonate:

Lifetime of substances in the atmosphere is given by:

Abundance (Gton)/Emissions (Gtons/year) = Lifetime (yr) €

H2O+CO2 →H2CO3(soil)H2CO3 +CaSiO3 →CaCO3 + SiO2 +H2O

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CO2 has a lifetime in the atmosphere of 100 years. CO2 exists in vegitation, soils, oceans, atmosphere and sediments. Lifetime relies in the simple model above relies on abundance and emissions are constant, that they are equilibrium processes.

Structure Of The Atmosphere

Divided by vertical gradient of temperature, there are four layers to the Earth Atmosphere:

Troposphere at 10-18 kilometers, Stratosphere ending at 50 kilometers, Mesosphere ending at 85 kilometers, then the Thermosphere.

80% of the mass is in the troposphere. In climate science we deal mostly with the troposphere, and a little with the stratosphere.

Heat Distribution Over The Earth, where heat is gained, where heat is lost.

Most of the warming is in the continents, Africa, South America, Canada, Asia. We should see a cooling of the lower stratosphere when we have a warming of the lower troposphere as a part of radiative balance of the planet. Raising the temperature one degree centigrade of a cubic meter of sea water requires 4,000 times more energy input than to raise a cubic meter of atmosphere one degree. Water has a high specific heat, that is it takes one calorie to raise a gram of it one degree centigrade. That is one factor that keeps the Earth from getting too warm. The vast majority of change in the energy climate system has gone into the ocean, mostly into the upper 700 meters. Water expands when you increase its temperature, like most substances, and the sea rise we are seeing is in part due to that. But most is due to the melting of land ice. Most of the land mass in the Northern Hemisphere, so, in the spring, when there is a lot of plant growth in the Northern Hemisphere, there is a drop in CO2. Annually, anthropogenic emissions increase CO2 by about nine

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gigatons or 900 terragrams. This is only about 1% of the burden, but it must be remembered that is annual and increases with time.

Precipitation is the product of condensation of water vapor that falls under gravity, like rain, sleet, snow, hail,…

Most of the CO2 is absorbed by the ocean and the decrease its PH, making it more acidic. What are the effects on the corral reefs and plankton?

The temperature is pretty much constant in the tropics throughout the year. Prevalence of ocean in the southern hemisphere keeps that area relatively stable.

During the spring and summer foliage comes out and absorbs CO2, then when leaves fall, and decay, that CO2 is returned to the atmosphere in the Fall. Most cooling is in evaporation of water, especially in the tropics. Radiation is absorbed in the tropics and emitted in the poles. The Ocean and the atmosphere transport absorption in the tropics to the poles, where it is emitted. The tropics absorb more radiation than they emit and the poles emit more radiation than they receive.

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Albedo

Albedo is a function of surface reflectivity and atmospheric reflectivity. Atmospheric albedo seems to play the primary role in the overall albedo of a planet. Albedo is the percent of light incident to a surface that is reflected back into space. It has a value ranging from zero to one inclusive. Zero is a black surface absorbing all incident light and one is a white surface reflecting all incident light back into space. Albedo plays a dominant role in the climate of a planet. Let us see if we can find a relationship between composition of a planet and its albedo if not in its distance from the star it orbits and its albedo, even a relationship between its albedo and orbital number, in that albedo could be a function of distance from the star a planet orbits because composition seems to be a function of distance of a planet from the star it orbits. As in the inner planets are solid, or terrestrial, and the outer planets are gas giants. There may be an analogue to the Titius-Bode rule for planetary distribution, but for albedo with respect to planetary number. The inner planets are dominantly CO2, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and water vapor, the outer planets, hydrogen and helium.

1. Mercury albedo of 0.06 composition 95% CO2 2. Venus albedo of 0.75 composition clouds of sulfuric acid 3. Earth albedo of 0.30 composition Nitrogen, Oxygen, H20 or water vapor 4. Mars albedo of 0.29 composition CO2 5. Asteroids 6. Jupiter albedo of 0.53 composition hydrogen and helium 7. Saturn albedo of 0.47 composition hydrogen and helium 8. Uranus albedo of 0.51 composition hydrogen, helium, methane 9. Neptune albedo of 0.41 composition of hydrogen and helium

We see the outer gas giant, which are composed chiefly of hydrogen and helium have albedos around 50%. Earth and Mars, the two planets in the habitable zone, are about the same (30%).

Go to the next page for a graph of albedo to planetary number.

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�

The average for the albedo of the inner planets is: (0.06+0.75+0.3+0.29)/4 = 0.35 This is close to the albedo of the habitable planets Earth and Mars.

The average for the albedo of the outer planets is: (0.52+0.47+0.51+0.41)/4 + 0.4775 ~0.48 This says the outer planets are all close to 0.48~0.5

All this also says, if the planet is solid and habitable it probably has an albedo of around 0.3, otherwise it is an outer gaseous planet and probably has an albedo of around 0.5.

mercury 0.06

venus 0.75

earth 0.3

mars 0.29

asteroids

jupiter 0.52

saturn 0.47

uranus 0.51

neptune 0.41

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

mercury earth asteroids saturn neptune

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import comp102x.IO;/** * Here we write a program in java that models the temperature of a planet for a star * of given luminosity. * @author (Ian Beardsley) * @version (Version 01 March 2016) */public class bioplanet{

public static void bioplanet() { System.out.print("Enter the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities: "); double lum = IO.inputDouble(); System.out.print("Enter the distance of the planet from the star in AU: "); double r=IO.inputDouble(); System.out.print("Enter albedo of the planet (0-1): "); double a=IO.inputDouble(); double R=(1.5E11)*r; double S=(3.9E26)*lum; double b=S/(4*3.141*R*R); double N = (1-a)*b/(4*(5.67E-8)); double root = Math.sqrt(N); double number = Math.sqrt(root); double answer = 1.189*number; IO.outputln("The surface temperature of the planet is: "+answer+ " K"); double C = answer - 273; double F = 1.8*C + 32; IO.outputln("That is: " +C+ " degrees centigrade"); IO.outputln("Which is: " + F + " degrees Fahrenheit"); } }

Enter the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities: 1Enter the distance of the planet from the star in AU: 1Enter albedo of the planet (0-1): .3The surface temperature of the planet is: 303.72751882043394 KThat is: 30.727518820433943 degrees centigradeWhich is: 87.3095338767811 degrees Fahrenheit

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As climate science is a new science, there are many models for the climate and I learned my climate science at MIT in a free online edX course. One can generate a basic model for climate with nothing more than high school algebra using nothing more than the temperature of the sun, the distance of the earth from the sun, and the earth’s albedo, the percent of light it reflects back into space.

The luminosity of the sun is:

!

The separation between the earth and the sun is:

!

The solar luminosity at the earth is reduced by the inverse square law, so the solar constant is:

!

That is the effective energy hitting the earth per second per square meter. This radiation is equal to the temperature, ! , to the fourth power by the steffan-bolzmann constant, sigma ! . ! can be called the effective temperature, the temperature entering the earth.

! intercepts the earth disc, ! , and distributes itself over the entire earth surface, ! , while 30% is reflected back into space due to the earth’s albedo, a, which is equal to 0.3, so

!

But, just as the same amount of radiation that enters the system, leaves it, to have radiative equilibrium, the atmosphere radiates back to the surface

€

L0 = 3.9 ×1026J /s

€

1.5 ×1011m

€

S0 =3.9 ×1026

4π (1.5 ×1011)2=1,370Watts /meter2

€

Te

€

(σ )

€

Te

€

S0

€

πr 2

€

4πr 2

€

σTe4 =

S04(1− a)

(1− a)S0πr 2

4πr 2

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so that the radiation from the atmosphere, ! plus the radiation entering the earth, ! is the radiation at the surface of the earth, ! . However,

!

and we have:

!

So, for the temperature at the surface of the Earth:

!

Let’s convert that to degrees centigrade:

Degrees Centigrade = 303 - 273 = 30 degrees centigrade

And, let’s convert that to Fahrenheit:

Degrees Fahrenheit = 30(9/5)+32=86 Degrees Fahrenheit

In reality this is warmer than the average annual temperature at the surface of the earth, but, in this model, we only considered radiative heat transfer and not convective heat transfer. In other words, there is cooling due to vaporization of water (the formation of clouds) and due to the condensation of water vapor into rain droplets (precipitation or the formation of rain).

€

σTa4

€

σTe4

€

σTs4

€

σTa4 =σTe

4

€

σTs4 =σTa

4 +σTe4 = 2σTe

4

Ts = 214Te

σTe4 =

S04(1− a)

σ = 5.67 ×10−8

S0 =1,370a= 0.31,3704(0.7) = 239.75

Te4 =

239.755.67 ×10−8

= 4.228 ×109

Te = 255Kelvin

€

Ts = 214Te =1.189(255) = 303Kelvin

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Model



L_0=3.9E26 J/s


1.5E11 m


S_0=3.9E26/4(pi)(1.5E11)^2 = 1,370 watts/square meter

That is the effective energy hitting the earth per second per square meter. This radiation is equal to the temperature, T_e, to the fourth power by the steffan-bolzmann constant, sigma. T_e can be called the effective temperature, the temperature entering the earth.

S_0 intercepts the earth disc, (pi)r^2, and distributes itself over the entire earth surface, 4(pi)r^2, while 30% is reflected back into space due to the earth’s albedo, a, which is equal to 0.3, so

(sigma)(T_e)^4 = (S_0/4)(1-a)

from (1-a)(S_0)(pi)(r^2)/4(pi)(r^2)

But, just as the same amount of radiation that enters the system, leaves it, to have radiative equilibrium, the atmosphere radiates back to the surface so that the radiation from the atmosphere, (sigma)(T_a)^4 plus the

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radiation entering the earth, (sigma)(T_e)^4 is the radiation at the surface of the earth, (sigma)(T_s)^4. However,

(sigma)(T_a)^4=(sigma)(T_e)^4

and we have:

(sigma)(T_s)^4=(sigma)(T_a)^4 + (sigma)(T_e)^4 = 2(sigma)(T_e)^4

T_s=(2^(1/4))(T_e)

(sigma)(T_e)^4=(S_0/4)(1-a) sigma = 5.67E-8 S_0=1,370

(1,370/4)(1-0.3)=(1,370/4)(0.7)=239.75

(sigma)(T_e)^4=239.75

(T_e)^4 = (238.75)/(5.67E-8) = 4.228E9

T_e=255 degrees kelvin


(sigma)(T_s) = 2(sigma)(T_e)^4

T_s=(2^(1/4))T_e

or

T_s = 1.189(255) = 303 degrees Kelvin




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Degrees Fahrenheight = 30(9/5)+32=86 Degrees Fahrenheit


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The incoming radiation from the sun is about 1370 watts per square meter as determined by the energy per second emitted by the sun reduced by the inverse square law at earth orbit. We calculate the total absorbed energy intercepted by the Earth's disc (pi)r^2, its distribution over its surface area 4(pi)r^2 and take into account that about 30% of that is reflected back into space, so the effective radiation hitting the Earth's surface is about 70% of the incoming radiation reduced by four. Radiative energy is equal to temperature to the fourth power by the Stefan-boltzmann constant. However, the effective incoming radiation is also trapped by greenhouse gases and emitted down towards the surface of the earth (as well as emitted up towards space from this lower atmosphere called the troposphere), the most powerful greenhouse gas being CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and most abundant and important is water vapour. This doubles the radiation warming the surface of the planet. The atmosphere is predominately Nitrogen gas (N2) and Oxygen gas (O2), about 95 percent. These gases, however, are not greenhouse gases. The greenhouse gas CO2, though only exists in trace amounts, and water vapour, bring the temperature of the Earth up from minus 18 degrees centigrade (18 below freezing) to an observed average of plus 15 degrees centigrade (15 degrees above freezing). Without these crucial greenhouse gases, the Earth would be frozen. They have this enormous effect on warming the planet even with CO2 existing only at 400 parts per million. It occurs naturally and makes life on Earth possible. However, too much of it and the Earth can be too warm, and we are now seeing amounts beyond the natural levels through anthropogenic sources, that are making the Earth warmer than is favorable for the conditions best for life to be maximally sustainable. We see this increase in CO2 beginning with the industrial era. The sectors most responsible for the increase are power, industry, and transportation. Looking at records of CO2 amounts we see that it was 315 parts per million in 1958 and rose to 390 parts per million in 2010. It rose above 40s in radiative equilibrium, that is, it loses as much radiation as it receives. Currently we are slightly out of radiative balance, the Earth absorbs about one watt per square meter more than it loses. That means its temperature is not steady, but increasing.

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Summary

The incoming radiation from the sun is about 1370 watts per square meter as determined by the energy per second emitted by the sun reduced by the inverse square law at earth orbit. We calculate the total absorbed energy intercepted by the Earth's disc (pi)r^2, its distribution over its surface area 4(pi)r^2 and take into account that about 30% of that is reflected back into space, so the effective radiation hitting the Earth's surface is about 70% of the incoming radiation reduced by four. Radiative energy is equal to temperature to the fourth power by the Steffan-boltzmann constant. However, the effective incoming radiation is also trapped by greenhouse gases and emitted down towards the surface of the earth (as well as emitted up towards space from this lower atmosphere called the troposphere), the most powerful greenhouse gas being CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and most abundant and important is water vapour. This doubles the radiation warming the surface of the planet. The atmosphere is predominately Nitrogen gas (N2) and Oxygen gas (O2), about 95 percent. These gases, however, are not greenhouse gases. The greenhouse gas CO2, though only exists in trace amounts, and water vapour, bring the temperature of the Earth up from minus 18 degrees centigrade (18 below freezing) to an observed average of plus 15 degrees centigrade (15 degrees above freezing). Without these crucial greenhouse gases, the Earth would be frozen. They have this enormous effect on warming the planet even with CO2 existing only at 400 parts per million. It occurs naturally and makes life on Earth possible. However, too much of it and the Earth can be too warm, and we are now seeing amounts beyond the natural levels through anthropogenic sources, that are making the Earth warmer than is favorable for the conditions best for life to be maximally sustainable. We see this increase in CO2 beginning with the industrial era. The sectors most responsible for the increase are power, industry, and transportation. Looking at records of CO2 amounts we see that it was 315 parts per million in 1958 and rose to 390 parts per million in 2010. It rose above 400 in 2013. Other greenhouse gases are methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O). Agricultural activities dominate emissions for nitrous oxide and methane. A healthy earth is one that is in radiative equilibrium, that is, it loses as much radiation as it receives. Currently we are slightly out of radiative balance, the Earth absorbs about one watt per square meter more than it loses. That means its temperature is not steady, but increasing.

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#include<stdio.h> #include<math.h> int main(void) { float s, a, l, b, r, AU, N, root, number, answer, C, F; printf("We determine the surface temperature of a planet.\n"); printf("What is the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? "); scanf("%f", &s); printf("What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)?" ); scanf("%f", &a); printf("What is the distance from the star in AU? "); scanf("%f", &AU); r=1.5E11*AU; l=3.9E26*s; b=l/(4*3.141*r*r);

N=(1-a)*b/(4*(5.67E-8)); root=sqrt(N); number=sqrt(root); answer=1.189*(number);

printf("The surface temperature of the planet is: %f K\n", answer); C=answer-273; F=(C*1.8)+32; printf("That is %f C, or %f F", C, F); printf("\n"); float joules; joules=(3.9E26*s); printf("The luminosity of the star in joules per second is: %.2fE25\n", joules/1E25); float HZ; HZ=sqrt(joules/3.9E26); printf("The habitable zone of the star in AU is: %f\n", HZ); printf("Flux at planet is %.2f times that at earth.\n", b/3.9E26); printf("That is %f Watts per square meter\n", b); }

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Terminal Saved Output 01 (Climate Science by Ian Beardsley) Feb 17, 2016

Last login: Wed Feb 17 06:14:19 on ttys000Claires-MBP:~ ianbeardsley$ /Users/ianbeardsley/Desktop/stelr/stellar ; exit;We determine the surface temperature of a planet.What is the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? 2 What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)?.5What is the distance from the star in AU? 1.4142135The surface temperature of the planet is: 279.223602 KThat is 6.223602 C, or 43.202484 FThe luminosity of the star in joules per second is: 78.00E25The habitable zone of the star in AU is: 1.414214Flux at planet is 1.01 times that at earth.That is 1379.60 Watts per square meterlogout

[Process completed]

According to my computer simulated program if a star is exactly twice as bright as the sun and reflects 50% of the light received back into space, and is at a distance of square root of 2 AU (AU = average earth-sun separation), then the flux at the planet is the same as that at earth and the planet is exactly in the habitable zone. In this scenario, the average yearly temperature is a cool six degrees celsius.

Let us run this program for other values:

Here we choose golden ratio=1.618 for amount of solar luminosities, the golden ratio conjugate =0.618 AU for distance from star, and the same for albedo (percent of light reflected back into space by the planet. It returns an average yearly temperature of approximately fahrenheit-celsius equivalence, -40 degrees F = -40 degrees C:

Last login: Wed Feb 17 06:28:41 on ttys000Claires-MBP:~ ianbeardsley$ /Users/ianbeardsley/Desktop/stelr/stellar ; exit;We determine the surface temperature of a planet.What is the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? 1.618What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)?0.618What is the distance from the star in AU? 1.618The surface temperature of the planet is: 231.462616 KThat is -41.537384 C, or -42.767292 FThe luminosity of the star in joules per second is: 63.10E25The habitable zone of the star in AU is: 1.272006Flux at planet is 0.62 times that at earth.That is 852.66 Watts per square meterlogout

[Process completed]

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Here is another interesting scenario. It returns yearly average temp, freezing temperature of water:

Last login: Wed Feb 17 06:40:34 on ttys000Claires-MBP:~ ianbeardsley$ /Users/ianbeardsley/Desktop/stelr/stellar ; exit;We determine the surface temperature of a planet.What is the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? 60What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)?0.605What is the distance from the star in AU? 7.2The surface temperature of the planet is: 273.042633 KThat is 0.042633 C, or 32.076740 FThe luminosity of the star in joules per second is: 2340.00E25The habitable zone of the star in AU is: 7.745966Flux at planet is 1.17 times that at earth.That is 1596.76 Watts per square meterlogout

[Process completed]

Now for one solar luminosity, albedo of golden ratio conjugate, earth-sun separation. It returns 15F. Earth average yearly temperature is 15C:

Last login: Wed Feb 17 06:41:43 on ttys000Claires-MBP:~ ianbeardsley$ /Users/ianbeardsley/Desktop/stelr/stellar ; exit;We determine the surface temperature of a planet.What is the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? 1What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)?0.6What is the distance from the star in AU? 1The surface temperature of the planet is: 264.073395 KThat is -8.926605 C, or 15.932111 FThe luminosity of the star in joules per second is: 39.00E25The habitable zone of the star in AU is: 1.000000Flux at planet is 1.01 times that at earth.That is 1379.60 Watts per square meterlogout

[Process completed]

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Let us try a planet at mars orbit=1.523 AU with 10 solar luminosities albedo golden ratioconjugate = phi=0.618. It returns about 100 degrees celsius, the boiling temperature of water:

Last login: Wed Feb 17 06:46:52 on ttys000Claires-MBP:~ ianbeardsley$ /Users/ianbeardsley/Desktop/stelr/stellar ; exit;We determine the surface temperature of a planet.What is the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? 10What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)?0.618What is the distance from the star in AU? 1.523The surface temperature of the planet is: 376.162537 KThat is 103.162537 C, or 217.692566 FThe luminosity of the star in joules per second is: 390.00E25The habitable zone of the star in AU is: 3.162278Flux at planet is 4.34 times that at earth.That is 5947.77 Watts per square meterlogout

[Process completed]

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Here I have written a program in python taking into account convection between two atmospheric layers as a more accurate model than my single layer atmospheric model (no convection):

print("This program finds the temperature of a planet.") L0=float(raw_input("Luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? ")) sun=3.9E26 S0=L0*sun r0=float(raw_input("planet distance from star in AU? ")) r=(1.5E11)*r0 S=S0/((4)*(3.141)*(r**2)) a=float(raw_input("What is the albedo of the planet (1-0)?: ")) sigma=5.67E-8 TE=((1-a)*S*(0.25)/(sigma))**(1.0/4.0) delta=float(raw_input("temp dif between two layers in Kelvin: ")) x=delta/TE sTe4=(1-a)*S/4 sTs4=3*(sTe4)-(sTe4)*(2-(1+x)**4)-(sTe4)*(1+((1+x)**4)-(1+2*x)**4) result=(sTs4)/(sigma) answer=(result)**(1.0/4.0) print("planet surface temp is: "+ str(answer)+" K") C=answer-273 F=(1.8)*C+32 print("That is "+str(C)+" C, or "+str(F)+" F") print("flux at planet is "+ str(S)+" watts per square meter”)

Let us run this for two different cases to see how a temperature of the planet varies if the input is one, a large temperature difference between layer one and layer two, and two, a small difference in temperature between layer one and layer two:

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bioplanet

by

ian beardsley

March 03, 2016

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#include<stdio.h> #include<math.h> int main(void) { printf("\n"); printf("\n"); printf("Here we use a single atomospheric layer with no\n"); printf("convection for the planet to be in an equilibrium\n"); printf("state. That is to say, the temperature stays\n"); printf("steady by heat gain and loss with radiative\n"); printf("heat transfer alone.\n"); printf("The habitable zone is calculated using the idea\n"); printf("that the earth is in the habitable zone for a\n"); printf("star like the Sun. That is, if a star is 100\n"); printf("times brighter than the Sun, then the habitable\n"); printf("zone for that star is ten times further from\n"); printf("it than the Earth is from the Sun because ten\n"); printf("squared is 100\n"); printf("\n");

float s, a, l, b, r, AU, N, root, number, answer, C, F; printf("We determine the surface temperature of a planet.\n"); printf("What is the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? "); scanf("%f", &s); printf("What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)?" ); scanf("%f", &a); printf("What is the distance from the star in AU? "); scanf("%f", &AU); r=1.5E11*AU; l=3.9E26*s; b=l/(4*3.141*r*r);

N=(1-a)*b/(4*(5.67E-8)); root=sqrt(N); number=sqrt(root); answer=1.189*(number); printf("\n"); printf("\n"); printf("The surface temperature of the planet is: %f K\n", answer); C=answer-273; F=(C*1.8)+32; printf("That is %f C, or %f F", C, F); printf("\n"); float joules; joules=(3.9E26*s); printf("The luminosity of the star in joules per second is: %.2fE25\n", joules/1E25); float HZ; HZ=sqrt(joules/3.9E26);

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printf("The habitable zone of the star in AU is: %f\n", HZ); printf("Flux at planet is %.2f times that at earth.\n", b/1370); printf("That is %.2f Watts per square meter\n", b);printf("\n"); printf("\n");

printf("In this simulation we use a two layer atmospheric model\n"); printf("where equilibrium is maintained by both radiative heat\n"); printf("transfer and convection,\n"); printf("\n");

printf("This program finds the temperature of a planet\n"); float L0,sun,S0,r0,R,S,A,sigma,TE,delta,sTe4,sTs4; float result, answer2, c, f, x; printf("Luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? "); scanf("%f", &L0); printf("Planet distance from the star in AU? "); scanf("%f", &r0); printf("What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)? "); scanf("%f", &A); printf("What is the temp dif between layers in kelvin? "); scanf("%f", &delta); sun=3.9E26; S0=L0*sun; R=(1.5E11)*r0; S=(S0)/((4)*(3.141)*R*R); sigma=5.67E-8; TE=(sqrt(sqrt(((1-A)*S*(0.25))/sigma))); x=delta/TE; sTe4=(1-A)*S/4; sTs4=3*(sTe4)-(sTe4)*(2-(1+x)*(1+x)*(1+x)*(1+x))-(sTe4)*(1+(1+x)*(1+x)*(1+x)*(1+x)-(1+2*x)*(1+2*x)*(1+2*x)*(1+2*x)); result=(sTs4)/(sigma); answer2=sqrt((sqrt(result))); printf("\n"); printf("\n"); printf("planet surface temp is: %f K\n", answer2); c=answer2-273; f=(1.8)*c+32; printf("That is %f C, or %f F\n", c, f); printf("flux at planet is %f watts per square meter\n", S); printf("\n"); printf("\n"); }

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Last login: Wed Mar 2 22:55:56 on ttys000 Claires-MBP:~ ianbeardsley$ /Users/ianbeardsley/Desktop/bioplanet ; exit;

Here we use a single atomospheric layer with no convection for the planet to be in an equilibrium state. That is to say, the temperature stays steady by heat gain and loss with radiative heat transfer alone. The habitable zone is calculated using the idea that the earth is in the habitable zone for a star like the Sun. That is, if a star is 100 times brighter than the Sun, then the habitable zone for that star is ten times further from it than the Earth is from the Sun because ten squared is 100

We determine the surface temperature of a planet. What is the luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? 1 What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)?.3 What is the distance from the star in AU? 1

The surface temperature of the planet is: 303.727509 K That is 30.727509 C, or 87.309517 F The luminosity of the star in joules per second is: 39.00E25 The habitable zone of the star in AU is: 1.000000 Flux at planet is 1.01 times that at earth. That is 1379.60 Watts per square meter

In this simulation we use a two layer atmospheric model where equilibrium is maintained by both radiative heat transfer and convection,

This program finds the temperature of a planet Luminosity of the star in solar luminosities? 1 Planet distance from the star in AU? 1 What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)? .3 What is the temp dif between layers in kelvin? 30

planet surface temp is: 315.447876 K That is 42.447876 C, or 108.406174 F flux at planet is 1379.603149 watts per square meter

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logout

[Process completed]

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Convection is the flow of gases or liquids, like atmosphere and ocean, which represents a loss in heat energy that would have gone into warming the planet.

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modelplanet (bug fixed)

March 08, 2016

© 2016 by Ian Beardsley

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#include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> int main(void) { printf("\n"); printf("We input the radii of the layers of a planet,...\n"); printf("and their corresponding densities,...\n"); printf("to determine the planet's composition.\n"); printf("Iron Core Density Fe=7.87 g/cm^3\n"); printf("Lithosphere Density Ni = 8.91 g/cm^3\n"); printf("Mantle Density Si=2.33 g/cm^3\n"); printf("Earth Radius = 6,371 km\n"); printf("Earth Mass = 5.972E24 Kg\n"); printf("\n"); float r1=0.00, r2=0.00, r3=0.00, p1=0.00, p2=0.00, p3=0.00; printf("what is r1, the radius of the core in km? "); scanf("%f", &r1); printf("what is p1, its density in g/cm^3? "); scanf("%f", &p1); printf("what is r2, outer edge of layer two in km? "); scanf("%f", &r2); printf("what is p2, density of layer two in g/cm^3? "); scanf("%f", &p2); printf("what is r3, the radius of layer 3 in km? "); scanf("%f", &r3); printf("what is p3, density of layer three in g/cm^3? "); scanf("%f", &p3); printf("\n"); printf("\n"); printf("r1=%.2f, r2=%.2f, r3=%.2f, p1=%.2f, p2=%.2f, p3=%.2f \n", r1,r2,r3,p1,p2,p3); printf("\n");

float R1, v1, m1, M1; { R1=(r1)*(1000.00)*(100.00); v1=(3.141)*(R1)*(R1)*(R1)*(4.00)/(3.00); m1=(p1)*(v1); M1=m1/1000.00; printf("the core has a mass of %.2f E23 Kg\n", M1/1E23); printf("thickness of core is %.2f \n", r1); } float R2, v2, m2, M2; { R2=(r2)*(1000.00)*(100.00); v2=(3.141)*(R2*R2*R2-R1*R1*R1)*(4.00)/(3.00); m2=(p2)*(v2); M2=m2/1000.00; printf("layer two has a mass of %.2f E23 Kg\n", M2/1E23); printf("layer two thickness is %.2f \n", r2-r1); } float R3, v3, m3, M3; {

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R3=(r3)*(1000.00)*(100.00); v3=(3.141)*(R3*R3*R3-R2*R2*R2)*(4.00)/(3.00); m3=(p3)*(v3); M3=m3/1000.00; printf("layer three has a mass of %.2f E23 Kg\n", M3/1E23); printf("layer three thickness is %.2f \n", r3-r2); } printf("\n"); printf("\n"); printf("the mass of the planet is %.2f E24 Kg\n", (M1+M2+M3)/1E24); }

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I fixed the bug in this program and it models the earth perfectly, exactly returning it mass. Here it is running it on the jharvard emulator:

jharvard@appliance (~): cd Dropbox jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox): make modelplanet clang -ggdb3 -O0 -std=c99 -Wall -Werror modelplanet.c -lcs50 -lm -o modelplanet jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox): ./modelplanet

We input the radii of the layers of a planet,... and their corresponding densities,... to determine the planet's composition. Iron Core Density Fe=7.87 g/cm^3 Lithosphere Density Ni = 8.91 g/cm^3 Mantle Density Si=2.33 g/cm^3 Earth Radius = 6,371 km Earth Mass = 5.972E24 Kg

what is r1, the radius of the core in km? 500 what is p1, its density in g/cm^3? 7.87 what is r2, outer edge of layer two in km? 5000 what is p2, density of layer two in g/cm^3? 8.91 what is r3, the radius of layer 3 in km? 6371 what is p3, density of layer three in g/cm^3? 2.33

r1=500.00, r2=5000.00, r3=6371.00, p1=7.87, p2=8.91, p3=2.33

the core has a mass of 0.04 E23 Kg thickness of core is 500.00 layer two has a mass of 46.60 E23 Kg layer two thickness is 4500.00 layer three has a mass of 13.04 E23 Kg layer three thickness is 1371.00

the mass of the planet is 5.97 E24 Kg jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox):

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Let’s run it in the OS X utility terminal for a larger planet, say Jupiter sized:

The radius of Jupiter is 69, 911 km

density of iron is 7.87 gm/cm^3 density of methane is 0.7923 g/cm^3 density of helium is 0.1785 density of hydrogen 0.0899 g/cm^3

mass of jupiter: 1.89813 E27 kg

running the program:

Last login: Tue Mar 8 23:35:48 on ttys000 Claires-MBP:~ ianbeardsley$ /Users/ianbeardsley/Desktop/model\ planet\ bug\ fixed/model\ planet ; exit;

We input the radii of the layers of a planet,... and their corresponding densities,... to determine the planet's composition. Iron Core Density Fe=7.87 g/cm^3 Lithosphere Density Ni = 8.91 g/cm^3 Mantle Density Si=2.33 g/cm^3 Earth Radius = 6,371 km Earth Mass = 5.972E24 Kg

what is r1, the radius of the core in km? 10000 what is p1, its density in g/cm^3? 7.87 what is r2, outer edge of layer two in km? 30000 what is p2, density of layer two in g/cm^3? 0.7923 what is r3, the radius of layer 3 in km? 69911 what is p3, density of layer three in g/cm^3? 0.1785

r1=10000.00, r2=30000.00, r3=69911.00, p1=7.87, p2=0.79, p3=0.18

the core has a mass of 329.60 E23 Kg thickness of core is 10000.00 layer two has a mass of 862.72 E23 Kg layer two thickness is 20000.00 layer three has a mass of 2352.52 E23 Kg layer three thickness is 39911.00

the mass of the planet is 354.48 E24 Kg logout

[Process completed]

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The Gaia FractalByIan Beardsley

Copyright © 2014 by Ian Beardsley

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From my earlier studies where I began to learn about fractals, and subsequent studies in Biology, and Climate Science, I have finally been able to put into words a primitive notion I had that was sparked by learning of the the Gaia Hypothesis of Lovelock and the similar, but different, idea of Gaia put forward by Isaac Asimov in his science fiction conclusion to his Foundation Trilogy, Foundation And Earth. A primitive notion is defined in Spacetime, Geometry, And Cosmology by William L. Burke as:

A fundamental element in a physical theory that is not defined within the theory but is presumed to be known, either by description or from a more fundamental theory.

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Energetic Equilibrium and Gaia The Fractal

Life is that which self-generates negative entropy. That is, it acquires the energy it needs to sustain its necessary biological functions, such as metabolism, photosynthesis, and homeostasis. Living things are organized and they can’t maintain organization without energy. Healthy life is that which is in energetic equilibrium, which is to say it loses as much energy as it gains. We say this because if an organism does not burn the energy it acquires, it will store the excess energy as fat, which produces a strain on the heart because it has to pump blood through more weight. The earth is similar in this respect in that a healthy earth is one that is in energetic equilibrium as well because if the earth gains more energy from the sun than it is losing, then it is warming which dries up reservoirs, and kills crops. Interestingly, when life on earth is in energetic equilibrium, the earth tends towards energetic equilibrium, because life living in excess produces a strain on the planet’s natural processes that interrupts its functionality like regenerative cycles such as the water cycle and carbon cycle. In this sense we see that animal and plant life mirror the way the physical aspects of the planet function in such a way that we can say life is but a part of a greater whole. The basic unit of all of life is the cell, which is constructed of non-living molecules. However, cells combine to form tissues, tissues form to make organs, and organs work together to make organ systems. Just as cells are part of life, life is part of the physical earth; if plants did not do photosynthesis, then carbon dioxide levels would rise. Carbon dioxide is a heat retaining gas. Too much of it and the earth would fail to lose as much heat as it receives from the sun, would be out of energetic equilibrium, the arctic ice caps would melt, decreasing the albedo of the earth, causing less sunlight to be reflected back into space (creating a feedback loop), and reservoirs, rivers, and crops would dry up. This connection of life, the biosphere, to the physical (atmosphere and water) that makes the earth like one giant organism, is called Gaia. In a sense the organization of cells into tissues, tissues into organs, organs into organ systems, goes beyond the organism. The organisms make populations, the populations make communities, the communities interact with the physical environment to form ecosystems, and the the ecosystems make the biosphere. We could say Gaia is a fractal, but in idea not physical geometry, because the idea behind the planet is similar to the idea behind its life components, and the life components display self-similarity as we move from simple to complex, single cell to organized structures, but expanded. Fractals have self-similarity as one of their properties.

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Homeostasis And Metabolism Of The Gaia Fractal

We face a crisis known as the anthropocene, wherein humans are altering the environment in such a way that they are adding a new, but different, layer to the geologic record. Rapid deforestation and increase in greenhouse gases are putting the Earth out of energetic equilibrium, such that the carbon grid is saturated, which means the mechanism which syncs heat retaining carbon dioxide is over taxed, and the earth is warming. The key to healing the Earth is in understanding the homeostasis and metabolism of Gaia, which is founded in the fractal nature of Gaia, that is we need to know what the proper structure of the Gaia fractal should be, that is from its basic structure starting with single cellular life to their organizations into organisms, to the organization of organisms into systems of organisms, and all into the planet, which includes the physical, such as the composition of the atmosphere. Just as cells are composed of non-living molecules, the physical aspects of the earth, composed of biological entities, is such that the whole planet is alive. Thus the key words to understand are metabolism and homeostasis:

Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell, and homeostasis, is the maintenance of internal conditions that allow metabolic processes to occur. Thus we must make sure the homeostasis of Gaia is such that its metabolic processes can be carried out so that life on earth is sustainable. Thus we need to know how the Gaia Fractal should be structured.

Ian BeardsleyOctober 18, 2014

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Model



L_0=3.9E26 J/s


1.5E11 m


S_0=3.9E26/4(pi)(1.5E11)^2 = 1,370 watts/square meter

That is the effective energy hitting the earth per second per square meter. This radiation is equal to the temperature, T_e, to the fourth power by the steffan-bolzmann constant, sigma. T_e can be called the effective temperature, the temperature entering the earth.

S_0 intercepts the earth disc, (pi)r^2, and distributes itself over the entire earth surface, 4(pi)r^2, while 30% is reflected back into space due to the earth’s albedo, a, which is equal to 0.3, so

(sigma)(T_e)^4 = (S_0/4)(1-a)

from (1-a)(S_0)(pi)(r^2)/4(pi)(r^2)

But, just as the same amount of radiation that enters the system, leaves it, to have radiative equilibrium, the atmosphere radiates back to the surface so that the radiation from the atmosphere, (sigma)(T_a)^4 plus the radiation entering the earth, (sigma)(T_e)^4 is the radiation at the surface of the earth, (sigma)(T_s)^4. However,

(sigma)(T_a)^4=(sigma)(T_e)^4

and we have:

(sigma)(T_s)^4=(sigma)(T_a)^4 + (sigma)(T_e)^4 = 2(sigma)(T_e)^4

T_s=(2^(1/4))(T_e)

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(sigma)(T_e)^4=(S_0/4)(1-a)sigma = 5.67E-8S_0=1,370

(1,370/4)(1-0.3)=(1,370/4)(0.7)=239.75

(sigma)(T_e)^4=239.75

(T_e)^4 = (238.75)/(5.67E-8) = 4.228E9

T_e=255 degrees kelvin


(sigma)(T_s) = 2(sigma)(T_e)^4

T_s=(2^(1/4))T_e

or

T_s = 1.189(255) = 303 degrees Kelvin




Degrees Fahrenheight = 30(9/5)+32=86 Degrees Fahrenheit


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Summary

The incoming radiation from the sun is about 1370 watts per square meter as determined by the energy per second emitted by the sun reduced by the inverse square law at earth orbit. We calculate the total absorbed energy intercepted by the Earth's disc (pi)r^2, its distribution over its surface area 4(pi)r^2 and take into account that about 30% of that is reflected back into space, so the effective radiation hitting the Earth's surface is about 70% of the incoming radiation reduced by four. Radiative energy is equal to temperature to the fourth power by the Stefan-boltzmann constant. However, the effective incoming radiation is also trapped by greenhouse gases and emitted down towards the surface of the earth (as well as emitted up towards space from this lower atmosphere called the troposphere), the most powerful greenhouse gas being CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and most abundant and important is water vapour. This doubles the radiation warming the surface of the planet. The atmosphere is predominately Nitrogen gas (N2) and Oxygen gas (O2), about 95 percent. These gases, however, are not greenhouse gases. The greenhouse gas CO2, though only exists in trace amounts, and water vapour, bring the temperature of the Earth up from minus 18 degrees centigrade (18 below freezing) to an observed average of plus 15 degrees centigrade (15 degrees above freezing). Without these crucial greenhouse gases, the Earth would be frozen. They have this enormous effect on warming the planet even with CO2 existing only at 400 parts per million. It occurs naturally and makes life on Earth possible. However, too much of it and the Earth can be too warm, and we are now seeing amounts beyond the natural levels through anthropogenic sources, that are making the Earth warmer than is favorable for the conditions best for life to be maximally sustainable. We see this increase in CO2 beginning with the industrial era. The sectors most responsible for the increase are power, industry, and transportation. Looking at records of CO2 amounts we see that it was 315 parts per million in 1958 and rose to 390 parts per million in 2010. It rose above 400 in 2013. Other greenhouse gases are methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O). Agricultural activities dominate emissions for nitrous oxide and methane. A healthy earth is one that is in radiative equilibrium, that is, it loses as much radiation as it receives. Currently we are slightly out of radiative balance, the Earth absorbs about one watt per square meter more than it loses. That means its temperature is not steady, but increasing.

Ian BeardsleyJuly 11, 2014

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Economics And The Gaia Fractal

Because Capitalism looks for the cheapest way for a person to turn the Earth’s resources into profit, it goes against the optimal method of maintaining the Earth’s ability to sustain life. Communism does not do any better. We have said we need to understand the nature of the Gaia Fractal, so that we can make sure we do not interrupt the natural process it needs to carry out to function as an organism. We need to make sure it can maintain homeostasis. The political structure of a society determines its economic strategies, and the economics adopted by a people determines perhaps, more than any other factor, the homeostasis of the Gaia Fractal. Much to the credit of some great minds, we do have an economic theory that would seem to serve such ends; it is called bioeconomics.

Bioeconomics is easy to understand, it simply uses biology to determine how we can use natural resources in such a way that they maximize the well being of life on earth in a sustainable way, as opposed to concentrating their value into a few hands in the form of money that represents them, which would not sustain life very long.

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When The Terrestrial Vitality Is In Decline

The visionary H.G. Wells came up with an important phrase, or wording: Terrestrial Vitality, in his work Mind At The End Of Its Tether. Further he said it was in decline and that it could be that hard imaginative thinking is no longer able to keep pace with the increasing complexity of human problems. Let us try to think of all the ways we can that the terrestrial vitality is in decline:

1. The rotation of the earth is slowing so the days (albeit very slowly) become longer, and thus the earth warmer.

2. The Sun, albeit extremely slow of a phenomenon, is getting warmer.

3. Human caused global warming from burning fossil fuels threatens the health of our food crops and water supplies.

4. Poor treatment of the ecosystem seems to be driving bee populations into decline, thus threatening the pollination of fruit bearing crops.

5. Deforestation and destruction of plankton on the ocean surface threatens the production of breathable oxygen and interrupts the carbon cycle.

6. The more time goes by, the higher the odds of being hit by an asteroid or large meteor that would kick up enough dirt in the atmosphere to block the sun’s rays thus interrupting photosynthesis and causing the food crops to die off and all the vegetation that farm animals feed on.

7. We could come out of the interglacial and enter an ice age.

8. The Earth's Magnetic Field becomes weaker, thus decreasing its ability to shield the earth from the solar wind.

We can make this list much longer, and it is pretty incredible that all the necessary factors for the success of humans remained stable for more than the 5 million years it took them to evolve from primitive hominids. I list these threats to the terrestrial vitality, so that in clarifying them in our mind, we can address them and thereby come up with clear solutions that can be derived from the sciences. I think any advanced civilization and intelligent life form, would rather than ignore these threats, would put their minds to finding viable solutions.

Ian BeardsleyJuly 24, 2014

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The Human Situation

The reality of the human situation is clearly one where humanity is poised between going in two different directions, one outlined by H.G. Wells in Mind At The End Of Its Tether and the other as outlined by Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick in 2001: A Space Odyssey:

H.G. Wells: Humans must go steeply up or down. If he goes up so great is the adaptation required of him that he must cease to be a man. Ordinary man is at the end of his tether, and the odds seem all in favor of him going down and out.

Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick: Humans end their reliance with technology and become the starchild. Humanity spreads its wings and flies through the Universe.

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AP Biology 01

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The Setting

In the beginning, billions of years ago, there were only microorganisms. The animals and plants came into existence about 200 million years ago. Humans appeared about 2 million years ago, and anatomically modern humans have been around for about 200,000 years. Most of the mass of life consists of: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur: CHNOPS

AP Biology 1.1 Properties of Water And Carbon

You should know:

1) Water forms polar covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds which gives it its properties that allow it to sustain life:a) adhesionb) cohesionc) surface tensiond) high specific heate) bonding not just between atoms, but between moleculeslower density in its solid phasef) solubility (means a solute like NaCl will break up into Na+ and Cl- with Na+ attaching to the negative O2 in H2O and Cl- attaching to the H+ in H2O).2) Carbon has four valence electrons, which allows it to form into a high diversity of chains or ring structures known as hydrocarbons.3) Isomers are critical to structure and function of biological molecules.4) Be able to identify what property a molecule has based on its functional groups.

Types Of Functional Groups:

MethylHydroxylCarbonyl (Ketone)Carbonyl (Aldehyde)CarboxylAminoSulfhydrylPhosphate

AP Biology 1.2

Using the carbon backbone (hydrocarbons) combined with functional groups we make repeating units known as monomers, that form macromolecules. The monomers combine by dehydration synthesis to form polymers, long complex chains of repeating units. The polymers can be broken back down into monomers by hydrolysis. There are four classes of macromolecules: Lipids, Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Nucleic Acids.

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Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation Reactions): A water molecule is removed from the monomers by breaking the bond to leave a hydroxyl group and a hydrogen ion. So you remove a water molecule and form a bond.

Hydrolysis: We break a water bond splitting it into a hydroxyl group and hydrogen ion, and put them back on the monomers, making them separate again. This is the process of digestion. So you add water and break a bond.

Dehydration Synthesis is used to build polymers out of monomers.

Macromolecules

1) Carbohydrates

Monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, simple sugars made up of 3, 5, or 6 carbons. All sugar names end in “ose”. That is how you can tell it is a carbohydrate. These monomers are in ring shape structures. Two monomers come together in dehydration synthesis making a dysaccharide. In a carbohydrate this is called glycocitic linkage. Combing a glucose with a fructose monomer makes sucrose (table sugar). We make maltose by joining two glucose monomers and we make lactose by joining glucose and galactose. Multiple monomers make polysaccharides, like starch. This is used for energy storage in plant tissue. Some of these polymers can be used for energy storage, others for structural purposes.

2) Lipids

Triglycerides (fats): Made up of three fatty acid chains and one glycerol molecule. They form in dehydration synthesis to make bonds called ester linkages where water is removed: a hydroxyl group from the fatty acid and a hydrogen ion from the glycerol. Fats store twice as much energy than carbohydrates. There are saturated fats like, butter and lard,(linear linkages) and unsaturated fats (that have one double bonded carbon). They are commonly called oils because they are liquid at room temperature.Steroids and Phospholipids: Steroids are made up of four carbon rings and examples are, cholesterol and cortisol. Phospholipids are glycerol, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group. These are key components of cell membranes.

3) Nucleic Acids

It is a monomer nucleotide, a five carbon sugar, with nitrogen base on carbon 1, phosphate group on carbon 5, and is bonded with what are called phosphodiester bonds in dehydration synthesis of the phosphate of one nucleotide and carbon 3. The two main nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose and in RNA it is ribose. DNA is double helix, RNA single is a single strand. DNA stores and copies information and RNA transmits information.4) Proteins: There are thousands of different proteins and they can have many different functions like, be enzymes, antibodies, receptors, structural, motor, storage, and communication. There are 20 different amino acids and they are responsible for all the different proteins and all their different structures. They are found in all organisms. It is their R groups which are responsible

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for the structure of the proteins. Proteins can take a helix or pleated shape. Protein shape is crucial to the proper function of biological processes in the cell. An R group is a side chain attached to the backbone that makes up a large molecule.

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��Ian Beardsley

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Looking At Nature

We see that many aspects of Nature can be described with a “while variable not equal to value” statement (while x!=k).

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print("The basic substances from which life formed on early earth are: ") print("CH4 (Methane), NH3 (Ammonia), H2O (water), H2 (hydrogen gas)") print("The idea of Wolfram is if we can describe something complex,...") print("with a few short lines of source code, then ") print("this can be an alternative to using mathematics ") print("to describe Nature. ") print("Because these substances from which life are made of, ") print("elements 6 (C), 7 (N). 8(O) of the period table and H, ") print("a simple loop can be written, because the C, N, and O, ") print("progress in increments of one, while the H decrements. ") print("as such we write code to make the pyramid of life.")

k=4; x=1; z=4; while (x!=k): x=x+1 z=z-1 print(x*"H"+z*"C");

print("Where we say HH=H2, HHH=H3, HHHH=H4, and,...") print("CCC = O, CC = N, and C = C.")

print("i1=Boron") print("j =Silicon") print("i2=Gallium") print("k1=Nitrogen") print("k2=Arsenic") print(" ") x=0 while (x!=3): x=x+1 if (x==1 or x==3): print("i"+" "+"k") if (x==3): break; print(" "+"j"+" ")

print("Cellular Automata For The Ductile Conducting Wires") print("Cu=1, Ag=2, Au=3")

x=0 while (x!=3): x=x+1 print(str(x))

print("The regular tessellators are the regular geometries that can")

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print("cover a surface without leaving gaps.") print(" ") print("regular hexagon:")

x=0 while (x!=3): x=x+1 if (x==1 or x==3): print(2*" "+"***"+" ") if (x==3): break; print("*"+5*" "+"*") print("regular triangle (equilateral triangle):") z=0 print(3*" "+"*"+2*" ") while (z!=2): z=z+1 print(3*" ") print("*"+5*" "+"*") print("regular parallelagram (square):") y=0 while (y!=3): y=y+1 if (y==1 or y==3): print("*"+3*" "+"*") if (y==3): break; print(4*" ") print("Pythagoras thought the tetractys was the key to the universe") print("It is the triangle such that: 1, 1+1=2, 2+1=3, 3+1=4") print("which is 1+2+3+4=10") print(" ") y=4 x=0 while (x!=4): x=x+1 y=y-1 print(y*" "+x*"* ")

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The programming language Python is particularly conducive to The Pyramid of Life:

print("The basic substances from which life formed on early earth are: ") print("CH4 (Methane), NH3 (Ammonia), H2O (water), H2 (hydrogen gas)") print("The idea of Wolfram is if we can describe something complex,...") print("with a few short lines of source code, then ") print("this can be an alternative to using mathematics ") print("to describe Nature. ") print("Because these substances from which life are made of, ") print("elements 6 (C), 7 (N). 8(O) of the period table and H, ") print("a simple loop can be written, because the C, N, and O, ") print("progress in increments of one, while the H decrements. ") print("as such we write code to make the pyramid of life.")

k=4; x=1; z=4; while (x!=k): x=x+1 z=z-1 print(x*"H"+z*"C");

print("Where we say HH=H2, HHH=H3, HHHH=H4, and,...") print("CCC = O, CC = N, and C = C.")

Running this produces:

HHCCC HHHCC HHHHC

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Cellular Automata For Artificial Intelligence The Code For The Structure In AI

print("i1=Boron") print("j =Silicon") print("i2=Gallium") print("k1=Nitrogen") print("k2=Arsenic") print(" ")

x=0 while (x!=3): x=x+1 if (x==1 or x==3): print("i"+" "+"k") if (x==3): break; print(" "+"j"+" ")


i k j i k

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The Cellular Automata of Electrical Wiring

While aluminum (Al) is used for wires in electronics, the most used is copper (Cu). It is highly conductive and is in the same group in the periodic table of elements as silver (Ag), and Gold (Au). Gold and silver are used for electrical wire as as they are conductive and ductile as well. Gold, in fact, is the most conductive at extreme temperatures, and silver is the most conductive at room temperature. As such, Copper, Silver, and Gold are at the core of electrical engineering where wiring is concerned. Aluminum is mostly use for encasing circuitry. I find great beauty in the fact that these three elements, Copper, Silver, and Gold are in the same group (Group 11), and occur one after they other in this group starting with copper, proceeding to the next heaviest, silver, and concluding with heaviest, gold. The are, respectively, elements 29, 47, and 79. We have already outlined the basic cellular automata for the category of semiconductors, the semi-metals and doping agents of AI components, and the basic cellular automata for biological life, leaving this category as the next to consider. It is perhaps the easiest for which to find a loop, as there is nothing more tricky for it than to arrange 1(Cu), 2(Ag), and 3(Au), in a vertical column. Our ultimate goal is to cover the cellular automata of the entire periodic table, which will take us into the biological functions of the elements and their compounds just as much as the the functions of the elements in compounds in electrical engineering. Ultimately, we seek to find the connection between biological life and AI, a connection I have already establish via another avenue, in my work: Nature’s AI Cookbook.

Code For Ductile Conductors

print("Cellular Automata For The Ductile Conducting Wires") print("Cu=1, Ag=2, Au=3")

x=0 while (x!=3): x=x+1 print(str(x))


Cu=1, Ag=2, Au=3

1 2 3

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Cellular Automata For The Regular Tessellators

print("The regular tessellators are the regular geometries that can") print("cover a surface without leaving gaps.") print(" ") print("regular hexagon:")

x=0 while (x!=3): x=x+1 if (x==1 or x==3): print(2*" "+"***"+" ") if (x==3): break; print("*"+5*" "+"*") print("regular triangle (equilateral triangle):") z=0 print(3*" "+"*"+2*" ") while (z!=2): z=z+1 print(3*" ") print("*"+5*" "+"*") print("regular parallelagram (square):") y=0 while (y!=3): y=y+1 if (y==1 or y==3): print("*"+3*" "+"*") if (y==3): break; print(4*" ")


regular hexagon: *** * * * * *** regular triangle (equilateral triangle) *

* *

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square (regular parallelogram): * *

* *

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The Tetractys

print("Pythagoras thought the tetractys was the key to the universe") print("It is the triangle such that: 1, 1+1=2, 2+1=3, 3+1=4") print("which is 1+2+3+4=10") print(" ") y=4 x=0 while (x!=4): x=x+1 y=y-1 print(y*" "+x*"* “)


* * * * * * * * * *

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print ("It is useful to make the code, "); print ("that produces the four molecular structures, "); print ("of the hydrocarbons, which make up organic substances.");

print (" "); print (" "); print ("Arenes"); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print (" | "); print (" C "); print ("--C = --C --"); print (" | || "); print ("--C C --"); print (" = C-- "); print (" | "); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print ("Alkanes"); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print (" | | "); print (" -- C -- C -- "); print (" | | "); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print ("Alkenes"); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print (" | | "); print (" -- C = C -- "); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print ("Alkynes"); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print (" -- "); print ("-- C -- C -- "); print (" -- "); print (" ");print (" ")

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Running The Hydrocarbons Program

| C- C= - C - | || - C C - = C - |

Arenes

| |— C —C— | |

Alkanes

| |— C = C —

Alkenes

—— C — C — —

Alkynes

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print ("We define galaxies in their classification scheme"); print ("with source code:"); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print ("Barred Spiral Galaxy (SBc)"); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print (2*" " + "*" ); print ("*"); print (2*"*"+10*" " +2*"*"); print (7*"*"+12*" "+7*"*"); print (12*" "+2*"*"+10*" "+2*"*"); print (25*" "+ "*"); print (24*" "+"*"); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print ("Spiral Galaxy (Sc)"); print (" "); print (" "); print (" "); print (25*" "+ "*"); print (33*" "+"*"); print (35*" "+"*"); print (9*" "+"*"+" " +"*"+24*" " + "*"); print (6*" "+4*"*"+10*" "+ 2*"*"+13*" "+2*"*"); print (4*" "+3*"*"+12*" "+4*"*"+11*" "+3*"*"); print (3*" "+2*"*"+15*" "+2*"*"+10*" "+4*"*"); print (4*" "+24*" " +"*"+" "+"*"); print (6*" "+"*"); print (9* " "+"*"); print (15*" "+"*"); print(" "); print (" "); print (" "); print ("Elliptical Galaxy (E0)"); print (5*" "+"*"); print (4*" "+3*"*"); print (5*" "+ "*");

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We define icons for galaxies in their classification scheme with source code.

**** ********* ****** ** ** * *

Barred Spiral Galaxy (SBc)

* * * * * * **** ** ** *** ***** *** ** ** **** * * * * * *

Spiral Galaxy (Sc)

** ****** **

Elliptical Galaxy (E0)

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print ("water chemistry:"); print (" "); print (" "); print (2*"H"+"O"+2*" "+2*"H"+"O"+2*" "+"O"+"="+"2-"); print ("-HH"+ " " + "-O"+2*" "+"H"+"="+"+"); print ( " O"+" "+ "HH"+" "+ "=""Neutral H2O"); print (" "); print (" "); print ("Dehydration Synthesis"); print ("HHO"+" "+"HHO"); print ("-OH"+" "+"-H" ); print ("H+" +" "+" OH-"); print ("Neutral HHO=H2O"); print (" "); print (" "); print ("Hydrolysis"); print (" "); print (" "); print ("HHO"); print ("OH-"+" "+"H+"); print ("+H+"+" "+"+OH-"); print ("H2O and H2O”);

Water Chemistry

HHO HHO O=2- -HH - O H=+ O HH =Neutral H20

Dehydration Synthesis

HHO HHO -OH -HH+ OH-Neutral HHO=H2O

Hydrolysis

HHOOH- H++H+ +OH-H2O and H2O

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There May Be More To Things Than We Have Surmised

by

Ian Beardsley

© March 04, 2016

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An Unlikely Event.

Extraordinarily, I did the unlikely, when I strolled into an unlikely used bookstore, at an unlikely time 25 years ago or so, and went to an unlikely section where I stumbled across an unlikely used book, by an unlikely astronomer, bought it, and found it 25 years later or so, decided to read it, and stumbled upon an unlikely idea. It was the idea of Sir Fred Hoyle, renowned British astronomer, in his book Of Men and Galaxies. It is a collection of transcribed lectures given by him at The University of Washington in the Northwest, the last lecture titled “Extrapolations into the Future. In it he likens Humans to be going down a raging river, with no idea what lay at the next turn, not knowing what to do to navigate it safely, and, suggests, if we could only access what must exist, a galactic encyclopedia that surely exists somewhere in the Universe, that chronicles the data of everything older, more advanced civilizations know, after having already navigated the same river. An galactic encyclopedia that has what we need to know. Indeed, he says, surely we are all going down the same river because, for example, a planet that is, for it to be stable enough to harbor life, it can not have much more oil beneath its surface than we do, because without enough solid, beneath, to hold up the outer crust, the planet would eventually collapse. Because of this, Hoyle says we have been provided, by Natural Forces unbeknownst to us, enough oil to provide us with an amount of oil that will supply us with the time to figure out how to develop nuclear energy as a source of energy. He says this is evidenced by the fact that as we are running out of oil we are figuring out nuclear energy. It would seem now, as I look at the idea some thirty years after the lecture, I realize we are now on the verge of developing nuclear fusion as nuclear energy, which is more important than the nuclear fission that we already know how to do, because it is a clean process, the same one done by the Sun.

Now years later, humans are suffering from global warming due to burning that same oil, but it dawns on me that we are also running out of oil. So, I figure the same Unknown Natural Forces that Hoyle spoke of, gave us yes, enough oil to buy us the time to figure out how to do fusion for our energy needs, and enough oil to start global warming, but not enough to keep it going, because these natural forces knew some humans would be stupid enough to keep burning it, even as the planet warms. So I am thinking, once we run out of oil, we won’t be able to burn it and put any more heat retaining CO2 into the atmosphere than is already there causing problems, and nature will begin cleaning what we have already put there. And then, after that, we won’t be able to burn any more of it. In other words, These unknown natural forces have safe guarded us against extinction! It is just a theory, but it also seems obvious we still have to work hard and try to figure out how, nonetheless, to protect this planet, which is our only support system until we can develop a more sophisticated technology allowing us to make space habitable for us.

Now 25 years later I have taken it upon myself to learn the rudiments of climate science and computer programming. The result has been my paper “planetary science” and source code in three different languages that model climate for any planet. In the course of this undertaking, I learned while we can model climate to a certain degree, there are some things in the history of the earth climate we do not understand, like 5 billion years ago the sun was 30% cooler than it is now and by everything we know about physics, the planet should have been, due to that, a ball of ice, yet we know from geologic record that, at that time, water existed on earth in its liquid form, which was quite necessary for life to exist! This is commonly referred to as: “The Faint Young Star Paradox”. I ask, in light of this, if its explanation is in Hoyle’s Unknown Natural Force. We sure further look at while CO2 causes global warming, there are actually other forces that can regardless cast us into an ice age. For the past three million years,

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perturbations in the earth’s orbit have caused ice ages on a period of 20,000 to 100,000 years. The end of the last one was about 18,000 years ago, around the time when we invented agriculture. Some scientists say coming out of this glacial was responsible for humans forming civilizations with agriculture, math, and government. That warm weather allowed us to stop wandering and hunting, and to settle down and do agriculture.

Just as unlikely as the day that I discovered the book by Hoyle, my younger brother Kurt stumbled upon an old Science Fiction book by Isaac Asimov, that was written in the 50’s called “The Currents of Space”. Upon reading it I learned of why humans do stupid things that can result in their extinction:

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Alas, while I am learning climate science and making computer simulations of climate, I am reading a book my older brother, Erik, gave me. As he is an agricultural scientist, it is called “Western Fertilizer Handbook”. I highly recommend it, and find it goes hand in hand with my paper “Planetary Science”.

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Things Could Be Wonderful, I Calculate

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I was thinking about the human situation last night and I had a revelation that we can solve all our problems.

Consider that the population of the earth is seven billion (a little more):

7,000,000,000

The radius of the earth is:

6,378 kilometers (6,378 km)

The surface area of the earth is then:

4(pi)(6,378 km)^2 = 4(3.141)40,678,884 = 511,089,499 square kilometers

The ocean covers about two-thirds of the the earth’s surface. So, the land area is:

(1/3)(511,089,499)=170,363,166 square kilometers.

(7,000,000,000 people)/(170,363,166 km^2) = 41 people

There are, then, about 41 people per square kilometer. (I estimate a square kilometer is about four small town blocks).

The earth receives from the sun about 1,370 watts per square meter. Let’s convert that to watts per square kilometer:

(1,370)(1000)(1000)= 1, 370,000,000 watts per square kilometer (One billion three hundred and seventy million).

We can now cover all roads and driveways with durable solar cells. Not all the earth is cement, but let’s cover all roads, driveways, and rooftops with solar cells and say that is one half of the earth’s land area:

(1/2)(170, 363, 166 km^2) = 85,181,583 square kilometers covered in solar cells.

One half of the the earth surface points toward sun at any moment, that is, the sun rises, and sets twelve hours later. Let us, then, divide that last figure by two:

85,181,583/2 = 42,590,791 square kilometers

42,590,791 square kilometers of solar collectors are receiving sunlight for twelve hours. But let us say from 11:00 AM to 1:00PM, the sun is directly over head and the collectors are receiving the most light. Let us in fact say, we only run our solar cells for those three hours, which are, in seconds:

3(60 min)(60 sec) = 10,800 seconds

42, 590, 791 square kilometers receives 1,370,000,000 watts per square kilometer, or:

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(42, 590, 791 km^2)(1,370,000,000 watts/km^2) = 5.8E16 watts

watts are joules per second, where joules are energy. Let us multiply that by our three hours:

(5.8E16 joules/second)(10,800 seconds) = 6.26E20 joules of energy ~ 6E20 Joules

That says if we cover half the land area in solar collectors, that is 6 exponent 20 joules of energy collected from the sun in three hours. Six exponent 20 means a six followed by 20 zeroes, a very large number.

Let us convert energy in joules, to energy in calories, a unit of measurement we are all familiar with. There are 4.184 Joules per calorie, so:

(6E20 joules)(Calories/4.184 joules) = 1.43E20 Calories

The earth can collect 1.43E20 Calories of energy from the sun in three hours, if we cover have the land area in solar collectors. Let us divide that by the seven billion people on earth:

1.43E20/7,000,000,000 = 2E10 calories

That is, if we cover half the land area of the earth in solar collectors and run our solar collectors for three hours every day, that is 2E10 calories for each person, free, every day. How much energy is that? Let us look at the nutrition energy on a box of corn flakes. It says each serving has 110 calories and that there are 11 servings in a box. That is (110)(11) = 1,210 calories per box of corn flakes. Let us divide that into the calories of energy we get from the sun in three hours:

2E10/1,210=16,528,926 boxes of corn flakes per person a day

That is, to conclude, if we cover half the earth land area in solar collectors and run those collectors for 3 hours a day, with a population of 7 billion people (41 people per square kilometer) we can give to each of them sixteen million five hundred and twenty eight thousand nine hundred and twenty six boxes of cornflakes, in energy, free every day.

Also, when we cover so much land area in solar cells, much of the sun’s energy hitting the earth is converted into electricity, and so does not go into warming the earth, and, as such we solve the problem of global warming at the same time.

Ian BeardsleySeptember 26, 2015

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How Far Is Far?

I could say the distance from my house to the village (about a mile) is close. Yet, if I consider the distance from my bedroom to the front door, the distance to the village is far. Everything is relative. Therefore, what can we say is close and what can we say is far? Perhaps the answer to that is embedded in Nature. Let us consider something on the smallest scale we know, the distance of an electron from a proton in an atom of hydrogen and call the distance of one from the other as close. It is about 0.053 nanometers. That is, point zero five three billionths of a meter (0.053E-9 m). Let us consider that which is closest to us on the largest scale we know, the distance to the nearest star, alpha centauri and call it far. It is 4.367 light years away (one ly is 9.56E15 meters) putting alpha cenatauri about 25.6 trillion miles way. We will take the geometric mean of of the electron-proton separation in a hydrogen atom with the earth-alpha centauri separation and consider the result an average manageable distance.

One light year is 9.46E15 meters.

(9.46E15 m/ly)(4.367 ly)=4.13E16 m

sqrt[(0.053E-9 m)(4.13E16 m)]=sqrt(2189526 square meters)=1,480 meters

(1,480 m)(1 km/1000 m) = 1.480 kilometers

(1.480 km)(one mile/1.60934 kilometers)=0.9196 miles ~ 1 mile

Therefore, when humans chose the unit of a mile to measure distance, they may have been in tune with the cosmos (atoms of hydrogen and the closest star).

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The Author

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Factors In Exobiology