EYE ONS

EYE ONS

Who wins and who loses from globalization?

iPods, Wii games, and Nike shoes are just three of the many things you might buy that are not produced in the United States.

Why don’t we make these things here and by doing so, create more American jobs?

© 2011 Pearson Education

International Trade Policy

18When you have completed your study of this chapter, you will be able to

1 Explain how markets work with international trade and identify the gains from international trade and its winners and losers.

2 Explain the effects of international trade barriers.

3 Explain and evaluate arguments used to justify restricting international trade.

CHAPTER CHECKLIST

18.1 HOW GLOBAL MARKETS WORK

Imports are the good and services that we buy from people in other countries.

Exports are the goods and services we sell to people in other countries.


International Trade TodayThe United States is the world’s biggest international trader and accounts for 10 percent of world exports and 15 percent of world imports.

In 2009, total U.S. exports were $1.5 trillion, which is about 11 percent of the value of U.S. production.

In 2009, total U.S. imports were $1.9 trillion, which is about 13 percent of the value of total U.S. expenditure.


The United States trades internationally in goods and services.

In 2009, U.S. exports of services were $0.5 trillion (33 percent of total exports) and U.S. imports of services were $0.4 trillion (21 percent of total imports).

The largest U.S. exports of goods are airplanes.

The largest U.S. imports of goods are crude oil and automobiles.

The largest U.S. exports of services are banking, insurance, business consulting, and other private services.


What Drives International Trade?

The fundamental force that generates trade between nations is comparative advantage.

The basis for comparative trade is divergent opportunity costs between countries.

National comparative advantage as the ability of a nation to perform an activity or produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than any other nation.


The opportunity cost of producing a T-shirt is lower in China than in the United States, so China has a comparative advantage in producing T-shirts.

The opportunity cost of producing an airplane is lower in the United States than in China, so the United States has a comparative advantage in producing airplanes.

Both countries can reap gains from trade by specializing in the production of the good at which they have a comparative advantage and then trading.

Both countries are better off.


Figure 18.1(a) shows that with no international trade,

1. U.S. demand and U.S. supply determine

2. The U.S. price at $8 a T-shirt and

3. U.S. firms produce at 40 million T-shirts a year

and U.S. consumers buy 40 million T-shirts a year.

Why the United States Imports T-Shirts


The demand for and supply of T-shirts in the world determine

4. The world price at $5.

The world price is less than $8, so the rest of the world has a comparative advantage in producing T-shirts.

Figure 18.1(b) shows that with international trade,

5. The price in the United States falls to $5 a T-shirt.


With international trade,

6. Americans increase the quantity they buy to 60 million T-shirts a year.

7. U.S. garment makers decrease the quantity they produce to 20 million T-shirts a year.

8. The United States imports 40 million T-shirts a year.


Figure 18.2(a) shows that with no international trade,

1. Equilibrium in the U.S. airplane market.

2. The U.S. price is $100 million a airplane and

3. U.S. aircraft makers produce at 400 airplanes a year and U.S. airlines buy 400 a year.

Why the United States Exports Airplanes


The world market for airplanes determines

4. The world price at $150 million an airplane.

The world price is higher than $100 million, so the United States has a comparative advantage in producing airplanes.


Figure 18.2(b) shows that with international trade,

5. The price of an airplane in the United States rises to $150 million.


With international trade,

6. U.S. aircraft makers increase the quantity they produce to 700 airplanes a year.

7. U.S. airlines decrease the quantity they buy to 200 airplanes a year.

8. The United States exports 500 airplanes a year.


Winners, Losers, and Net Gains from Trade

International trade lowers the price of an imported good and raises the price of an exported good.

Buyers of imported goods benefit from lower prices and sellers of exported goods benefit from higher prices.

But some people complain about international competition: not everyone gains.

Who wins and who loses from free international trade?


Gains and Losses from Imports

Domestic Consumers Gain from Imports

Compared to a situation with no international trade, the price paid by domestic consumers falls and the quantity consumed increases.

The domestic consumers gain.

The greater the price fall and the increase in quantity bought, the greater is the consumers’ gain.


Domestic Producers Lose from Imports

Compared to a situation with no international trade, the price received by the domestic producer of the imported good falls.

The quantity sold by domestic producers of the imported good decreases.

Domestic producers of the imported good lose from international trade.


Gains and Losses from Exports

Domestic Consumers Lose from Exports

Compared to a situation with no international trade, the price paid by domestic consumers rises and the quantity bought decreases.

The domestic consumers lose.

The greater the price rise and the decrease in quantity bought, the greater is the consumers’ loss.


Domestic Producers Lose from Exports

Compared to a situation with no international trade, the price received by the domestic producer of the exported good rises.

The quantity sold by domestic producers of the exported good increases.

Domestic producers of the exported good gain from international trade.


Net Gain

Export producers and import consumers gain.

Export consumers and import producers lose.

But the gains are greater than the losses.

In the case of imports, consumers gain what producers lose and then even more from the cheaper imports.

In the case of exports, producers gain what consumers lose and then even more from the items exported.

So international trade provides a net gain for a country.

Economists generally agree that the gains from globalization vastly outweigh the losses.

But there are both winners and losers.

Who Wins and Who Loses from Globalization?

EYE on GLOBALIZATION

The U.S. consumer is a big winner.

Globalization has brought iPods, Wii games, Nike shoes, and a wide range of other products to our shops at ever lower prices.

The Indian (and Chinese and other Asian) worker is another big winner.

Globalization has brought a wider range of more interesting jobs and higher wages.



The U.S. (and European) textile workers and furniture makers are big losers.

Their jobs have disappeared and many of them have struggled to find new jobs even when they’ve been willing to take a pay cut.



But one of the biggest losers is the African farmer.

Blocked from global food markets by trade restrictions and subsidies in the United States and Europe, globalization is leaving much of Africa on the sidelines.



18.2 INTERNATIONAL TRADE RESTRICTIONS

Governments restrict international trade to protect domestic producers from competition.

The four sets of tools they use are• Tariffs• Import quotas• Other import restrictions• Export subsidies


Tariffs

A tariff is a tax on a good that is imposed by the importing country when an imported good crosses its international boundary.

For example, the government of India imposes a 100 percent tariff on wine imported from California.

So when an Indian wine merchant imports a $10 bottle of Californian wine, he pays the Indian government $10 import duty.


The Effects of a Tariff

With free international trade, the world price of a T-shirt is $5 and the United States imports 40 million T-shirts a year.

Imagine that the United States imposes a tariff of $2 on each T-shirt imported.

The price of a T-shirt in the United States rises by $2.

Figure 18.3 shows the effect of the tariff on the market for T-shirts in the United States.


Figure 18.3(a) shows the market before the government imposes the tariff.

1. The price is the world price of $5 and

2. The United States imports 40 million T-shirts.


Figure 18.3(b) shows the market with the tariff.

3. The tariff of $2 raises the price in the U.S. market to $7.

4. U.S. imports decrease to 10 million a year.

5. U.S. government collects the tax revenue of $20 million a year.


Winners, Losers, and Social Loss from a Tariff

When the U.S. government imposes a tariff on imported T-shirts:

• U.S. consumers of T-shirts lose.

• U.S. producers of T-shirts gain.

• U.S. consumers lose more than U.S. producers gain.


U.S. Consumers of T-shirts Lose

U.S. buyers of T-shirts now pay a higher price (the world price plus the tariff), so they buy fewer T-shirts.

The combination of a higher price and a smaller quantity bought makes consumers worse off.

Consumers also pay tariff revenue to the government.

Consumers lose from the tariff.


U.S. Producers of T-shirts Gain

U.S. producers receive a higher price (the world price plus the tariff), so produce more T-shirts.

Producers gain from the tariff.

But the higher price paid to domestic producers pays for the higher cost of production.


U.S. Consumers Lose More than U.S. Producers Gain

Consumers lose from a tariff.

The tariff revenue is a loss to consumers of T-shirts but a gain to consumers of public services paid for by the tariff revenue.

Because the higher price paid to domestic producers pays for the higher cost of domestic production, consumers lose and no one gains from decreased quantity of T-shirts produced.


Import Quotas

An import quota is a quantitative restriction on the import of a good that limits the maximum quantity of a good that may be imported in a given period.


The Effects of an Import Quota

With free international trade, the world price of a T-shirt is $5 and the United States imports 40 million T-shirts a year.

Imagine that the United States imposes a quota of 10 million on imported T-shirts.

Figure 18.4 shows the effect of the quota on the market for T-shirts in the United States.


Figure 18.4(a) shows the market before the government imposes the quota.

1. The price is the world price of $5 and

2. The United States imports 40 million

T-shirts.


Figure 18.4(b) shows the market with the quota.

3. With an import quota of 10 million T-shirts, the supply of T-shirts in the United States becomes

S + quota.

4. The price rises to $7.


With the higher price, Americans decrease the number of T-shirts they buy to 45 million a year.

U.S. garment makers increase production to 35 million T-shirts a year.

5. Imports of T-shirts decrease to the quota of 10 million.


Winners, Losers, and Social Loss from an Import Quota

When the U.S. government imposes a quota on imported T-shirts:

• U.S. consumers of T-shirts lose.• U.S. producers of T-shirts gain.• Importers of T-shirts gain.• Society loses.


U.S. Consumers of T-shirts Lose

U.S. buyers of T-shirts now pay a higher price, so they buy fewer T-shirts.

The combination of a higher price and a smaller quantity bought makes U.S. consumers worse off.

U.S. consumers lose from the import quota.


U.S. Producers of T-shirts Gain

U.S. producers receive a higher price, so produce more T-shirts. Producers gain from the import quota.

Importers of T-shirts Gain

The importer buys T-shirts on the world market at the world price and sells them in the U.S. market at the U.S. domestic price.

Because the U.S. price exceeds the world price, the importer gains.


Society Loses

The loss to consumers exceeds the gains of domestic producers and importers, so society loses.

A social loss arises because

• The higher price paid to domestic producers pays the higher cost of domestic production and

• The quantity of the good consumed at the higher price decreases.


Other Import Barriers

Two sets of policies that influence imports are• Health, safety, and regulation barriers• Voluntary export restraints

Thousands of detailed health, safety, and other regulations restrict international trade.

For example, U.S. food imports are examined by the Food and Drug Administration to determine whether the food is “pure, wholesome, safe to eat, and produced under sanitary conditions.”


A voluntary export restraint is like a quota allocated to a foreign exporter of the good.

A voluntary export restraint decreases imports just like a quota does but the foreign exporter gets the profit from the gap between the domestic price and the world price.

18.3 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTION

Despite the fact that free trade promotes prosperity for all countries, trade is restricted.

Three Traditional Arguments for Protection

Three traditional arguments for restricting international trade are

• The national security argument • The infant industry argument• The dumping argument


The National Security Argument

A country must protect industries that produce defense equipment and armaments and those on which the defense industries rely for their raw materials and other intermediate inputs.

This argument for protection can be taken too far.


The Infant-Industry Argument

The infant-industry argument is that it is necessary to protect a new industry from import competition to enable it to grow into a mature industry that can compete in world markets.

This argument is based on the concept of dynamic competitive advantage, which can arise from learning-by-doing.

Learning-by-doing is a powerful engine of productivity growth, but this fact does not justify protection.


The Dumping Argument

Dumping occurs when foreign a firm sells its exports at a lower price than its cost of production.

Two reasons why a firm might engage in dumping are• Predatory pricing—when a firm sells below cost in

the hope of driving out competitors• Subsidy—a firm receiving a subsidy can sell

profitable at price below cost.


This argument does not justify protection because

1. It is virtually impossible to determine a firm’s costs;

2. If there was a natural global monopoly, it would be more efficient to regulate it than to impose a tariff against it.

3. If the market is truly a global monopoly, better to regulate it rather than restrict trade.


Four Newer Arguments for Protection

Other common arguments for protection are that it• Saves jobs• Allows us to compete with cheap foreign labor• Brings diversity and stability• Penalizes lax environmental standards


Saves Jobs

The idea that buying foreign goods costs domestic jobs is wrong.

Free trade destroys some jobs and creates other better jobs.

Free trade also increases foreign incomes and enables foreigners to buy more domestic production.

Protection to save particular jobs is very costly.


Allows Us to Compete with Cheap Foreign Labor

The idea that a high-wage country cannot compete with a low-wage country is wrong.

Low-wage labor is less productive than high-wage labor.

And wages and productivity tell us nothing about the source of gains from trade, which is comparative advantage.


Brings Diversity and Stability

A diversified investment portfolio is less risky than one that has all of its eggs in one basket. The same is true for an economy’s production.

A diversified economy fluctuates less than an economy that produces only one or two goods.

But big, rich, diversified economies like those of the United States, Japan, and Europe do not have this type of stability problem.


Penalizes Lax Environmental Standards

The idea that protection is good for the environment is wrong.

Free trade increases incomes and poor countries have lower environmental standards than rich countries.

These countries cannot afford to spend as much on the environment as a rich country can and sometimes they have a comparative advantage at doing “dirty” work, which helps the global environment achieve higher environmental standards.


Why Is International Trade Restricted?The key reason why international trade restrictions are popular in the United States and most other developed countries is an activity called rent seeking.

Rent seeking is lobbying and other political activity that seeks to capture the gains from trade.

You’ve seen that free trade benefits consumers but shrinks the producer surplus of firms that compete in markets with imports.


Those who gain from free trade are the millions of consumers of low-cost imports. But the benefit per individual consumer is small.

Those who lose are the producers of import-competing items. Compared to the millions of consumers, there are only a few thousand producers.


Because the gain from a tariff is large, producers have a strong incentive to incur the expense of lobbying for a tariff and against free trade.

Because each consumer’s loss is small, consumers have little incentive to organize and incur the expense of lobbying for free trade.

The gain from free trade for any one person is too small for that person to spend much time or money on a political organization to lobby for free trade.


Each group weighs benefits against costs and chooses the best action for themselves.

But the group against free trade will undertake more political lobbying than will the group for free trade.

Documents

EYE ONS