Expository Practical Teaching

7/30/2019 Expository Practical Teaching

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Praxis II: Principles of

Learning & Teaching

K-6 & 7-12Review Session, part 2

Dr. Mark Hawkes

Dakota State University



Study Topics

Student Motivation and the Learning

Environment

Instructional Strategies

Assessment Strategies



Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .

MotivationDefinition: Forces which energize,

direct, and sustain behavior

Situated Motivation: The influence of

the environment to motivate a personto behave in particular ways.




Sources of Motivation Extrinsic—motivated by external factors

Intrinsic—factors inherent in the task

being performed

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Deficiency needs prior to growth need

Almost always yields better outcomes in termsof learning and understanding




Sources of MotivationSelf-Efficacy—The extent to which a

student believes they are capable of

successfully completing a task.Self-Determination—The extent to

which a student believes they can

make choices regarding the directionof their lives and choice of activities.



Students:

Process informationfor long-term storage

Realize learning is aprocess trying hard

and working throughtemporary setbacks

Most benefit fromclassroom experience

Students:

Avoid challenging

tasks

Shoot for only

minimal performanceoutcomes


Motivation to Learn:

Meaningfulness of ActivitiesLearning Goals vs. Performance Goals




Encouraging Motivation Present subject matter to in ways that

relates to the student’s current and future

interests (hot cognition) Show personal enthusiasm for the subject

Demonstrate to students that you believe

they are genuinely interested in thesubject and are motivated to learn

Focus students’ attention on learninggoals




Motivation: AffiliationDefinition: The desire to like and be liked

by others, to seek out friendly relationships

Learning Implication: Find ways to helpstudents learn subject matter and meet

affiliation needs at the same time

Strategies: Role play, debates, cooperativelearning, competitions among two or more

teams . . .




Motivation: ApprovalDefinition: A desire to gain acceptance and

positive judgments from other people

Learning Implication: Students may beengage in a task to please an authorityfigure

Strategies: Praise students frequently for the things they do well keeping in mind thebalance of approval student desire frompeers as opposed to teachers.




Motivation: AnxietyDefinition: Feeling of uneasiness about an

event because you do not know about the

outcomeState vs. Trait Anxiety

Facilitating vs. Debilitating Anxiety

Learning Implication: Highly anxiousstudents tend to achieve at lower levelsthat those at which they are capable of achieving




Motivation: Addressing Anxiety Set realistic expectations for performance

Challenge students within their ―zone of

proximal development‖—tasks within their reach

Teach learning strategies

Provide supplementary resources

Provide feedback about specific behaviors




Motivation: Locus of ControlDefinition: explanations of an ―attributes‖ success

or failure

• Locus• Stability

• Controllability

Influencing factors on attribution: pastsuccesses and failures, rewards andpunishment, expectations, messages aboutsuccess or failure (earned or unearned?)




Motivation: Locus of Control

Attribute

accomplishments to ownabilities and efforts

Seek challenging goals,

seek challenges, persist

in failure

Achieve better over the

long run.

Attribute successes to tooutside anduncontrollable factors

Students generallyunderestimate their ownability

Students set easy goals,avoid challenges, andrespond to failure incounterproductive ways.

Mastery Orientation vs. Learned Helplessness




Motivation: Operant Conditioning

Definition: when behaviors are followed by

desirable consequences they tech to

increase in frequency. When behaviorsproduce results, they decrease or

disappear.

Response precedes reinforcementReinforcement is contingent on the desired

behavior




Motivation: Operant Conditioning

S R

The response occurs

as the result of the

stimulus—the learner

has no control over whether the response

occurs

R S

The response is

usually voluntary—the

learner can control

whether or not itoccurs

Classical vs. Operant




Motivation: OC Reinforcements

Reinforcer : Any response the increases thefrequency of a particular behavior Primary vs. Secondary

Continuous vs. Intermittent

Shaping

Positive Reinforcement—concrete, social,

activity. Extrinsic/Intrinsic. Negative Reinforcement—increase of behavior

through removal of a stimulus.

Punishment—Presentation/Removal.




Motivation: Reinforcements Bogus concerns:

Reinforcement is bribery

Reinforcement develops dependence onconcrete rewards for appropriate behavior

Reinforcing one student teaches other

students to be badChanging a problem behavior does not

change it’s underlying cause




Motivation: Reinforcements Real Concerns:

Extrinsic reinforcement may encourage

students to accomplish a task in a minimallyacceptable way rather than in a maximally

beneficial manner

Extrinsic reinforcement of a behavior may

undermine any intrinsically reinforcing value

that the activity has for the students




Motivation: Punishment Presentation Punishment—The

presentation of an aversive stimulus after

the behavior. Removal Punishment—Involves the

removal of a pleasant stimulus after the

behavior.




Motivation: Punishment Problems May only temporarily suppress the behavior

Relationship between the undesired response

and punishment may not be recognized Negative emotional responses

May lead to aggression

Does not illustrate the correct behavior May cause physical or psychological harm




Motivation: Punishment Effective forms:

Verbal reprimand

Response Cost (withdrawal of a reinforcer)

Logical consequence

Time out

In-house suspension




Motivation: Punishment Guidelines Avoid vindictive kinds of punishment

Choose a punishment strong enough to

discourage the behavior Identify expectations and consequences

Don’t bluff and punish immediately

Explain why behavior is unacceptable

Punish each and every time the behavior occurs Teach and reinforce desirable alternatives




Classroom Management Establish daily routines

Promote Self-Regulation (monitoring,

selection of tasks, evaluation) Give timely feedback

Authoritatively developed classroom rules

and consequences Pacing and structure of lesson



Instructional Strategies . . .

Organizing Knowledge: Concepts Conceptualizing—mentally grouping or

categorizing objects or events.

Identifying Defining Features—all positiveinstances of the objects; correlational feature.

Prototyping—constructing an image of a typical

example for comparative purposes.

Examplars—Many illustrations of the concept.




Organizing Knowledge:

Schemas and Scripts

Schemas: Organized bodies of knowledge about

specific topics. Scripts: Predictable sequence of events related to

a particular activity.




Organizing Knowledge:

Personal Theories

General belief system about how the world

operates. Theories are composed of theconcepts and relationships among

components of the belief system.




Promoting Effective

Knowledge Construction

Experimentation—hands-on manipulation

Exposure to ideas of others—historical andcontemporary

Conceptual understanding—integrated,

interrelated, meaningful learning Dialogue—verbalize, share, discuss, debate

Authentic activities—”real world” application




Higher Level Thinking: Transfer Definition: Applying skills or knowledge from a

previous experience in a new situation.

Positive—Negative

Specific—General

Affecting factors . . Instructional time, meaningful

learning, practice time, similarity of tasks




Higher Level Thinking:

Problem Solving

Well-defined—Ill-defined

Algorithm—HeuristicTeach within the context of specific areas

Scaffold difficult problems

Induce small-group work to encourage the exchange of ideas and open discussion of issues

Problem of “mental-set”





Critical Thinking

Definition: Evaluating information or arguments in

terms of their accuracy or worth.Verbal reasoning

Argument analysis

Hypothesis testing

Decision-making

Inductive-deductive thinking





Metacognition

Definition: Knowledge and beliefs regarding one’s

own cognitive processes and the attempt toregulate these processes to maximize learning and

memory.

Successful Strategies: Teach how to study content(note taking, elaboration, summarizing, organizing,

identifying important information).




Cooperative Learning Definition: An approach to learning where

students work in small groups to help one another

learn Promotes:

Greater comprehension

Group reinforcement

Increased perspective taking

Construct more sophisticate ideas

Higher self-efficacy with group work




Cooperative Learning

Give group members a common goal to work for

Identify appropriate group behaviors Structure tasks so that success depends on students

helping each other

Devise ways to make students both individually and group

accountable

Have students evaluate their efforts at the end of a task




Direct Instruction Teacher led process of review, presentation,

rehearsal, practice and assessment with small bits

of content. Most suitable for material requiring step-by-step

sequencing.

Recognizable because of it’s high degree of teacher-student interaction

Limitations: not generally suitable for whole classinstruction, more successful in small group work.




Direct Instruction: Methods Direct Instruction

Madeline Hunter’s ―Effective Teaching Model‖

David Ausubel’s ―Advance Organizers‖

Mastery learning

Demonstrations

Mnemonics

Note-taking

Outlining

Use of visual aids




Direct Instruction: Methods Madeline Hunter ―Effective Teaching

Model‖ –

Get students set to learnProvide information effectively

Check for understanding and give guided

practice Allow for independent practice




Discovery Learning Bruner’s approach, in which students work on their own to

discover basic principles

Student interaction with the physical or social environment(manipulatives, discussion groups, experiments)

Criticisms: Incorrect constructions of content may occur;

Requires a considerable time investment

Provide structure to activities and help students relate their

learning to key concepts and principles to maximize the

effect of discovery learning.




Whole Group Discussion Can be applied to many disciplines

Helps students see information as dynamic,

evolving understanding and not simply fact.

Leads to meaningful understanding of concepts and

to subsequently better transfer to new situations

and problems




Whole Group Discussion Tips:

Make sure students have sufficient prior knowledge of the topic.

Make sure students feel comfortable sharing differingviewpoints

Use combinations of small and whole class discussion

Let students help control the pace and direction of thediscussion

Apply pro/con or judiciary structures




Expository Instruction Being “exposed” to the content, verbally, textually,

etc in its “final” form.

Organization, visual aides, pacing, signals, andsummaries facilitate students learning from

expository instruction.

Criticism: Puts students in passive roles aslearners.




Mastery Instruction Ensuring each student masters the content before

moving to more complex ideas.

Criticisms: Assumes all students can comprehendideas on an equal level; requires frequentadjustment in instructional pacing

Benefits: Research shows better studentachievement on standardized tests, moreconfidence, enjoyment, and interest in subjects area result of Mastery Learning.




Computer-Based Instruction Programmed Instruction: Active responding,

shaping, intermediate reinforcement—linear.

Computer-assisted instruction: sequencingoptioned on learners responses—branching.

Hypertext/Hypermedia: Computer-basedinstruction that allows student to progressthrough material at their own pace anddirection—auto-instructional.

Limitations: Given the breadth of informationavailable through CBI, some students may notbe able to identify relevant learning content.




Computer-Based Instruction

Computer-supported instruction has proved able to help

students: solve problems, construct knowledge andproduce products, communicate ideas better and encode

factual information.

Secondary issues of computer-supported instruction

include increased student attendance, increased time ontask, less behavioral problems, and more collaboration.

Caveat: Technology itself is not a school-reform solution.




Reciprocal Teaching

Peer tutoring

Useful at the small group and large group levels

Replicates the summarizing, questioning,

clarifying and predicting process that is helpful

in teaching students to read

Effective for all age levels of students




Reciprocal Teaching: Advantages Both teacher and learner model effective reading

and learning strategies

Students internalize the learning process that theyuse in their discussions with others

The structured nature of a reciprocal teaching

session scaffolds students’ efforts to make sense of the things they see and hear




Peer Tutoring Definition—Students who have mastered a topic teaching

those who have not

Encourages active responses Encourages students to organize and elaborate on what

they have learned

Gives students an opportunity to ask more questions of the

content

Promotes cooperation and other social skills

Benefits tutors as well as those being tutored




Peer Tutoring Make sure students understand the material

they are teaching and that they use effective

instructional techniques Include special needs students in peer tutoring

activities

Make sure all students have the opportunity to

be both tutor and tutee

Structure the interaction so that students are

aware of their tasks and learning outcomes




Inquiry and Simulation Inquiry method – Approach in which the teacher

presents a puzzling situation and students solve

the problem by gathering data and testing their

conclusions

Simulations – The idea that skills and knowledge

are tied to simulation in which they were learnedand difficult to apply in new settings.




Concept Mapping Concept Mapping – A diagram of concepts

within an instructional unit and the

interrelationships among them.

Townshend

Act America is an

INDEPENDENT



American

Revolution

rican

Causes

Proclomation

of 1763

Stamp Act

Tax on Tea

Declaration o f

Independence

People

Thomas

Jefferson

King George

Patrick

Henry

Thomas

Paine

Samuel

Adams

Benjamin

Franklin

George

Washington

Benedict Arnold

George

Rogers Clark

William

Howe

John

Burgoyne

Charles

Cornwallis

Battles

Lexington

and Concord

Saratoga

Yorktown

Bunker Hill

Effects

INDEPENDENT

nation Darci Love

Huron, 8th Grade

Organizing the Study

of 8th grade history



Condensationoccurs

water dropletscombine

water runs off or becomespart of the

ground water

Evaporation(water body)

Transpiration(plants)

water

(liquid)

Clouds Form(liquid)

Water Vaopor

(gas)

Provides Energy

Precipitationoccurs

Rachel Rassmussen

Rapid City Central HS

9th grade Geophysical Science



Jason Smidt, Medary Elem. Brooking

Level: 5th Grade

This diagram is a wonderful way to

explain the ecological food pyramid. Ituses graphics to easily show what

animals are in each group. It also show

the sun and shows photosynthesis.



Lorna Hofer, Tech Facilitator

Watertown School District



Assessment Strategies . . .

ContrastsAssessment GradesFormative Summative

Diagnostic Final

Non-Judgmental EvaluativePrivate Administrative

Often Anonymous Identified

Partial Integrative

Specific HolisticMainly Subtext Mostly Text

Suggestive Rigorous

Goal-Directed Content-Driven




Purposes

Formative

During instructionalphase

Gauging understanding

Informal

Summative

After instructionEvaluating

understanding andcomprehension

Evaluating masteryHigher stakes

Formal




Formal vs. Informal Form: Observations,

questioning

Very practical, usually

spontaneous Good for assessing

students “interest” in asubject

Flexible to spur of themoment changes andadjustments

Will rarely, if ever, bestandardized

Focus on assessing

understanding within a

specific content domain

Very much planned inadvance

Closely tied to guiding

instructional objectives

Bases results on“samples” of content




Paper/Pencil vs. Performance

Suitable for both recall andrecognition tasks

Easily standardized

Can sample knowledge onmany topics in a short time

Students should understandscoring process

Portray the assessment asan opportunity to improveskills

Efficiently uses class time

Formatively oriented

Helps reduce the“evaluative” climate

Difficult to achieve

standardization and reliability

Often time-consuming toadminister and score




Criterion vs. Normed

Tells us what the

students have achieved

in relation to specific

instructional objectives

Oriented to achieving

mastery

Diagnoses weaknessesvery well

Compares a students’

performance on a task

with the performance of

other students

Frequently used in

standardized tests

Can undermine thesense of community and

create undo competitive

situation




Types: Portfolio

Definition— A systematic collection of student work

assembled over time

Integrates instruction and assessment Can be useful in promoting students self-evaluation

Can illustrate the complex nature of students’

achievement

Often have low reliability and validity

Almost impossible to standardize




Types: Objective

Multiple Choice: Stem—alternatives. Recognition task.

Can measure a variety of learning levels, easy to grade.

True/False: Statements a student judges as correct or incorrect. Easy to write and grade, tests recognition with a

high probability of guesses.

Matching: Identify relationships. Asks students to apply

discrimination skills. Tests a large amount of information ina short space.




Types: Constructed Response

Tests high-level cognitive skills, but, time-consumingto grade and difficult to ensure reliability.

Short answer : Requires a single word, set of words, or sentence or complete.

Essay: Requires learners to organize and express

their thoughts over several or more paragraphs. Problem-solving: Presents situation for the

learner to diagnose and solve.




Other Types

Aptitude tests

Structured observations

Anecdotal notes

Journals

Self and peer evaluation

Case study analysis




Assessment Characteristics

Reliability—consistency of results

Standardization—consistency in content, format

and scoring Validity—the assessment measures what it is

supposed to measure

Practicality—

The feasibility of the assessmentin terms of development time, administration

time, cost, etc.




Construction Tips

Target the specific behaviors and thoughtprocesses you want them to learn

Be difficult enough that students must expendenergy to succeed.

Show students where and why their answersmight have been wrong, and how they mightimprove on their answers.

Demonstrate, where appropriate, how severalpaths to the right answer might be taken.




Scoring

Mean - The arithmetic average of a set of scores. It

is calculated by adding all scores and then dividing

by the total number of people who have obtained

those scores.Median – Middle score in a group of scores

Mode – Most frequently occurring score

Sampling strategy




Scoring

Analytical scoring – Scoring students’ performance on an

assessment by evaluating various aspects of their

performance separately

Holistic scoring – Summarizing students’ performance

on an assessment with a single score

Rubrics – A list of components that performance on an

assessment task should ideally include; used to guide

the scoring of students’ responses




Reporting Results

Percentile rank – A test score that indicates thepercentage of people in the norm group getting a rawscore equal to a particular student’s raw score.

Mastery levels

Raw score – A test score based solely on the number or point value of correctly answered items

Grade equivalent score – Measure of grade level based oncomparison with norming samples for each grade

Standard deviation – A statistic that reflects how closetogether or far apart a set of scores are and therebyindicates the variability of the scores

Scaled Score

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Expository Practical Teaching