Eye Witness Testimony

Eye Witness TestimonyEye Witness Testimony

EWTEWT

Eye Witness Testimony -1Eye Witness Testimony -1AO1AO1 - outline what is meant by the - outline what is meant by the

terms terms EWT and Leading EWT and Leading questionsquestions

A01/2A01/2 -Discuss the factors that -Discuss the factors that affect affect the accuracy of EWTthe accuracy of EWT (leading (leading questions, anxiety, age of witness) questions, anxiety, age of witness)

Evaluate the Evaluate the impact impact of of misleading information on EWTmisleading information on EWT

Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony

Reconstructive memoryReconstructive memory Schema driven errorsSchema driven errors

Effect of leading questionsEffect of leading questions Other factorsOther factors

Weapon focusWeapon focus Effects of anxiety/arousalEffects of anxiety/arousal Age of witnessAge of witness

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Reconstructive MemoryReconstructive Memory

Bartlett (1932)Bartlett (1932) Memory is not a direct record of what Memory is not a direct record of what

was witnessedwas witnessed What is encoded and how it is What is encoded and how it is

retrieved depends on:retrieved depends on: Information already stored in memoryInformation already stored in memory How this info is understood, structured How this info is understood, structured

and organisedand organised

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Reconstructive MemoryReconstructive Memory

SchemasSchemas Knowledge structures that relate to Knowledge structures that relate to

commonly encountered objects, commonly encountered objects, situations or peoplesituations or people

Enable us to predict events, make sense Enable us to predict events, make sense of unfamiliar circumstances, organise of unfamiliar circumstances, organise our own behaviourour own behaviour

Act as filters to perception & recallAct as filters to perception & recall

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Computer Information ProcessingComputer Information Processing

BANG!Can you wreck a

nice beach?

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Schema Driven ProcessingSchema Driven Processing

Yes. I can

recognise speech.

Can you wreck a

nice beach?

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Bartlett (1932)Bartlett (1932)

‘Pickaxe’

‘Turf cutter’

Input OutputSchema

Bartlett (1932)

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See also Carmichael et al (32) p 32 Exploring Psychology

EWT: Schema Driven ErrorsEWT: Schema Driven Errors

Witnesses to crimes filter information Witnesses to crimes filter information during acquisition & recallduring acquisition & recall Their schematic understanding may Their schematic understanding may

influence how info is both stored & influence how info is both stored & retrievedretrieved

Distortions may occur without the Distortions may occur without the witness realisingwitness realising

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EWT: Schema Driven ErrorsEWT: Schema Driven Errors

Past experiencesPast experiences Assumptions about Assumptions about

what usually what usually happenshappens

Stereotypes & Stereotypes & beliefs about crime beliefs about crime & criminals& criminals

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Look at this picture

Write down a Write down a description of what is description of what is

happening in the happening in the picturepicture

Factors that affect Eye Witness Factors that affect Eye Witness TestimonyTestimony

Stereotypes - Stereotypes - Allport and Postman (1947) Allport and Postman (1947) Participants shown a cartoon of a black and a Participants shown a cartoon of a black and a white man on a subway train. Most recalled white man on a subway train. Most recalled that the black man had the razor in his hand. that the black man had the razor in his hand. The razor was actually in the white man’s The razor was actually in the white man’s hand. (stereotype – more prone to violence).hand. (stereotype – more prone to violence).

Conclusion: When an actual perceptual fact Conclusion: When an actual perceptual fact doesn’t match our expectations, we trust our doesn’t match our expectations, we trust our expectation more than the real situation.expectation more than the real situation.

We see what we expect to see and this We see what we expect to see and this forms the basis for the memory for an event.forms the basis for the memory for an event.

EWT: Leading QuestionsEWT: Leading Questions

Loftus (1970s onwards)Loftus (1970s onwards) Effect of leading questions on recallEffect of leading questions on recall

Leading questions introduce new Leading questions introduce new information information

Leading info may activate wrong Leading info may activate wrong schemas in witness’ mindschemas in witness’ mind

Consequently, witness may recall events Consequently, witness may recall events incorrectlyincorrectly

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Factors that affect reconstructive Factors that affect reconstructive memorymemory

How witnesses are How witnesses are interviewed – interviewed – leading leading questions, questions, facial techniques, facial techniques, tone of voice of interview may tone of voice of interview may unintentionally communicate unintentionally communicate their expectations (what they their expectations (what they want to hear).want to hear).

Eye Witness TestimonyEye Witness TestimonyElizabeth Loftus (70’s) Elizabeth Loftus (70’s)

Research)Research)Illustrated the reconstructive Illustrated the reconstructive

nature of memory.nature of memory.

Star Study: Loftus and Star Study: Loftus and Palmer (1974)Palmer (1974)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hwEUaOeuFQ

The role of misleading questions?The role of misleading questions?

In her research Loftus showed that In her research Loftus showed that memories can be affected by the memories can be affected by the wording of questions.wording of questions.

A A leading questionleading question is a question about is a question about an event that is phrased in such a way an event that is phrased in such a way as to prompt a particular answer. as to prompt a particular answer.

Information is provided in the question Information is provided in the question (i.e. after the event) which may distort (i.e. after the event) which may distort the accuracy of the memory.the accuracy of the memory.

Do people believe EWT’s?Do people believe EWT’s?

Loftus (1974) shows that people Loftus (1974) shows that people tend to believe a suspect is tend to believe a suspect is

guilty if there is an eyewitness. guilty if there is an eyewitness.

So it is very important that So it is very important that psychologists find out psychologists find out why why EWT EWT

is inaccurate and is inaccurate and how to how to improve accuracy.improve accuracy.

Loftus and Palmer (74)Loftus and Palmer (74)

Read about this classic research in Read about this classic research in your text bookyour text book

Draw a graph of the resultsDraw a graph of the results

What conclusion can be drawn from What conclusion can be drawn from this research?this research?

What does is suggest about the What does is suggest about the accuracy of EWT?accuracy of EWT?

Any problems with this piece of Any problems with this piece of research?research?


Loftus’ studies using film/video/slides Loftus’ studies using film/video/slides road accidentsroad accidents

‘‘How fast were cars going when they How fast were cars going when they hit…’ or ‘…when they smashed…’?hit…’ or ‘…when they smashed…’? ‘‘Smashed’ led to higher speed estimatesSmashed’ led to higher speed estimates

Loftus and Zanni (1975)Loftus and Zanni (1975) ‘‘Did you see a/the broken headlight’?Did you see a/the broken headlight’?

‘‘The’ produced more affirmative The’ produced more affirmative (incorrect) responses(incorrect) responses

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Loftus’ research usually lab based:Loftus’ research usually lab based: Restricted samples (students)Restricted samples (students) Artificial stimuli (slides, videos, not real Artificial stimuli (slides, videos, not real

events)events) Potential for demand characteristics to Potential for demand characteristics to

influence responsesinfluence responses No legal/moral consequences for No legal/moral consequences for

inaccurate answers. inaccurate answers. (Foster et al (1994) (Foster et al (1994) – witnesses more accurate in recalling – witnesses more accurate in recalling memory of a bank robbery when they memory of a bank robbery when they were led to believe their testimony were led to believe their testimony would influence a real trial.)would influence a real trial.)

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What other factors affect Eye What other factors affect Eye Witness Testimony?Witness Testimony?

Anxiety Anxiety If you were a witness to a If you were a witness to a crime:crime:How would you feel?How would you feel?

What other factors affect Eye What other factors affect Eye Witness Testimony?Witness Testimony?

Age of witnessAge of witnessCan we rely on the testimony Can we rely on the testimony

of children and older people?of children and older people?

How does anxiety and age of witness How does anxiety and age of witness affect EWT? Over to you…..affect EWT? Over to you…..

You will be given one of the You will be given one of the above to research using the above to research using the text book.text book.

Produce a bullet point Produce a bullet point summarysummary

to report your findings back to to report your findings back to the other group.the other group.

Anxiety: Weapon FocusAnxiety: Weapon Focus

When a weapon is When a weapon is used to threaten a used to threaten a victim, their victim, their attention is likely attention is likely to focus on itto focus on it

Consequently, their Consequently, their recall of other recall of other information is likely information is likely to be poorto be poor

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EWT: Arousal EffectsEWT: Arousal Effects

Memory is most Memory is most effective at effective at moderate arousal moderate arousal levelslevels

If the witness was If the witness was in a state of in a state of extremely low or extremely low or high arousal then high arousal then recall may be poorrecall may be poorarousal

perf

orm

ance

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Graph to show the Yerkes-Dodson Law that says that performance is best in moderately arousing conditions

Yuille and Cutshall (86)Yuille and Cutshall (86) Assessed level of arousal and accuracy of Assessed level of arousal and accuracy of

testimonies from 13 witnesses to testimonies from 13 witnesses to real real robberies or murders.robberies or murders.

Less accurate recall when levels of arousal Less accurate recall when levels of arousal were high than low, BUT very high arousal were high than low, BUT very high arousal led to better recall than moderate.led to better recall than moderate.

Does not match Yerkes-Dodson LawDoes not match Yerkes-Dodson Law Could be explained by how close Could be explained by how close

(proximity) witnesses were to the crime(proximity) witnesses were to the crime Closest are more stressed, but have better Closest are more stressed, but have better

viewview

Freud (1894)Freud (1894)

Repression – motivated forgettingRepression – motivated forgetting Traumatic memories become Traumatic memories become

inaccessible (in unconscious) to inaccessible (in unconscious) to protect us from being upset by them.protect us from being upset by them.

Conflicting evidence for this theoryConflicting evidence for this theory See p 31 Exploring PsychologySee p 31 Exploring Psychology

Age of Witness and EWTAge of Witness and EWT

ChildrenChildren Brennan and Brennan (88)Brennan and Brennan (88) 6-15 year olds failed to 6-15 year olds failed to understand understand

1/3 of questions asked by lawyers.1/3 of questions asked by lawyers. More correct answers when asked More correct answers when asked

more simple questions (Carter et al more simple questions (Carter et al 96)96)

‘‘Tags’ – ‘didn’t she’ added at end – Tags’ – ‘didn’t she’ added at end – led to more yes answers than when led to more yes answers than when tag not there (Krackow and Lynn 03)tag not there (Krackow and Lynn 03)


ChildrenChildren – – Children often change answers if Children often change answers if

question question repeatedrepeated. (Samuel and . (Samuel and Bryant, 84. Blades and Krahenbuhl, Bryant, 84. Blades and Krahenbuhl, 06)06)

Memon et al (06)Memon et al (06) – – positive positive, but not , but not negative stereotypes affect children’s negative stereotypes affect children’s judgements about people.judgements about people.

Defendents with more positive Defendents with more positive stereotype less likely to considered stereotype less likely to considered guilty. guilty.

Age of Witness and EWTAge of Witness and EWTThinking Critically about Thinking Critically about

psychology p 36psychology p 36

How does Memon et al’s How does Memon et al’s research findings help to research findings help to explain why Ian Huntley explain why Ian Huntley was able to get away was able to get away with the crime for so with the crime for so long? When he was long? When he was interviewed on TV at the interviewed on TV at the time of the murder he time of the murder he wasn’t considered a wasn’t considered a suspectsuspect

Ian Huntley (2003)Ian Huntley (2003)Soham murdersSoham murders


Older Adults as WitnessesOlder Adults as Witnesses Assumption by police and society Assumption by police and society

that Memory fails with age, so less that Memory fails with age, so less reliable Eye witnesses.reliable Eye witnesses.

Backed up by:Backed up by: (Holliday, ‘05), Brimacombe et al (Holliday, ‘05), Brimacombe et al

(‘97), Wright and Holliday (’07) (‘97), Wright and Holliday (’07) Age of witness made no difference in Age of witness made no difference in

cognitive interviews cognitive interviews (next (next lesson!!)lesson!!)

PlenaryPlenary

Answer the following questionsAnswer the following questions

1.1. What type of experiments were What type of experiments were those carried out by Loftus in the those carried out by Loftus in the 70’s?70’s?

2.2. What are the strengths and What are the strengths and weaknesses of her research?weaknesses of her research?

3.3. Find examples of ethical issues Find examples of ethical issues raised during EWT research. How raised during EWT research. How could they be addressed?could they be addressed?

HomeworkHomework

Summarise the work you have covered today Summarise the work you have covered today as bullet points of the main points or a mind as bullet points of the main points or a mind map.map.

Include – Include – Definition of leading questions, EWT, weapon focus, Definition of leading questions, EWT, weapon focus, Yerkes-Dodson LawYerkes-Dodson Law

- The research of Loftus – (1974), Loftus and Zanni and - The research of Loftus – (1974), Loftus and Zanni and Yuille and Cutshall (pros and cons, ethics e.t.c)Yuille and Cutshall (pros and cons, ethics e.t.c)

- the affect of leading questions, age and anxiety on EWT- the affect of leading questions, age and anxiety on EWT

Finish the Case of Wrongful Conviction activityFinish the Case of Wrongful Conviction activity What does this task highlight about the What does this task highlight about the

impact of misleading info, age and anxiety on impact of misleading info, age and anxiety on EWT? EWT?

Eye Witness Testimony - Eye Witness Testimony -

AO1AO1 - - Describe the Describe the cognitive cognitive interviewinterview technique and technique and understand its rationaleunderstand its rationale

A01/2A01/2 - - Describe and evaluate Describe and evaluate evidence that underpins our evidence that underpins our understanding of EWunderstanding of EW

AO2 - DiscussAO2 - Discuss the impact of the impact of misleading information on EWTmisleading information on EWT

The Cognitive InterviewThe Cognitive Interview

In the light of the work of Loftus on In the light of the work of Loftus on the importance of Leading Questions the importance of Leading Questions in the 70’s Police needed to change in the 70’s Police needed to change questioning techniques.questioning techniques.


Also EWT typically takes place in a Also EWT typically takes place in a different context to acquisition different context to acquisition (scene of the crime)(scene of the crime) Lack of retrieval cues (state and Lack of retrieval cues (state and

context) can inhibit recallcontext) can inhibit recall Reconstruction of the events (either Reconstruction of the events (either

imagination or simulation) can lead to imagination or simulation) can lead to enhanced recallenhanced recall

This is one of the elements of This is one of the elements of the Cognitive Interviewthe Cognitive Interview


Geiselman et al (1985) identified 4 Geiselman et al (1985) identified 4 key principles for the cognitive key principles for the cognitive interview.interview.

In pairs use p 37 of Exploring Psychology and In pairs use p 37 of Exploring Psychology and p14 of your revision guide to find out what p14 of your revision guide to find out what those 4 key principles are, plus the principles those 4 key principles are, plus the principles of the Enhanced CI (Fisher et a, ’87)of the Enhanced CI (Fisher et a, ’87)

Each study 4 and report back to your partner.Each study 4 and report back to your partner. Fill in the worksheet, use as a revision tool.Fill in the worksheet, use as a revision tool.


Try it for yourself….Try it for yourself…. Work in fours – 2 of you will be the Work in fours – 2 of you will be the

interviewers and the other 2 the interviewers and the other 2 the witnesseswitnesses

Use the incident from the videoUse the incident from the video Either ask direct ’interrogative’ Either ask direct ’interrogative’

questions (see sheet)questions (see sheet) Or Use a Cognitive interview technique Or Use a Cognitive interview technique

(see sheet)(see sheet) Compare the accuracy of the recall.Compare the accuracy of the recall.


Outline the pros and cons of the CI, Outline the pros and cons of the CI, using research studies – using research studies –

Fisher et al (87)Fisher et al (87) Geiselman (86) –Geiselman (86) – Geiselman and Fisher (97)Geiselman and Fisher (97)


Pros – lots of studies (in real and lab Pros – lots of studies (in real and lab situations) have shown that CI situations) have shown that CI produce more forensically rich produce more forensically rich information .information .

Cons – Can be time consuming – Cons – Can be time consuming – some elements missed out (Thames some elements missed out (Thames Valley Police)Valley Police)

- Insufficient training - Insufficient training (Memon (Memon et al 94)et al 94)

PlenaryPlenary

Create a poster, leaflet, or mind map of Create a poster, leaflet, or mind map of what you have learnt about what factors what you have learnt about what factors can affect Eye Witness Testimony and can affect Eye Witness Testimony and recommendations for how best to make recommendations for how best to make EWT testimonies as accurate as possible.EWT testimonies as accurate as possible.

Think about your audience. Select the Think about your audience. Select the most important points. Have a balanced most important points. Have a balanced view.view.

Think LoP

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Eye Witness Testimony