EXPLORING CODE SWITCHING IN MALAYSIAN POLITICAL BLOGS

BY

MOHD FADLI BIN ZAKARIA

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences

(English Language Studies)

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

International Islamic University Malaysia

JULY 2011  

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ABSTRACT Code switching phenomenon has been present in multilingual societies (in this case; Malaysia) where languages, dialects and different varieties of the same language are used. Code switching has typically been attached with speaking. Conceptually, code switch in writing will not be any different from code switching in speaking due to the functions that both play. Furthermore, compared with other traditional media, the Internet is where more instances of code switching and language mixing can be found (Androutsopoulos, 2001). There are few detailed studies conducted on Bahasa Melayu-English code switching as it specifically pertains to, and there are even less studies conducted about Bahasa Melayu-English code switching in blogs. This study seeks to investigate (i) the frequency of code switching types used in Malaysian political blogs and (ii) the functions of code switching in Malaysian blogs. By applying Muysken’s (2000) theoretical framework on categories of code switching, (i) insertion, (ii) alternation and (iii) congruent lexicalisation, data were compiled for this research. Entries from 50 political blogs were compiled and every code switched-word that occurred in the entries was tallied, labelled and calculated. The findings showed that basically Malaysian political bloggers do not code switch frequently in their writings. This may happen due to the theme they were writing; politics. The tone used to write about political issues is usually formal and sharp, and code switch rarely occurs in these formal settings.           

iii 

البحث خالصة

من الظواهر الحديثة في المجتمعات متعددة اللغات التعدد اللغويتعد ظاهرة ، حيث تستخدم فيها عدد من اللغات )ونقصد في هذه الحالة ماليزيا(

وترتبط ظاهرة خلط اللغات . واللهجات وتشكيلة من اللغات المتقاربةاللغات في الكتابة والمحادثة ازدواجيةواليوجد هناك اختالف بين . بالكالم

ومقارنة بوسائل اإلعالم . ستخدمة في آلتا الحالتينبسبب الوظائف الم التعدد اللغويستوعب حاالت عديدة من ظاهرة تنترنت التقليدية، نجد أن اإل

ظاهرة علىوهناك دراسات محدودة أجريت ). 2001أندروتسوبولوس، (هناك واللغتين الماليزية واإلنجليزية والتي هي محور دراستنا، ازدواجية

اللغتين الماليزية واإلنجليزية في المدونات ازدواجيةفي بعض الدراساتالتعدد آثرة استخدام أشكال في التحقق منتبحث هذه الدراسة . اإللكترونية

في التعدد اللغويظائف ووفي المدونات الماليزية السياسية، اللغوي) 2000(ويسكين لنظرية متطبيق اإلطار النظري في و. المدونات الماليزية

إلى اإلدراج، والتناوب، والترآيب التعدد اللغويظاهرة فيه صنف 50جمعت حوالي ، وقد سيقوم الباحث بجمع البيانات لهذه الدراسة .المنسجم

التعدد حصر جميع الكلمات التي وقعت في ظاهرة فيها مدونة سياسية، تم وأظهرت نتائج الدراسة أن المدونيين الماليزيين .اللغوي وتشميتها وحسابها

يحدث إّال أن ذلك ،في آتاباتهم آثيرًا بالتعدد اللغويالسياسيين اليقومون واألسلوب المستخدم في الكتابة عن . عادة في بعض الشعارات السياسية

، وقلما يخلط المدونون لغاتهم وحادًا يكون رسميًا القضايا السياسية عادة ما .لكتابة الرسميةفي ا

 

 

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APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Language Studies).

............................................... Maimunah Abdul Kadir Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Language Studies).

..............................................

Zahariah Pilus Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Language Studies).

................................................ Zahariah Pilus Head, Department of English Language and Literature

This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Language Studies).

.............................................. Badri Najib Zubir Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except

where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Mohd Fadli bin Zakaria.

Signature …………………………………… Date ……………………..

                           

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INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright © 2011 by Mohd Fadli bin Zakaria. All rights reserved.

EXPLORING CODE SWITCHING IN MALAYSIAN POLITICAL BLOGS

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies

(print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes. 3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval

system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Mohd Fadli bin Zakaria.

.................................... ...................................

Signature Date

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Dedicated to

My dearly loved parents,

Zakaria Kasa and Asiah Saidin

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance and help of several individuals who in one way or another contributed to and extended their valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of this study.

First and foremost, my utmost gratitude to Dr. Maimunah Abdul Kadir whose sincerity and encouragement I will never forget. Dr. Maimunah has been my inspiration as I overcome all the obstacles in the completion this research.

I am forever indebted to my parents Zakaria Kasa and Asiah Saidin for their support, understanding, endless patience and encouragement when it was most required. I would also like to express my gratitude to my dearest siblings, Mohd Fadzlan and Khairunnisa for their love and emotional support.

I would like to thank Dr. Zahariah Pilus, Sr. Siti Nuraishah Ahmad, Sr. Eda Baharom, Sr. Yau Sim Mei and everyone from Department of English Language and Literature, Office of Postgraduate and Research, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, IIUM for their unselfish and unfailing support in encouraging me to finish this study.

This thesis would have remained a dream had it not been for my friends: Yamada Takayuki, Kangin, Lee Hongki, Yamada Ryosuke, Edison Koon-Hei Chen, Ming Dao, Henry Lau, Galih Ginanjar, Hang Tuah, Yoo Seungho, Bambang Reguna Bukit and many more for their endless encouragement. I would like to express my gratitude to my Mali’s Shisha Association members for all the inspiration and assistance: Awin, Fendey, Xul, Sapick, Sokat, Xane, Beni, Memen, Lan, Leman, Johnny, Ummi, Kim, Hannah, Liyana, Haziq and many more. Finally, I would like to express my humble gratitude to Almighty Allah for guiding me to accomplish this dissertation. Peace and blessings be upon Muhammad, His servant and messenger.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ................................................................................................................... ii Abstract in Arabic .................................................................................................... iii Approval Page .......................................................................................................... iv Declaration Page ..................................................................................................... v Copyright Page ..................................................................................................... vi Dedication ...............................................................................................................vii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. viii List of Tables .......................................................................................................... x List of Figures .......................................................................................................... xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1 Background of Study .................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................. 5 Objectives of the Research ........................................................................... 6 Research Questions ...................................................................................... 7 Significance of Study ................................................................................... 7 Organization of Thesis ................................................................................. 7

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................. 8

Code Switching ............................................................................................ 8 Internet and Language .................................................................................. 24

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................ 33 Introduction .................................................................................................. 33 Research Subjects ......................................................................................... 33 Research Tools ............................................................................................. 35 Research Design and Procedures ................................................................. 36

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA .................................................................. 43

Introduction .................................................................................................. 43 Findings and Discussion .............................................................................. 53 Occurrences of Insertion .............................................................................. 52 Occurrences of Alternation .......................................................................... 57 Occurrences of Congruent Lexicalization .................................................... 62 Occurrences of Code Switching based on Languages ................................. 67

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 75 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 83 APPENDIX .............................................................................................................90

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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No. 2.1 Examples of Insertion 21 2.2 Examples of Alternation 22 2.3 Examples of Congruent Lexicalisation 23 3.1 List of Blogs and Entries 37 3.2 List of Blogs and Total Words 39 3.3 List of Blogs and the Occurrences of Code Switching according to the Muysken’ Categories 41 4.1 List of Political Blogs 45

4.2 Table of Blogs, Number of Entries and Total Words 47

4.3 Table of Percentage of Total Switches against Total Words 50

4.4 Table of Percentage of Insertion, Alternation and Congruent Lexicalisation against Total Words 50 4.5 Table of Percentage of Insertion, Alternation and Congruent Lexicalisation against Total Switches 51 4.6 Table of Percentage of Insertion against Total Switches 53

4.7 Table of Occurrences of Insertion 54

4.8 Table of Percentage of Alternation against Total Switches 58

4.9 Table of Occurrences of Alternation 59

4.10 Table of Percentage of Congruent Lexicalisation against Total Switches 63 4.11 Table of Occurrences of Congruent Lexicalisation 64 4.12 Distribution of Code Switches according to Languages 68

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4.13 Percentages of Code Switches according to Languages 69

4.14 Occurrences of Insertion, Alternation and Congruent Lexicalisation based on Languages 71

4.15 Examples of Code Switching that Occurred in Bahasa

Melayu-based Sentences 73 4.16 Examples of Code Switching that Occurred in English-based

Sentences 74

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No. 2.1 Example of Insertion 20 2.2 Example of Alternation 21 2.3 Example of Congruent Lexicalisation 23

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF STUDY Communication is how we express ourselves and one of the ways of doing this is

through language. For those with a linguistic repertoire of more than one language, it

is common for them to display their linguistic ability either in spoken or written form

in a fusion of different languages, styles or even dialects. This phenomenon is termed

code switching. Code switching phenomenon has been present in multilingual

societies where languages, dialects and different varieties of the same language are

used.

Code switching is common in multilingual Asian countries such as the

Philippines, Singapore and Malaysia where English, Malay as well as other languages

are mixed in utterances. In Malaysia, it is common to hear a speaker using English

words even when much of the conversation is in Malay or when using the Malay

language in English dominated conversation. In other words, code switching is a

common phenomenon among Malaysians (David, 1997).

Code switching is a phenomenon that occurs in both formal and informal

settings (Kow, 2003; David, 2003; Morais, 1998; Zentella, 1997; Sridhar, 1996;

Belazi, 1992; Stevens, 1983; Corder, 1981; Pascasio, 1978). The common view is that

code switching only takes place in informal settings where interlocutors are most

comfortable with other interactants but more recent studies reveal that code switching

also occurs in formal settings such as in departmental meetings (Jariah, 2003) and

even courtrooms (David, 2003). Code switching has typically been attached with

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speaking. However, individuals who perform code switching can easily engage in

both speaking as well as writing.

Conceptually, code switching in writing will not be any different from code

switching in speaking due to the functions that both do. When we use multiple

languages simultaneously, we also learn to compartmentalize them so that we will use

the appropriate language with the different people we use them with. That is why a

bilingual would use his mother’s native language to her and his father’s native

language to him in speaking as well as in writing notes or greeting cards, etc. As

native speakers of a language, we do the same thing with different levels of formality.

We know what is appropriate to write in a personal email as well as what is

appropriate in an academic dissertation. In this way, we learn that different styles

require different codes.

Other types of writing and speaking have always been taught more directly;

texts like business letters, poetry and research papers each has their own correct

format that must be followed. And as time passes by, technology has caused

communication to change its ways, Internet usage has increased while text messaging

has become one of the most influential methods to communicate, either in formal or

informal settings.

Technology has affected human-to-human communication skills. It has

brought out an innovative change in the way we communicate with each other. As we

progress through the era, a lot of technological devices such as the television, hand-

phones, and personal computers have come and occupied our lives. This has definitely

influenced the way of communicating in many ways such as the usage of emails,

instant messenger (such as Yahoo Messenger, Blackberry Messenger etc.), online

social networking (Facebook, Myspace), public journals and so on. With the invention

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of the Internet, the world has effectively become an interconnected global village.

People from all corners of the world are able to easily and quickly converse with each

other through the Internet.

Internet has become one of the most important means of communication.

Computer-mediated discourse was once regarded as a ‘lean’ (Daft & Lengel, 1984)

and impoverished medium and was thus considered unsuitable for social interaction

(Baron, 1984). However, subsequent researches expose a situation quite different from

this earlier assessment. People adapt the medium of the computer to their immediate

needs (Herring, 2001), and this results in a new type of language which contains

features of speech and writing as well as some electronically mediated properties

(Crystal, 2001). Furthermore, compared with other traditional media, the Internet is

where more instances of code switching and language mixing can be found

(Androutsopoulos, 2001).

Online public journal or popularly known as weblogs, which are websites

containing current and archived personal commentary on various topics displayed in

reverse chronological order, have been particularly debatable. Bloggers, because of

their typically unorthodox views, have earned the attention of almost everyone, from a

housewife who wants to sell cookies, to top politicians who wish to content their

arguments.

In 2007, a Malaysian government official described bloggers as "karaoke

singers who take pleasure in their own singing but have no influence although they

claimed to have received millions of hits" (Bernama, 2007). While blogs continue to

be dominated by developed countries, the case of Malaysia demonstrates how this

technology is being used in emerging democracies, especially by those who are not

already in power.

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Most surveys imply that a huge portion of the total blog population is

inhabited by teenagers and the split between genders is moderately close.

Interestingly, 52% of all blogs are developed, maintained and therefore dominated by

youths, particularly by teenagers, while, 56% of the total bloggers are females and

44% are males (Henning, 2003). In Malaysia, bloggers are quite young (84.5% of

bloggers are aged 28 and below), and they are keen readers of blogs, printed

newspapers and fiction-stories (Tan, 2008). With such keen readers and users of

blogs, how have blogs affected the type of bilingual settings in this country? This

paper analyzes bilingual blogs in an attempt to understand this situation and takes a

further step in the less investigated area of Bahasa Melayu-English written code

switching. Despite the relative novelty of this mode of communication among

bilinguals and monolinguals alike, research on code switching between Bahasa

Melayu and English usage on the Internet is quite scarce to date.

There are two main reasons why this particular linguistic phenomenon in the

context of blogging is chosen as the subject of study. There are few detailed studies

conducted on Bahasa Melayu-English code switching as it specifically pertains to, and

there are even less studies conducted on Bahasa Melayu-English code switching in

blogs. It is hoped that this study will serve to fill this research gap. As the language on

the Internet is sensitive to a range of technical and situational factors (Herring, 2001),

and given that blogging provides an informal environment for users to construct a

mixture genre of speech and writing, it is interesting to see the distinctive occurrence

and motivations for code switching in such setting.

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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

There are so many uncontrolled blog-writers out there and they are beginning to

present a specific pattern in code switching depending on the theme they are writing,

which is an interesting fact to be studied. It is interesting that bloggers often reveal

their real names, along with other personal information such as age or location. In a

virtual world, where identity is flexible, why would bloggers choose to present

themselves as they do in non-virtual worlds? Perhaps there is the need to reveal who

they are in order to reveal thoughts and feelings without hiding? Perhaps there is a

sense of empowerment with this action? On the other hand, if the content of a blog is

personal, candid, or intimate, may a certain sense of anonymity make authors feel

more comfortable in being explicit.

When blog-writers switch or mix two languages, there might be motivation

and reasons for code switching and Grosjean (1982) suggests some reasons for code

switching. For example, some bilinguals switch between two languages when they

cannot find proper words or expressions or when there is no appropriate translation for

the language being used. Also, their interlocutors, situations, messages, attitudes, and

emotions generate the switch. According to Grosjean (1982), code switching can also

be used for many other reasons, such as quoting what someone has said (and thereby

emphasizing one’s group identity), specifying the addressee (switching to the usual

language of a particular person in a group will show that one is addressing that

person), qualifying that has been said, or talking about past events. On the basis of a

number of factors such as with whom (participants such as their backgrounds and

relationships), about what (topic, content), and when and where a speech act occurs,

bilinguals make their language choice evident (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2004).

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Conceptually, the Internet-world is related to informal setting where users are

likely to use informal speech. However, in writing blogs, there are practically issues

that are formal such as academics and politics, and informal such as recipes and tips

for gardening. Code switching is popularly expected to be used in informal setting

while speaking, and to be less used in formal setting. It would be interesting to see if

code switching happens in the Internet as well.

OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

The primary purpose of this study is to examine and relate how individuals selectively

choose their words specifically to code switch in writing their ideas in their blogs.

Observation will be made whether bilingual individuals would freely switch languages

when writing in a public journal. The underlying hypothesis is that their writings will

display social functions similar to those found in oral code switching research. This

study seeks to investigate (i) the frequency of code switching types; insertion,

alternation and congruent lexicalisation used in Malaysian political blogs and (ii) the

functions of code switching in Malaysian blogs by use of insertions, alternations and

congruent lexicalisations as these blogs have been noted as offering an ‘unprecedented

opportunity for self-expression’ (Blood, 2000).

This study aims to determine the existence and occurrence of code switching

in blogs that discuss political issues and to determine the reasons as to why bloggers

code switch. Based on Muysken’s (2000) code switching types which consist of

insertion, alternation and congruent lexicalisation, this paper will analyse the purposes

fulfilled in the blogs’ written texts. In short, this study focuses on the use of code

switching as a communicative strategy (Corder, 1981), in blogs written by Malaysian

bloggers.

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. How frequent are code switching types; insertion, alternation and congruent

lexicalisation used in Malaysian political blogs?

2. What functions are fulfilled in Malaysian blogs by the use of insertions,

alternations and congruent lexicalisations?

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

No study has investigated the occurrence and function of code switching in written

form specifically in blog writing in Malaysia. Hence, it is important to understand

why code switching occurs in these blogs as such knowledge could lead to a better

understanding of why multilinguals/bilinguals in Malaysia use different codes to

express their views.

ORGANIZATION OF THESIS The content of the study will be organized in five chapters. Chapter 1 serves as an

introduction to the topic at hand, the statement of the problem, the research objectives

and questions and the significance of the study. Chapter 2 contains a broad literature

review of code switching and issues related to blog-writing. Chapter 3 contains the

research methodology used to examine each of the research questions while Chapter 4

discusses the results of these questions. Finally, Chapter 5 offers the limitations and

managerial implications of the findings. Directions for future research are also

provided.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

CODE SWITCHING According to Bell (1976: 110), code switching ‘allows its user to be seen as a chooser

amongst codes whether the codes are styles, dialects or what are normally thought of

as autonomous languages since any or all of these can be involved in the code

switching behaviour of the language user’. Code switching is defined as the use of two

different languages or forms of the same language in the same conversation (Ervin-

Tripp, 1973; Myers-Scotton, 1993). Hudson (1980: 56) defines code switching as “a

strategy in which a speaker uses different varieties at different times”. Two types of

code switching are referred to in the literature: situational and metaphorical. Blom and

Gumperz (1972: 424, 425) explain there are two types of code switching, namely

metaphorical switching, “which takes place with a change of topic”, and situational

switching, in “which speakers switch languages due to a change in their perceptions of

one another’s rights and obligations”.

However, Fishman's (1972: 42) definitions of situational and metaphorical

code switching slightly differ. For him, situational code switching is involved “when

speakers switch codes according to the setting, topic, interlocutor, or purpose with

which it is usually associated”, while metaphorical code switching occurs when “a

particular variety is used for the setting, topic, interlocutor, or purpose, with which it

is not normally associated”.

Di Pietro (1977: 3) defines code switching as “the use of more than one

language by communicants in the execution of a speech act”. Code switching is also

defined as the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence, or

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constituent. Inter-sentential alternations occur when the switch is made across

sentence boundaries while intra-sentential switching happens in a word or phrase

within the same sentence (Grosjean, 1982; Torres, 1989).

Poplack (1980: 583) states that code switching is “the alternation of two

languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituent”. According to Clyne

(2000: 242), code switching is the alternative use of two languages either within a

sentence or between sentences. Also, this contrasts with transference, where a single

item is transferred from language B to language A (or vice versa), whether integrated

into the grammatical and / or phonological system of the recipient language or not

(Clyne, 2000: 242).

Grosjean (1982) mentions there might be motivations and reasons for code

switching when language users switch between languages. For example, some

language users switch between two languages when they cannot find appropriate

words or expressions or when there is no proper translation for the language being

used. According to Grosjean (1982), code switching can also be used for many other

reasons, such as quoting what someone has said to emphasize one’s group identity and

specifying the addressee; by switching to the usual language of the other person it will

show that one is addressing that person. Bilinguals make their language choice based

on several factors such as with which participants (their backgrounds and

relationships), about which (topic, content), and when and where a speech act occurs

(Bhatia & Ritchie, 2004).

It is expected that people regularly switch their languages in bilingual and / or

multilingual societies. However, in monolingual societies, this phenomenon is usually

viewed as unnatural. Grosjean (1982) strongly emphasises that in bilingual and / or

multilingual communities, it is very common for speakers to code switch. With regard

10

to the reasons of code switch, users usually clarify that the reason why they code

switch is that they lack facility in one language when talking about a certain topic. The

users state that they switch when they fail to find appropriate words or expressions or

when the language being used does not have the items or proper translations for the

vocabulary needed (Grosjean, 1982). Also, some remark that they usually code switch

when they are tired, lazy, or angry (Grosjean, 1982).

Grosjean (1982) mentions that code switching not only fills a temporary

linguistic need but it is also a very functional type of communication resource and

code switching is often used as a communicative strategy to convey linguistic and

social information. Gutierrez-Clellen (1999) claims cases of code switching should

not be categorized as lack of language skill ability. Bilinguals and multilinguals may

code switch between speeches depending on several different factors such as

sociolinguistics, pragmatics, etc. The occurrences of code switching are not

automatically due to lack of language proficiency.

Code switching is neither meaningless nor random as it has its role, a purpose,

facets and characteristics (Greene & Walker, 2004). It is a sign of the language users’

awareness of alternative communicative principle. The fundamental reason why

people switch their languages is not because they lack language ability but because

they try to make their utterances to be more easily understandable and meaningful.

It is necessary to observe more specific reasons about these code switching

phenomena. There are some other factors which affect code switching such as

grammatical, lexical, and societal factors. Among these factors, societal factors would

be the most influential determinants for the reasons why language users switch their

languages. Fishman (2000) discovers that the preference of language among bilingual

speakers is determined by factors which are outside the users’ control such as

11

participants, situation, or topic. In certain conditions people will use one language, and

if the circumstances change, it may lead them to switch to other languages.

Auer (1998) mentions that one of the reasons why people code switch is

because of macro-sociolinguistic paradigm. It focuses on the influence on language

use exerted by the general sociolinguistic context. In addition, according to Wei

(2005), researches and studies on code switching have taken an ‘ideological’ turn.

Theories such as ‘power, ‘authority’, prestige’, and ‘gender’ are all brought up in

explaining why and how people switch from one language to another. As many

researchers have stated, code switching is reasonably influenced by societal factors.

Societal factors are labelled to be the most influential factors which generate

the occurrences of code switching in people’s utterances. Romaine (1995) states that

speakers may code switch for a variety of reasons, where they may switch two

languages back and forth in order to differentiate the communication as appropriate to

a different social arena. On the other hand, they switch to avoid, through continual

code switching, defining the interactions in terms of any social situation. The latter

function of avoidance is an important one because it recognizes that code switching

often serves as a strategy of neutrality or as a means to explore which code is most

appropriate and acceptable in a certain situation, such as formal and informal.

As mentioned by Romaine (1995), a societal factor is a very important factor

to explain the reasons for code switching existence. It is not too much to say that

situational factors are the most realistic and believable reasons for code switching to

occur. Blanc and Hamers (2000) state there are several situational factors that may

manipulate the type and frequency of code switching. The factors are the topics

discussed, the participants involved, the settings, and so on. Gumperz (1982) mentions

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code switching is typical of the communicative conventions of closed network

situations because of its reliance on universalized shared understanding.

Blom and Gumperz (2000) state that the concept of situational code switching

assumes a straight link between the languages and the social situations, where the

relationship between the languages and the social situations is expected and inevitable.

It is important for language users to learn communication strategies in order to have a

smooth relationship with each different society by using the appropriate choice of

languages. For example, children generally develop strategies for dealing with

bilingual situations such as learning how to adapt their language to the situation to the

extent of playing the role of interpreters between monolingual speakers of different

languages (Swain, 1972).

Blanc and Hamers (2000) state that it should be pointed out that a bilingual’s

communication strategies differ within an interactional situation and therefore a code

that is most favourable at one point may cease to be so later as a result of changes in

the situation, the topic, role relations, etc. There are some situational factors related to

society such as interlocutors, physical setting, other social variables like social status,

race, age, etc., which affect people’s utterances considerably.

Firstly, participants and social groups are one of the situational factors which

causes code switch to take place where bilinguals may speak differently depending on

whom and which groups they are talking to. For example, if a Malay-English bilingual

talks to a Malay man, he probably starts talking in Bahasa Melayu. However, if he

talks to people from one of the English speaking countries, he would speak to them in

English but he may not be able to switch to Bahasa Melayu as those people might not

know Bahasa Melayu.